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AP Lit Unit 1 Flashcards

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10406947838Dictionthe choice and use of words and phrases in speech or writing0
10406947839Syntaxthe arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language1
10406947840Tonethe writer's or speaker's attitude toward the subject, the audience, or herself or himself2
10406947841Imagerythe representation through language of sense experience3
10406947842Point of Viewthe angle of vision from which a story is told (omniscient, third-person, first-person, objective)4
10406947843Detailfacts5
10406947844Pacinga stylistic device, which shows how fast a story unfolds6
10406947845Shiftoccurs when speakers or writers alter their style or tone in a piece7
10406947846Connotationwhat a word suggests beyond it basic definition; a word's overtones of meaning8
10406947847Denotationdictionary definition9
10406947848Themethe central idea or unifying generalization implied or stated by a literary work10
10406947849Footthe basic unit used in the scansion or measurement of verse. It usually contains one accented syllable and one or two unaccented syllables11
10406947850Meterthe regular patterns of accent that underlie metrical verse; the measurable repetition of accented and unaccented syllables in poetry12
10406947851Prosea form of language that has no formal metrical structure. It applies a natural flow of speech, and ordinary grammatical structure, rather than rhythmic structure, such as in the case of traditional poetry13
10406947852Stanzaa group of lines whose metrical pattern is repeated throughout a poem14
10504636054Rhyme Schemethe practice of rhyming words placed at the end of the lines in poetry. It refers to the order in which particular words rhyme.15

AP Lit Unit 3 Flashcards

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10407086951Villanellea nineteen line fixed form consisting of five tercets rhymed aba and a concluding quatrain rhyme abaa, with lines 1 and 3 of the first tercet serving as refrains in an alternate pattern through line 15 and then repeated as lines 18 and 190
10407086952Terceta three line stanza exhibited in terza rima and villanelle as well as in other poetic forms1
10407086953Terza rimaan interlocking rhyme scheme with the pattern aba bcb cdc etc.2
10407086954Trimetera metrical line containing three feet3
10407086955Triple metera meter in which majority of the feet contain three syllables4
10407086956Trocheea metrical foot consisting of one accented syllable followed by one unaccented syllable5
10407086957Sonneta fixed form of fourteen lines, normally iambic pentameter, with a rhyme scheme conforming to or approximating one of two main types (Italian or English)6
10407086958Scansionthe process of measuring metrical verse, that is, of marking accented and unaccented syllables, dividing the lines into feet, identifying the metrical pattern, and noting significant variations from that pattern7
10407086959Sestet(1) a six line stanza (2) the last six lines of a sonnet structured on the Italian model8
10407086960Rhythmany wavelike recurrence of motion or sound9
10407086961Quatrain(1) a four line stanza (2) a four line division of a sonnet marked off by its rhyme scheme10
10407086962Refraina repeated word, phrase, line, or group of lines, normally at some fixed position in a poem written in stanzaic form11
10407086963Pentametera metrical line containing five feet12
10407086964Monometera metrical line containing one foot13
10407086965Italian/Petrarchan Sonneta sonnet consisting of an octave rhyming abbaabba and of a sestet using any arrangement of two or three additional rhymes, such as cdcdcd or cdecde14
10407086966Aubadea poem about dawn; a morning love song; or a poem about the parting of lovers at dawn15
10407086967Ballada fairly short narrative poem written in a songlike stanza form16

AP vocab list 3 Flashcards

AP Language vocabulary #3

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8111450793allayto put (fear, doubt, suspicion, anger, etc) to rest; to calm; to relieve or lessen; to reduce or soften emotion0
8111450794analogouscorresponding in some respect; similar; comparable1
8111450795chicanerytrickery or deception, especially verbal (often legal) quibbling; dishonest practice2
8111450796desultoryrandom; haphazard; jumping fitfully from one thing to another3
8111450797gamutthe entire scale or range; the whole sweep, scope, or extent4
8111450798harbingeranything that foreshadows a future event, an omen or sign; a person who goes ahead to make known the approach of another5
8111450799indigentlacking food, clothing, and other necessities of life because of poverty; poor and needy6
8111450800nefariousextremely wicked or villainous; vile; evil7
8111450801officiousobjectionably aggressive in offering unwanted or unrequested advice or help; meddlesome; interfering8
8111450802plaintiveexpressing sorrow; sad; mournful9

AP Poetry Terms (Live) Flashcards

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9822564624alliterationthe occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words.0
9822564625assonanceRepetition of a vowel sound within two or more words in close proximity1
9822564626cacophonyharsh sounds2
9822564627caesuraA natural pause or break in a line of poetry, usually near the middle of the line.3
9822564628conceita fanciful, particularly clever extended metaphor4
9822564629connotationAll the meanings, associations, or emotions that a word suggests5
9822564630consonanceRepetition of a consonant sound within two or more words in close proximity.6
9822564631controlling imagean image or metaphor that runs throughout and determines the form or nature of a literary work7
9822564632couplettwo consecutive lines of poetry that rhyme8
9822564633dirgea funeral hymn or mournful speech9
9822564634dissonancea harsh and disagreeable combination, often of sounds10
9822564635dramatic monologuea type of poem that presents a conversation between a speaker and an implied listener11
9822564636elegypoem or song expressing lamentation; a sad or mournful poem12
9822564637end-stopped lineline of poetry that has a full pause at the end, typically indicated by a period or semicolon13
9822564638enjambmentthe continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line, couplet, or stanza.14
9822564639epica long narrative poem telling of a hero's deeds15
9822564640euphonypleasant, harmonious sound16
9822564641metric foota unit of poetry consisting of at least one stressed and one unstressed syllable17
9822564642free versePoetry that does not have a regular meter or rhyme scheme18
9822564643iamba metrical unit with unstressed-stressed syllables: u/19
9822564644imageA word or phrase representing that which can be seen, touched, tasted, smelled, or felt.20
9822564645in medias resinto the middle of a narrative; without preamble21
9822564646lyricA type of short poetry that explores the speaker's personal interpretation of and feelings about the world. Usually about love, but lyric poems have been written on subjects as different as reading and religion. Sonnets and odes are lyric poems.22
9822564647meterA regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry23
9822564648octave8 line stanza24
9822564649odeA lyric poem usually marked by serious, respectful, and exalted feelings toward the subject.25
9822564650pentametera line of verse consisting of five metrical feet26
9822564651personaa character in a novel or play; the outward character or role that a person assumes27
9822564652quatrain4 line stanza28
9822564653refrainA line or set of lines repeated several times over the course of a poem.29
9822564654end rhymeA word at the end of one line rhymes with a word at the end of another line30
9822564655external rhymeA pattern of words that rhyme on the "outside," on the edge of the poem - the last syllable in the last word of each line in a stanza.31
9822564656feminine rhymeoccurs when the rhyme ends on an unstressed syllable (i.e. "calling" and "falling")32
9822564657internal rhymeA word inside a line rhymes with another word on the same line33
9822564658masculine rhymefinal syllable of first word rhymes with final syllable of second word (scald recalled)34
9822564659scansionThe process of marking lines of poetry to show the type of feet and the number of feet they contain35
9822564660sestet6 line stanza36
9822564661English sonnet3 Quatrains and an ending couplet. Rhyme scheme of abab, cdcd, efef, gg.37
9822564662Italian sonnetA form of sonnet divided into eight line and six line parts (an octave rhyming abba abba and a sestet rhyming in any of various patterns). Also called a Petrarchan sonnet.38
9822564663stanzaa group of lines forming the basic recurring metrical unit in a poem; a verse.39
9822564664stressthe relative prominence of a syllable or musical note (especially with regard to stress or pitch)40
9822564665voltaThe shift or point of dramatic change in a poem41
9822564666allusionA reference to another work of literature, person, or historical event42
9822564667antithesisA figure of speech characterized by strongly contrasting words, clauses, sentences, or ideas, as in "Man proposes; God disposes." Antithesis is a balancing of one term against another for emphasis or stylistic effectiveness.43
9822564668apostropheaddress to an absent or imaginary person44
9822564669ballad metera four-line stanza rhymed abcd with four feet in lines one and three feet in lines two and four. O mother, mother make my bed. O make it soft and narrow. Since my love died for me today, I'll die for him tomorrow.45
9822564670blank verseunrhymed verse (usually in iambic pentameter). Blank verse is the meter of most of Shakespeare's plays, as well as that of Milton's Paradise Lost.46
9822564671devices of soundThe techniques of deploying the sound of words. Examples include rhyme, alliteration, assonance, consonance, and onomatopoeia. The devices are used to create a general effect of pleasant or of discordant sound, to imitate another sound, or to reflect a meaning.47
9822564672dictionThe use of words in a literary work. Diction may be described as formal, informal, colloquial, or slang.48
9822564673didactic poemA poem which is intended primarily to teach a lesson.49
9822564674extended metaphorAn implied analogy, or comparison, which is carried throughout a stanza or an entire poem.50
9822564675metonymyreplaces the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is closely associated. Ex: speaking of the king as "the crown."51
9822564676mixed metaphora combination of two or more incompatible metaphors, which produces a ridiculous effect52
9822564677narrative poema non-dramatic poem which tells a story or presents a narrative, whether simple or complex, long or short. Epics and ballads are examples of narrative poems.53
9822564678onomatopeoiathe use of words that imitate the sounds they define (ex: hiss)54
9822564679oxymoronconjoining contradictory terms (as in 'deafening silence')55
9822564680paradoxa statement, situation, action or feeling that is seemingly contradictory or opposed to common sense and yet is perhaps true56
9822564681parallelismPhrases or sentences of a similar construction/meaning placed side by side, balancing each other in a line or lines of poetry.57
9822564682poetic footthe unit of meter in a poem containing stressed or unstressed syllables. Ex: iambic, trochaic, anapestic, dactylic, pyrrhic, spondaic58
9822564683anapestic footthree-syllable foot, stress on third: uu/59
9822564684dactylic foota metrical unit with stressed-unstressed-unstressed syllables: /uu EX: "No one has more resilience / Or matches my PRAC-ti-cal TAC-ti-cal brilliance" (Lin-Manuel Miranda, Hamilton)60
9822564685pyrrhic foottwo unstressed syllables: uu61
9822564686spondaic foottwo stressed syllables: //62
9822564687puna play on words, often achieved through the use of words with similar sounds but different meanings63
9822564688sarcasmthe use of irony to mock or convey contempt64
9822564689satirethe use of humor to emphasize human vice, weaknesses or imperfections in social institutions65
9822564690rhetorical strategythe management of language for a specific effect. The rhetorical strategy of most love poems is deployed to convince the loved one to return to the speaker's love. By appealing to the loved one's sympathy, or by flattery, or by threat, the lover attempts to persuade the loved one to love in return.66
9822564691synechdocheUses a part to explain a whole or a whole to explain a part. ex. Lend me an ear.67
9822564692syntaxArrangement of words in phrases and sentences68
9822564693tercet3 line stanza69
9822564694terza rimaa three-line stanza rhymed aba, bcb, cdc, etc. Dante's Divine Comedy is written in terza rima.70
9822564695themeA message about life or human nature that the writer shares with the reader.71
9822564696toneAttitude a writer takes toward the audience, a subject, or a character72
9822564697understatementa statement that is restrained in ironic contrast to what might have been said73
9822564698villanellea nineteen-line poem divided into five tercets and a final quatrain. Uses only two rhymes: aba, aba, aba, aba, aba, abaa. Line one is repeated entirely to form lines 9, 15, and 19; thus, eight of the nineteen lines are refrain.74
9822564699trocheeA metrical foot consisting of one accented syllable followed by one unaccented syllable. Ex:"Tyger! Tyger! Burning bright"75
9822564700eye rhymeRhyme that appears correct from spelling, but is half-rhyme or slant rhyme from the pronunciation. Ex: bear/fear, dough/cough/through/bough76

AP Transcription and Translation Flashcards

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8522635448transcriptionprocess of copying DNA into mRNA0
8522635450Template StrandThis is the transcribed DNA strand, has directions1
85226354525' to 3'The direction RNA is built by RNA Polymerase2
85226354533' to 5'The direction RNA polymerase moves along the template strand of DNA3
8522635454RNA Polymerasemakes mRNA from DNA template4
8522635455Promoterbinding site for polymerase before beginning of gene5
8522635456Transcription FactorsProteins that bind to promoter region of DNA and help control transcription. Work with RNA polymerase.6
8522635457Initiation (Transcription)First step of transcription. RNA polymerase binds to promoter of template strand of DNA7
8522635458Elongation (Transcription)Second step in transcription. RNA polymerase adds complimentary RNA nucleotides in 5' to 3' direction.8
8522635459Termination (Transcription)Third step in transcription. Termination sequence cause polymerase to detach from DNA, mRNA is released.9
8522635460ExonsA coding region of a eukaryotic gene. Exons, which are expressed10
8522635461IntronsNoncoding segments that are removed during RNA processing11
8522635464SpliceosomeThis enzyme complex is made of snRNPs, removes introns and pastes exons together12
8522635467Codonfound on mRNA, 3 nucleotides (3 bases) that code for 1 amino acid13
8522635475tRNAtransfers amino acids to the growing protein14
8522635478rRNAholds mRNA and tRNA together during protein synthesis15
8522635479The A, P, and E sites.3 locations on ribosome16
8522635480A SiteThis site locates the tRNA carrying next amino acid to be added to chain (3rd). Tests for codon/anticodon match.17
8522635481P SiteThis site holds tRNA as it drops off amino acid, building polypeptide chain.18
8522635482E SiteThe exit site where the empty tRNA leaves ribosomes.19
8522635483Initiation (Translation)mRNA, small and large ribosome sub-unit and first tRNA come together20
8522635484Elongation (Translation)Polypeptide increases in length as new amino acids keep getting added to protein.21
8522635485Termination (Translation)Release factor binds to stop codon on mRNA, polypeptide set free and forms 3D shape, ribosomes dissociate (aren't specific, ribsomes are general)22
8522659299TATApromoter region on DNA for transcription to begin23
8522664349TTATTTsequence on DNA for termination of mRNA24
8522666000AUGstart codon for translation25
8522667144UAA,UAG,UGAstop codons for translation26

AP Genetics and DNA Flashcards

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9034668475NucleotideMade of a sugar, phosphate and a nitrogenous base0
9034671325PurineAdenine and Guanine. Double Ringed1
9034674669PyrimadineCytosine and Thymine. Single Ringed2
9034677771Deoxyribose3
9034679882Ribose4
9034685455mRNAMakes a copy of a DNA gene in the nucleus5
9034690676RNA polymeraseEnzyme that reads a gene on DNA to make an mRNA copy6
9034703651Central Dogma of BiologyDNA - RNA - Protein7
9034705889polypeptidename for a protein that describes the bonds holding the amino acids together8
9034709234codonSet of three base pairs on an mRNA transcript9
9034713714anticodonSet of three base pairs on a tRNA molecule10
9034718815introngenetic information that gets cut out of an RNA transcript and stays in the nucleus11
9034718816exongenetic information that gets cut out of an RNA transcript and codes for the gene12
9034722466differential RNA splicingallows one gene to code for more than one protein13
9034722467splicosomethe complex of RNA and enzymes that cut out introns.14
9034834288Aminoacyl-tRNA-synthetaseenzyme that binds tRNA to specific amino acid15
9034838545wobblethe 3rd base of a codon has less strict base pairing rules than bases 1 and 216
9034844469A siteSite on a ribosome that holds the amino acid to be attached17
9034844470P siteSite on a ribosome that forms the peptide bond between the new amino acid and the elongated chain18
9034844471E siteplace where the "empty" tRNA dissociates from the ribosome19
9034861839hydrogen bondsform between the bases on the DNA ladder20
90348714575' cap and poly A tailadded to an mRNA transcript to protect the transcript on it's way to a ribosome21
9034875416chaperoninassists with the proper folding of a protein22
9034880046primary structure23
9034881721secondary structure24
9034883753tertiary structure25
9034885715quarternary structure26
9034890042operoncluster of related genes with on/off switch27
9034890043promoterwhere RNA polymerase attaches28
9034920659genecode for related enzymes in a pathway29
9034922717operator"on/off", controls access of RNA poly30
9034924897inducable operongene expression is turned on by the presence of a substance that needs to be broken down. (catabolic)31
9034928564repressable operongene expression is controlled and turned off by the presence of a product that is made. (anabolic)32
9034941497trp operonexample of a repressable operon33
9034944327lac operonexample of an inducable operon34
9034951664regulatory geneproduces repressor protein that binds to operator to block RNA polymerase35

AP Biology Evolution Flashcards

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9578291644Fossils-darwin drew from these (the remains or traces of organisms from the past)0
9578291646Paleontology-study of fossils, developed by Georges Cuvier 0noted that the older the stratum the more dissimilar fossils were to current life-forms -from one layer to the next, new species appeared while others disappeared -each boundary represented a sudden catastrophic event1
9578291647Charles Lyell-incorporated Hutton's thinking into his proposal that the same geologic processes are operating today as in the past, and at the same rate2
9578291648Jean-Baptiste Lamarck-found several lines of descent, a chronological series of older to younger fossils leading to a living species -use and disuse (giraffes' neck)3
9578291649Wallace-writes a paper with a similar hypothesis to Darwin based on the Malay archipelago4
9578291650Darwin-HMS beagle, interested in species in the galapagos (turtles, finches)5
9578291651Artificial Selection-modification of other species over many generations by selecting and breeding individuals with desired traits6
9578291652Darwin's 2 Inferenences-All species and produce more offspring than their enviorment can support and many of these offspring fail to survive and reproduce -This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations7
9578291653Homology-similarity resulting from common ancestry8
9578291654Homologous Structures-represent variations on a structural theme that was present in a common ancestor9
9578291655Vestigal Structures-remnants of features that served a function in the organism's ancestors10
9578291656Convergent Evolution-independent evolution of similar features in different lineages -ex: marsupials and sugar glider (same environment) -can occur when similar environmental pressures and natural selection exists11
9578291657Analogous-species share features b/c of convergent evolution, share similar function but not common ancesty12
9578291666Analogy-similarity due to convergent evolution13
9578291679Genetic Variation-differences among individuals in the composition of their genes or other DNA sequences14
9578291680Population-group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and interbreed creating fertile offspring15
9578291681Gene Pool-all copies of every type of allele at every locus in all members of the population16
9578291682Hardy-Weinberg Conditions-no mutations -random mating -no natural selection -very large population size -no gene flow17
9578291683Genetic Drift-chance events can alter allele allele frequencies to fluctuate from one generation to another (especially in one generation to another)18
9578291684Founder Effect-when few individuals become isolated from a larger population this smaller group may make a new population whose gene pool differs from the source population19
9578291685Bottleneck Effect-a severe drop in population results in the over or under representation of certain alleles.20
9578291686Gene Flow-transfer of allele into or out of a population from the movement of fertile individuals or their gametes21
9578291687Effects of Genetic Drift-Genetic Drift is significant in small populations -Genetic drift can cause allele frequencies to change at random -Genetic drift can lead to a loss of genetic variation within populations -Genetic drift can cause harmful alleles to become fixed22
9578291688Adaptive Evolution-NS increases the frequency of allele that provide an advantage and reproduce more23
9578291689Relative Fitness-contribution an individual makes to the gene pool relative to the contributions of indivdauls24
9578291690Directional Selection-conditions father shifting traits to one extreme25
9578291691Disruptive Selection-conditions favor individuals at both extremes of a phenotypic range26
9578291692Stabilizing Selection-reduces variation and gets rid of extreme phenotypes in the population27
9578291693Sexual Selection-form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than others to obtain maits28
9578291694Sexual Dismorphism-difference in secondary sexual characteristics between males and females of the same species29
9578291695Intersexual Selection-individuals of one sex are choosy in selecting mates30
9578291696Neutral Variation-differences in DNA sequence that do not confer a selective advantage or disadvantage31
9578291698Heterozygote Selection-individuals who are heterozygotes at a particular locus have a greater fitness than both kinds of homozygotes32
9578291699Frequency Dependent Selection-fitness of a phenotype depends on how commen it is33
9578291700Natural Selection Constraints1. Selection can only act on existing variation 2. Evolution is limited by historical constraints 3. Adaptations are often compromises 4. Chance, NS and the environment interact34

AP Biology Review Flashcards

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6679902450Dehydration Synthesisconnecting monomers together by the removal of water0
6679902451Hydrolysisdisassembling polymers by the addition of water1
6679902452Disaccharidesglucose + glucose = maltose / glucose + fructose = sucrose / glucose + galactose = lactose2
6679902453PolysaccharidesPlants: starch (energy) and cellulose (structure) Animals: glycogen (energy) and chitin (structure)3
6679902454Lipidshydrophobic (very non-polar), consist of long hydrocarbon chains4
6679902455Fatsconsist of glycerol and 3 fatty acids, store long term energy, saturated = no double bond in hydrocarbon tails (no kink), unsaturated = double bond (kink)5
6679902456Phospholipidsconsist of phosphate head, glycerol, and 2 fatty acid tails, tail is hydrophobic, head is hydrophillic6
6679902457Protein structure and organizationcomposed of an amino group, a carboxyl group, hydrogen, and an R group, joined by peptide bonds and folded numerous times; 1) Primary (linear sequence) 2) Secondary (helix or pleat) 3) Tertiary 4) Quaternary (globular)7
6679902458Protein functions (8)1) enzymes 2) antibodies 3) storage proteins 4) transport proteins 5) hormones 6) receptor proteins 7) motor proteins 8) structural proteins8
6679902459Nucleic AcidsDNA (A+T, G+C) carries genetic info, RNA (A+U, G+C) manufactures proteins9
6679902460Nuclear Envelopedouble membrane enclosing the nucleus (where genetic info is stored) perforated with pores, continuous with ER10
6679902461Chromatinuncondensed DNA that forms chromosomes during cell division11
6679902462Nucleolusnonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes, a nucleus has one or more of these12
6679902463Rough ERcovered in ribosomes, secretes and transports proteins produced by ribosomes13
6679902464Smooth ERmetabollic processes (synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbs, detoxification of drugs and poisons)14
6679902465Golgipackages, stores, transports, and secretes cell products15
6679902466Cytoskeletonsupports cell, maintains its shape, aids in movement of cell products16
6679902467Centrosomes (2 centrioles)only in animal cells, microtubules used for cell division17
6679902468Lysosomesonly in animal cells, digestive organelles18
6679902469Flagellaonly in animal cells, cluster of microtubules for motility19
6679902470Extracellular Matrixonly in animal cells, made of proteins that provide support for cells and relay information for communication between the environment and the cell20
6679902471Central Vacuoleonly in plant cells, stores water and sugar, breaks down waste, and used as a mechanism for plant growth (when it swells)21
6679902472Prokaryoticone of two major cell types - no membrane bound organelles22
6679902473Phospholipid Bilayertails of phospholipids are loosely packed and are in constant motion; membrane contains integral and peripheral proteins, cholestrol, and glycopreotins and glycolipids; cholesterol makes the membrane less permeable to water and other substances; non-polar and small polar molecules can pass through unadied23
6679902474Passive trasportmovement of molecules without requirement of energy: 1) diffusion 2) osmosis (across a membrane) 3) facilitated diffusion (helped by transport proteins)24
6679902475Active transportmovement of molecules that requires energy: 1) sodium-potassium pumps 2) exocytosis 3) endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis)25
6679902476Membrane Potentialvoltage across a membrane due to difference in positive and negative ions, electrons move from high to low concentration (ex. sodium-potassium pumps in neurons)26
6679902477Electrochemical Gradientdiffusion gradient resulting in combination of membrane potential and concentration gradient27
6679902478Hypertonicsolution with higher concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would become shiveled/plasmolyzed28
6679902479Hypotonicsolution with lower concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would lyse/become turgid29
6679902480Isotonicequal levels of solute concentration, plant cell in this solution would become flaccid30
6679902481When ΔG is negative......the reaction is exergonic (loss of free energy).31
6679902482When ΔG is positive......the reaction is endergonic (gain of free energy).32
6679902483*Enzymesproteins that are biological catalysts, lower the activation energy required to start a chemical reaction (reactants at unstable transition state) can be used over and over33
6679902484Substratethe substance that an enzyme acts upon34
6679902485Active Siteregion of enzyme that binds to the substrate35
6679902486Induced fitchange in the shape of an enzyme's active site induced by the substrate, helps to break down the substrate36
6679902487The higher the substrate concentration......the faster the reaction until the enzyme becomes saturated.37
6679902488Denaturationthe unraveling of an enzyme due to high temperatures or incompatible pH38
6679902489Cofactorsnonprotein molecules that are required for proper enzyme function, cofactors made of organic molecules are called coenzymes39
6679902490Enzyme inhibition may be irreversible if......the inhibitor attaches by covalent bonds (poisons, toxins)40
6679902491Competitive Inhibitorsresemble a substrate and block enzymes' active sites, can be overcome with higher concentration of substrate41
6679902492Noncompetitive Inhibitorsbind to a portion of the enzyme and change the shape of the active site so that it cannot match with substrates, used for regulating metabolic reactions42
6679902493Feedback Inhibitionthe product of a metabolic pathway switches off the enzyme that created it earlier in the process43
6679902494Oxidationloss of electrons (OIL)44
6679902495Reductiongain of electrons (RIG)45
6679902496Oxidative PhosphorylationATP synthesis powered by redox reactions that transfer electrons to oxygen46
6679902497Electron AcceptorsCellular respiration: NAD+ and FAD (to NADH and FADH2) Photosynthesis: NADP+ (to NADPH)47
6679902498GlycolysisInput: glucose, 2 ATP Output: 2 pyruvic acid, 4 ATP (net 2), 2 NADH48
6679902499Conversion Reaction before Kreb'sInput: 2 pyruvate Output: 2 acetyl (w/ CoA), 2 NADH, 2 CO249
6679902500Krebs CycleInput: 2 acetyl ➝ citric acid Output: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2 (after 2 turns of the cycle)50
6679902501Electron Transport ChainInput: NADH, FADH2, O2 (to accept e-) Output: 34-38 ATP, H2O51
6679902502Alcohol FermentationInput: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 ethanol, 2 CO2, 4 ATP (net 2)52
6679902503Lactic Acid FermentationInput: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 lactate, 4 ATP (net 2)53
6679902504Photosynthetic Equation54
6679902505Chloroplast structureExciting chlorophyll: chlorophyll in thylakoids absorb light, which excites electrons to produce potential energy55
6679902506Light ReactionsInput: H2O (2 e-), light energy, NADP+ Output: O2, ATP, NADPH56
6679902507Calvin CycleInput: 6 CO2 (fixed to RuBP by Rubisco), ATP, NADPH Output: 2 G3P = 1 glucose57
6679902508Watson and Crickbuilt the first accurate 3D DNA model58
6679902509Leading Strand vs. Lagging Strandworks toward replication fork / works away from replication fork; both always move in the 5' ➝ 3' direction59
6679902510Steps of DNA Replication1) helicase separates the DNA strands 2) SSB proteins prevent DNA from reanneling 3) primase creates RNA primer 4) DNA polymerase extends DNA strand from the primer 5) DNA polymerase I (RNase H) removes the primers 6) ligase joins the okazaki fragments of the lagging strand60
66799025113 types of RNA1) mRNA messenger 2) tRNA transfer amino acids (20 kinds) 3) rRNA ribosomes61
6679902512Transcription1) Initiation: promoter site (TATA) is recognized 2) Elongation: RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides in the 5' ➝ 3' direction 3) Termination: RNA strand separates, RNA polymerase recognizes termination sequence (AAUAAA)62
6679902513RNA processing/splicingsplicesomes remove introns and put together exons, 5' cap and PolyA tail are added63
6679902514Codon vs. Anticodoncodon = nucleotide sequence on mRNA anticodon = nucleotide sequence on tRNA64
6679902515Translation1) Initiation: 5' cap attaches to ribosome which accepts an initiator tRNA at the P site (*AUG will always be 1st codon) 2) Elongation: codon/anticodon recognition and formation of peptide bond between A site amino acid and P site amino acid chain 3) translocation of the ribosome down the mRNA strand 4) Termination: ribosome will recognize stop codon and release the protein65
6679902516DNA mutationsbase-pair substitution; insertion/deletion; frameshift: 1) missense = different protein 2) nonsense = codes for a stop signal prematurely 3) silent = no harmful change66
6679902517Prokaryotic cell divisionbinary fission: splits in 2, exact copies, quick and efficient with few mutations, but reduces amount of genetic variation67
6679902518Somatic cell vs. Gameteany body cell except gametes / reproductive cells (sperm, egg)68
6679902519Interphase(90% of cell's life) G1: 1st growth, normal metabolic activity (goes into G0 phase if it is not ready for next phase); S: synthesis, DNA replication; G2: 2nd growth, prepares for mitosis69
6679902520Mitosis1) Prophase: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nucleus disappears 2) Metaphase: chromosomes line up at equator, kinetechore microtubules attach 3) Anaphase: sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell 4) Telophase and Cytokinesis: daughter cells separate, nucleus reforms, chromosomes decondense70
6679902521Cyclin-dependent Kinases (Cdks)a regulatory protein that depends upon the presence of cyclin to complete its function, MPF is a Cdk that triggers a cell's passage into the M phase71
6679902522Meiosis I1) Prophase I: homologous chromosomes pair up and synapsis occurs, crossing over segments of the chromosomes (chiasma) to create more genetic variation 2) Metaphase I: homologous chromosomes line up at the equator 3) Anaphase: homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell. 4) Telophase I...72
6679902523Meiosis IIProphase II - Telophase II act exactly like mitosis except that the resultant number of daughter cells is 4 instead of 2, each with their own unique combination of genetic information73
66799025244 mechanisms that contribute to genetic variation1) Mutation 2) Independent Assortment: homologous chromosomes align randomly on one side of the equator or another 3) Crossing Over 4) Random Fertilization: a zygote can be any combination of a sperm and egg (64 trillion different combinations in humans)74
6679902525Testcrossbreed a homozygous recessive individual with an individual with a dominant phenotype but an unknown genotype to determine whether or not the individual is homozygous or heterozygous75
6679902526Dyhybrid heterozygous cross ratio9:3:3:176
6679902527Incomplete Dominanceheterozygous offspring have an intermediate phenotype of the parents, 1:2:1 ratio (ex. pink flower from red and white flowers)77
6679902528Codominanceboth alleles manifest themselves separately in an organism's phenotype (ex. roan cattle)78
6679902529Multiple allelesa trait controlled by two or more alleles (ex. blood type, eye color)79
6679902530Blood TypesA: A antigen, B antibody B: B antigen, A antibody AB: A and B antigen, no antibodies (universal recipient) O: no antigens, A and B antibodies (universal donor)80
6679902531Polygenic Inheritancethe additive effect of 2 or more independently assorted genes on phenotype (ex. human skin pigment)81
6679902532Linked genes phenotypic ratiotwo large numbers (wild and mutant) and two much smaller numbers (recombinant phenotypes)82
6679902533Genetic Map (Linkage/Cytological Map)ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome, recombinant frequencies can be used to construct it (smaller the percentage = closer together)83
6679902534X Inactivationin females during embryonic development, one of the two X chromosomes in a cell becomes inactive (Barr body) (ex. calico cats)84
6679902535Nondisjucntionhomologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis I or II85
6679902536Aneuploidyone or more chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number; Trisomic = 3 copies instead of 2, Monosomic = 1 copy instead of 286
6679902537Polyploidywhen there is a whole extra set of chromosomes (ex. oversized fruits); Triploidy = 3 sets, Tetraploidy = 4 sets87
66799025384 alterations to gene structure1) Deletion: removal of chromosomal segment 2) Duplication: repetition of a segment 3) Inversion: reversal of a segment within a chromosome 4) Translocation: movement of a segment from one chromosome to another, non-homologous one88
66799025393 stages in cell cummunication1) Reception: cell detects a signal via connection of a ligand to a receptor protein 2) Transduction: the receptor protein converts the signal to a form that can cause a chemical response 3) Response: transduced signal triggers a specific cellular response89
6679902540Types of cell signaling (4)synaptic, paracrine, hormonal90
6679902541Examples of cell signalingG-protein coupled receptor, ligand-gated ion channels, steroid hormones (dissolved across plasma membrane, intracellular receptor)91
6679902542Second Messengers and Phosphorylation cascadesecond messengers and kinases spread throughout a cell that help amplify a cellular signal by a series of phosphorylation reactions (addition of phosphate)92
6679902543Virus structurenonliving, can't rproduce on their own; Capsid: protein coat that encloses the viral genome; Envelope: membrane that surrounds some viral capsids; Phage: protein encapsulated virus that attacks bacteria93
6679902544Lytic Cycle1) virus attaches to host cell 2) phage DNA enters cell and the cell's DNA degrades (*restriction enzymes in bacteria could destroy them) 3) synthesis of viral genomes and proteins 4) assembly of phages within cell 5) release of viruses, destroys cell94
6679902545Lysogenic Cyclethe virus inserts its DNA into a host cell, and its DNA integrates with the DNA of the host, allows it to be replicated without being attacked for long periods of time before entering the lytic cycle95
6679902546RetrovirusRNA virus that transcribes its RNA into DNA to insert into host cells (ex. HIV)96
6679902547Provirusa viral genome that is permanently inserted into a host genome97
6679902548Viral Transductioncontributes to bacterial genetic variation98
6679902549Repressible Operontrp operon - usually on, can be repressed. Repressor protein produced in inactive shape99
6679902550Inducible Operonlac operon - usually off, can be turned on. Repressor protein produced in active shape.100
6679902551cAMP and CAP regulated Operonwhen CAP is inactive, transcription continues at a much less efficient rate even in the presence of lactose101
6679902552Histone Acetylationthe loosening of chromatin structure (euchromatin), promotes transcription102
6679902553Histone Methylationthe condensing of chromatin structure (heterochromatin), prevents transcription103
6679902554Transcription Factors and EnhancersRNA polymerase requires the assistance of transcription factor proteins and enhancers or activators to successfully transcribe RNA104
6679902555Epigenetic Inheritanceinheritance of traits not directly related to nucleotide sequence (ex. fat, sickly, yellow rats were fed a methylated diet, resulted in offspring that were normal-sized, healthy, and brown)105
66799025565 Evidences for Evolution1) Biogeography 2) Fossil Record 3) Comparative Anatomy 4) Comparative Embryology 5) Molecular Biology106
66799025574 conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (not evolving)1) very large population 2) isolation from other populations 3) no mutations 4) no natural selection107
6679902558Microevolution vs. Macroevolutionchange in the gene pool of a population over several generations / large scale changes in a population that leads to the evolution of a new species108
66799025594 causes of Microevolution1) genetic drift 2) gene flow 4) natural selection109
6679902560Genetic Driftrandom change in gene frequency of a small breeding population: 1) Founder Effect = small population of organisms colonizes a new area, 2) Bottleneck Effect = sudden decrease in population size due to disaster110
6679902561Gene Flowloss/addition of alleles from a population due to imigration/emigration111
6679902562Nonrandom Matingselection of mates for specific phenotypes: 1) Assortative Mating = when individuals select partners with simple phenotypic characters, 2) Inbreeding = more recessive traits likely to come together112
66799025633 Modes of Natural Selection1) Stabilizing: favors intermediate, 2) Directional: favors one extreme phenotype, 3) Diversifying: favors both extremes113
6679902564Heterozygote Advantageheterozygotes for a trait are more likely to survive (ex. carriers of sickle cell anemia are immune to malaria)114
6679902565Biological Species Conceptpopulation whose members can create viable, fertile offspring (Problems: doesn't apply to extinct animals or asexually reproducing organisms)115
6679902566Prezygotic Reproductive Barriers1) Habitat Isolation 2) Behavioral Isolation (differing behaviors for attracting mates) 3) Temporal Isolation (mate at different times) 4) Mechanical Isolation 5) Gametic Isolation (unable to fertilize egg)116
6679902567Postzygotic Reproductive Barriers1) Reduced Hybrid Viability (disruption in embryonic stage) 2) Reduced Hybrid Fertility 3) Hybrid Breakdown (F1 is fertile, F2 is sterile or weak)117
6679902568Allopatric Speciationwhen populations become geographically isolated from the rest of the species and has the potential to develop a new species (ex. Adaptive Radiation: many diversely adapted species from common ancestor, Darwin's finches)118
6679902569Sympatric Speciationmembers of a population develop gametic differences that prevent them from reproducing with the parental type (polyploidy, not as common)119
6679902570Punctuated Equilibrium vs. Gradualismevolution occurs in short spurts of rapid change / each new species will evolve gradually over long spans of time120
6679902571Convergent Evolutiondifferent organisms that occupy similar environments come to resemble one another (ex. dolphins and sharks)121
6679902572EndosymbiosisOrigin of mitochondria and chloroplasts. Evidence: They have their own DNA and ribosomes, double membrane structure, grow and reproduce on their own within the cell122
6679902573Phylogenyevolutionary history of a species or group of related species123
6679902574Taxonomic groups from broad to narrow (8)Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species124
66799025753 mechanisms in which bacteria transfer genetic materials1) Transformation: prokaryote takes up DNA from its environment 2) Transduction: viruses transfer genes between prokaryotes 3) Conjugation: genes are directly transferred from one prokaryote to another over a temporary "mating bridge"125
6679902576Types of Symbiotic RelationshipsMutualism (+, +), Commensalism (+, 0), Parasitism, (+, -)126
6679902577Factors that influence Transpiration RateTemperature: higher temperature, faster rate; Humidity: higher humidity, slower rate; Sunlight: more sun, faster rate; Wind: more wind, faster rate127
6679902578Lines of Immune Defense1st Line) skin oil and sweat, mucous; 2nd Line) nonspecific phagocytes and cytotoxic immune cells; 3rd Line) specific immune system128
6679902579Primary and Secondary Immune Response129
6679902580Active vs. Passive Immunitydepends on the response of a person's own immune system (artificial = vaccines) / immunity passed from one organism to another130
6679902581B cells vs. T cells (maturation)mature in bone marrow / mature in thymus131
6679902582Humoral vs. Cell-Mediated Immune Responses132
6679902583Non-steroid hormone vs. Steroid hormonetravels in bloodstream, binds to receptor on cell surface / travels in bloodstream, binds to receptor inside the cell133
6679902584Endotherms vs. Ectothermswarmed by heat generated by metabolism (mammals, birds) / generate little metabolic heat, warmed by environment134
6679902585Nichea position/role taken by a kind of organism within its community135
6679902586Resource Partitioningdivision of environmental resources by coexisting species136
6679902587Per capita Growth Ratebirth - death / total population137
6679902588Exponential vs. Logistic Growthin logistic growth, carrying capacity will limit the population's size138
6679902589Density-dependent RegulationDensity-independent: natural disasters, human impact, etc.139
6679902590Keystone Speciesspecies that exerts strong control on community structure not by numerical might but by their pivotal ecological roles or niches140
6679902591Energy Pyramideach energy level receives only 10% of the pervious level's energy141
6679902592Gross Primary Production vs. Net Primary Productiontotal amount of energy from light converted to chemical energy to organic molecules / GPP - energy used by primary producers for "autotrophic respiration"142
6679902593Carbon CycleConnect photosynthesis (fixation) to cellular respiration (CO2 release)143
6679902594Plasmidsa small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome144
6679902595Recombinant DNAa DNA vector made in vitro with segments from different sources145
6679902596Restriction Enzymean enzyme that recognizes and cuts DNA molecules at specific nucleotide sequences (restriction sites), can then be used to create recombinant DNA146
6679902597Gel Electrophoresisanalyzing fragments of DNA (RFLPs) by their length and charge to determine genetic fingerprints and other genetic information147

AP Biology- Endocrine System Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images
9148916783Endocrine SystemReleases hormones, chemicals released by *ductless glands* into the blood stream that can have an effect anywhere in the body0
9148916784Tropic hormonesHormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to release their hormones1
9148916785PheromonesHormones released by one animal that affect other animals2
9148916786HypothalamusBridge between endocrine and nervous systems Sends electrical signals to adrenal gland to release adrenaline Releases *oxytocin* and *antidiuretic hormone* into posterior pituitary for storage3
9148916787Anterior PituitaryGrowth hormone (GH)- Bone growth Luteinizing hormone (LH)- Ovaries and testes Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)- Thyroid to release thyroxin Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)- Adrenal cortex to release cortisol Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)- gonads to produce gametes4
9148916788Posterior PituitaryStores and releases hormones (*oxytocin*-stimulates contraction of uterus and mammary glands during labor and *ADH*- stimulates the collecting tubule in nephron) from hypothalamus5
9148916789Thyroid GlandReleases *thyroxin*- controls rate of metabolism Releases *calcitonin*- lowers blood calcium levels by facilitating uptake of calcium by bones6
9148916790Parathyroid GlandReleases *parathormone*- raises blood calcium levels by removing calcium from bones Works in opposition to *calcitonin*7
9148916791Adrenal CortexResponds to stress by releasing corticosteroids- *cortisol* Raises blood sugar levels8
9148916792Adrenal MedullaReleases *epinephrine (adrenaline)*- the "fight or flight" hormone- raises blood sugar levels by increasing breakdown of glycogen in liver9
9148916793PancreasFunctions as both endocrine gland (releasing hormones) and exocrine gland (releasing digestive enzymes) Releases *insulin* to lower blood glucose levels Releases glucagon to raise blood glucose levels10
9148916794Thymus GlandMost active in fetal and postnatal life Essential to development of a normal immune system Stimulates proliferation of T-lymphcytes11
9148916795Pineal GlandIn brain Secretes hormone melatonin12
9148916796Ovaries*Estrogen*- stimulates uterine lining, promotes development and maintenance of primary and secondary sexual characteristics *Progesterone*- promotes growth of uterine lining13
9148916797Testes*Testosterone*- supports sperm production and secondary sexual characteristics14
9148916798Positive FeedbackMechanisms amplify an already existing response and bring a process to an end15
9148916799Negative FeedbackMechanisms maintain homeostasis by inhibiting a response.16
9148916800Signal-Transduction Pathway1. Chemicals bind to a receptor on the surface of the plasma membrane 2. Triggers a *secondary messenger* (cAMP or calcium ions) 3. Converts chemical signal to a specific cellular response from the nucleus17

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