| 2787193755 | Sumerian City-States | The Sumerian city-states came into play when their populations expanding, and they needed to prevent conflicts between urban residents from escalating into serious civic disorder. So, they created city-states to control city life and oversaw affairs in surrounding regions. |  | 0 |
| 2787195887 | Hammurabi and Babylonian Empire | The Babylonian Hammurabi reigned from 1792 to 1750 B.C.E. He called himself, "King of the quarters of the world." The entire Babylonian empire ruled until 1600 B.C.E. Hammurabi also created Hammurabi's Code. |  | 1 |
| 2787198076 | Nebuchadnezzar and New Babylonian Empire | The New Babylonian Empire ruled from 600 to 550 B.C.E. It's also called the Chaldean empire. One of the kings was King Nebuchadnezzar. He lavished wealth and resources on his capital city and symbolized the city's luxuriousness. |  | 2 |
| 2787198806 | Iron Metallurgy | In 1300 B.C.E craftsmen from Hittite society developed techniques of forging strong iron tools and weapons. It spread to many regions and helped people, like the Assyrians, to build their empire. Since the iron was cheaper and more available than bronze, iron quickly became the metal of choice. |  | 3 |
| 2787199098 | The Wheel | To create efficient means of transportation for long-distance trade, the Sumerians invented the wheel. The first wheel was probably invented in 3500 B.C.E.. Wheeled carts and wagons let people haul heavy loads of bulk-goods much longer than before. |  | 4 |
| 2787199406 | Social Classes | In early Mesopotamia, kings and nobles were at the top because of their valor and success as warriors. Then came priests and priestesses. They intervened with gods to ensure good fortune for their communities. Next are privileged classes of free commoners, dependent clients, and finally slaves. |  | 5 |
| 2787200706 | Education | Most education was vocational instruction that trained individuals to work in specific trades and crafts. They also established formal schools. Those who learned to read and write usually became scribes or government officials. |  | 6 |
| 2787201371 | The Early Hebrews | Early Hebrews were pastoral nomads who inhabited lands between Mesopotamia and Egypt. According to Hebrew scriptures, Abraham came from the Sumerian city of Ur and migrated to Palestine. Hebrews borrowed the principle of lex talionis from Hammurabi's code and also had stories of floods similar to Mesopotamia. |  | 7 |
| 2787204239 | Assyrian and Babylonian Conquests | Israel came under pressure of the Assyrian empire and had to pay tribute to the leaders too. The kingdom of Judah retained its independence the New Babylonian empire toppled the Assyrians. |  | 8 |
| 2787205909 | Phoenician Trade Networks | The Phoenicians influenced societies because of their maritime trade and communication networks. They traded overland with Mesopotamia and provided cedar timber, furnishings, and decorative items. They also imported for exchange for metal goods, textiles, pottery, glass, and works of art. |  | 9 |
| 2787207915 | Indo-European Homeland | The homeland of Indo-European speakers was probably modern-day Ukraine and southern Russia. They herded cattle, sheep, and goats. Their society was probably built between 4500 B.C.E. and 2500 B.C.E. |  | 10 |
| 2787208389 | Horses | Indo Europeans were able to domesticate horses originally as food, but then began riding them. When the Sumerians knowledge of bronze metallurgy and wheels had spread to the Indo-European homeland, the speakers soon hitched horses to carts wagons, and chariots. |  | 11 |
| 2787208390 | The Hittites | They were the most influential Indo-European migrants. They migrated to the central plain of Anatolia and built powerful kingdom and established close relations with Mesopotamia. They also traded with Babylonians and Assyrians, adapted cuneiform writing to their Indo-European language. |  | 12 |
| 2787209345 | Indo-European Migrations to East | When the Hittites built their state in Anatolia , many other Indo-European speakers migrated East to into central Asia as far as modern day western China. |  | 13 |
| 2812883265 | The Nile River Valley | The Nile is fed by rain and snow in the high mountains of east Africa. It is also the longest river in the world, at 6,695 km long. Each spring, rain and melting snow swell the river and surges north through the Sudan and Egypt. When the waters recedes, it leaves behind a layer of rich, fertile muck, and these alluvial deposits support the productive agriculture economy. |  | 14 |
| 2812883266 | Menes | Egypt rulers forged all the territory between the Nile delta and the river's first cataract a unified kingdom much larger and more powerful than any other Nile state. There, there was a ruler named Menes who was an ambitious minor official from southern Egypt. He rose to power and extended his authority north into the delta. He becomes the cultural and political center of ancient Egypt. |  | 15 |
| 2812884846 | Relations between
Egypt and Nubia | Egyptians had a strong in Nubia because they were wary that Nubian kingdoms might threaten Upper Egypt, and they wanted products like gold, ivory, ebony, and precious stones. only found in southern land. Nubia was interested in Egypt because they wanted to protect their independence from massive and powerful neighbor to the north, and they sought to profit by controlling trade down the Nile. |  | 16 |
| 2812886290 | The Hyksos | Egypt came under the pressure of the foreign people from southern Asia, a Semitic group of people called the Hyksos. They were horse-riding nomads, and introduced horses to Egypt. They over to take advantage of Egypt because of their horse-drawn chariots, military advantage, and their weaponry. |  | 17 |
| 2812888098 | The Revived Kingdom of Kush | Nubian leaders organized a new kingdom Kush at the capital of Napata. By eighth century B.C.E, the rulers of Kush were powerful enough to invade Egypt. They eventually claimed tittle of pharaoh and extended their rule to the Nile delta. |  | 18 |
| 2812889632 | Trade Networks | Specialized labor and efficient means of transportation encouraged the development of long-distance trade. Egypt needed trade the land had few natural resources other than the Nile. They traded a lot with Nubia. Ivory, leopard skins, ostrich feathers, gemstones, gold, and salves were given to Egypt in exchange for pottery wine, honey, and finished products. |  | 19 |
| 2812890527 | Hieroglyphic Writing | The earliest Egyptian writing was pictographs. Symbols represented sounds and ideas. The Greeks called them hieroglyphs meaning "holy inscriptions" The were written on Egyptian monuments and buildings and also on sheets of papyrus. Papyrus is a paper-like material fashioned from papyrus reeds. |  | 20 |
| 2812892721 | Meroitic Writing | Nubian scribes created an alphabetic script from borrowing Egyptian hieroglyphics, but used the symbols for sounds rather than ideas. This would a more flexible writing system, but sadly scholars are unable to understand the Meroitic writing. |  | 21 |
| 2812893396 | Aten and Monotheism | The cult of Amon-Re faced monotheistic challenge from the god, Aten. Aten's champion, Pharaoh Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaten to recognize his deity. Unlike the other priests of Amon-Re, Akhenaten and others believed Aten was the one and only god. It was probably the first time monotheism was introduced into the world. |  | 22 |
| 2812894298 | Mummification | Egyptians believed that death was not an end, but a transition to a new dimension of existence. The yearning for immortality explains the practice of mummification. Though during the Old Kingdom mummification was only for the wealthy an elite, it never became a general practice. With or without preservation of the body, a variety of religious cults promised to lead individuals of all classes to immortality. |  | 23 |
| 2812895740 | Cult of Osiris | According to myths, Osiris's evil brother Seth murdered him and scattered his dismembered parts throughout the land, but Osiris's wife Isis retrieved his parts and gave him a proper burial. The gods then restored Osiris to life, but as a god of the underworld. Egyptians associated Osiris with the Nile and with their crops. |  | 24 |
| 2812898170 | Nubian Religious Beliefs | Some Nubian religious traditions came from the early agricultural societies of Sudan. The most important Nubian deities was the lion-god, Apedemak, who was the war god for the kingdom. Sebiumeker was the creator god and divine guardian of his devotes. |  | 25 |
| 2812898171 | The Bantu | The original Bantu language was one of many related tongues in the larger Niger-Congo family. The lived in present day Nigeria. They cultivated yams and oil palms, and kept goats and raised guinea fowl. They lived in clan-based villages headed by chiefs and traded with hunting and gathering people. |  | 26 |
| 2812899357 | Spread of Agriculture | In Sub-Saharan Africa, cultivators extended the cultivation of yams and grains deep into east and south Africa. Headers introduced sheep and cattle to the region. By the late centuries B.C.E., agriculture had reached almost all of Sub-Saharan Africa except for densely forested regions and deserts. |  | 27 |
| 2812899945 | Religious Beliefs | In Sub-Saharan Africa, cultivators and headers also developed distinctive cultural and religious traditions. Sudanic and Niger-Congo people were monotheistic. One god was responsible for both good and evil. The god was Nyamba, and Nyamba created the world. The people prayed to their god their ancestors. |  | 28 |
| 2812902440 | Harappa and Mohenjo-Dario | These cities had city walls, a fortified citadel, and a large granary. There was a lot of investment in human labor and other resources. Also Mohenjo-daro had a large pool with private dressing rooms for bathers. |  | 29 |
| 2812904471 | Specialized Labor and Trade | Harappa depended on a successful agricultural economy, but also engaged in trade. They traded pottery, tools, and decorative items for gold,silver, copper, lead, gems, and semiprecious stones. |  | 30 |
| 2812905029 | Social Distinctions | The Harappan encouraged the formation of social distinctions. They didn't build pyramids, palaces, or magnificent tombs, but rulers wielded great authority. The dwellings that rich and poor lived in very different styles. Almost all houses had private bathrooms with showers and toilets. |  | 31 |
| 2812905811 | Fertility Cults | Harappan religion reflected a strong concern for fertility. They ventured gods and goddesses whom associated with creation and procreation. They recognized a mother goddess and a horned fertility god. These same values are found in the later religion of Hinduism. |  | 32 |
| 2812906392 | Harappan Decline | It declined because of different reasons. Harappans could have been deforested to obtain firewood. This would lead to erosion of topsoil and reduced rainfall. It is also possible that that flooding or earthquakes might have weakened the Harappan society. |  | 33 |
| 2812907048 | The Vedas | The Aryans composed poems and songs. They passed them down orally in their less formal tongue of Prakrit. One of the first works passed was the Vedas. It was a collection of hymns, songs,prayers, and rituals honoring the gods of the Aryans. |  | 34 |
| 2812908458 | Changing Political Organization | The Aryans gradually lost their tribal political organization and evolved more formal political institutions. In the hilly and mountainous regions of Northern India, councils of elders won recognition as the principal sources of political authorities. |  | 35 |
| 2812910456 | Caste and Social Mobility | The caste system never worked absolutely strict or inflexible, but worked to accommodate social change. Individual vaishyas or shudras turned to new lines of work and prospered on the basis of their own initiative. Brahmins and Kshatriyas sometimes fell on hard times. Social mobility came from individual efforts. |  | 36 |
| 2812911418 | Subcastes and Jati | The four varnas described the Vedic society well, but because they did not live in cities, and did not yet pursue specialized occupations, the Aryans had little need for a more complicated social order. As the Vedic society became more complex and generated increasingly specialized occupations, the caste system severed as an umbrella for a complicated hierarchy. |  | 37 |
| 2812913469 | The Lawbook of Manu | The patriarchal spokesmen of Vedic society sought to place women explicitly under the authority of men. An anonymous sage prepared the Lawbook of Manu. It dealt with proper moral behavior and social relationships. It reflected the society constructed under the Aryan influence. |  | 38 |
| 2812913470 | Sati | Vedic India constructed and maintained a deeply patriarchal society order. A custom demonstrated in the practice of sati. This is where a widow voluntarily threw herself on the funeral pyre of her decreased husband to join him in death. |  | 39 |
| 2812914607 | Ritual Sacrifices | It was important to properly perform ritual sacrifices by which the Aryans hoped to win the favor of the gods. Some rituals included slaughtering prepared animals as priests spoke the sacred chants. They believed that daring's sacrificial events the gods visited earth. |  | 40 |
| 2812916126 | Spirituality | The Aryan became dissatisfied with sacrificial cults of the Vedas, so many individuals left and retreated to the forests of the Ganges valley. There the mystics drew considerable inspiration from religious beliefs of Dravidian people, who worshiped nature spirits. |  | 41 |
| 2812916962 | The Upanishads | The Vedas achieved its fullest development in the body of works known as the Upanishads. The word upanishad means "a sitting in front of". It refers to the practice of disciples gathering before a sage for discussing religious issues. |  | 42 |
| 2812918073 | Brahman, the Universal Soul | The Upanishads said that appearances are deceiving and that human beings are not separate and autonomous creatures. Each person is actually part of a larger cosmic order and forms a small part of a universal soul, Brahman. |  | 43 |
| 2812919931 | Yangshao Society and Banpo Village | In the Yangshao society, its political, social, and cultural traditions is especially known for its discovery of Neolithic village at Banpo. |  | 44 |
| 2812921894 | The Shang Capital at Ao | Shang named one of his earliest capitals Ao. Many remains can be found near modern day Zhengzhou. There are city walls made from soil that is firmly packed between wooden forms. |  | 45 |
| 2812922883 | Beyond the Yellow River Valley | The Shang and Xia dynasties were paid special attention to because of their location in the Yellow River. Because tombs full of bronze, jade, stone, etc. show that societies are near the Yangzi and the Yellow River. |  | 46 |
| 2812923785 | The Rise of Zhou | The last Shang king was a criminal fool who gave himself over to wine women, tyranny, and greed. As a result, people transferred loyalty to the Zhou. |  | 47 |
| 2812924668 | The Mandate of Heaven | The Zhou theory of politics rested on the assumption that earthly events were closely related to heavenly affairs. Heavenly powers granted the right to govern with the mandate of heaven. It is given to a deserving individual called the son of heaven. The ruler is seen as a link between heaven and earth. |  | 48 |
| 2812925517 | Weakening of the Zhou | Subordinates gradually established their own bases of power that they ruled their territories as long established and traditional governors. They enforced them and as they became more secure in their rule, they also became more independent of the Zhou dynasty itself. |  | 49 |
| 2812925970 | Ruling Elites | The royal family and allied noble families occupied the most honored positions in Chinese society. Ruling elites possessed much of bronze weaponry because it was very expensive. |  | 50 |
| 2812926972 | Merchants and Trade | Archaeological discoveries show that long distance trade routes reached China during the Shang dynasties. Jade came from central Asia, and military technology came from through central Asia from Mesopotamia. |  | 51 |
| 2812927296 | Slaves | In China there was a sizable class of slaves that were enemy warriors captured during battles. Slaves performed hard labor. |  | 52 |
| 2812928555 | Veneration of Ancestors | The veneration of ancestors is a reason for influence in the Chinese family. They believed that spirits of their ancestors passed into another realm of existence from which they had the power to support and protect their surviving families if proper displays were put up for respect. |  | 53 |
| 2812928987 | Oracle Bones | Oracle bones were a principal instrument used for fortune tellers in ancient China. Diviners used specially prepared broad bones. They inscribe a question, and then subject it to heat. When it is heated, the cracks and splits answer the question. |  | 54 |
| 2821470667 | The Book of Songs | It is known as the Book of Poetry and the Book of Odes. This collection of verses on themes both light and serious. Many of the poems date back to the early Zhou dynasty. |  | 55 |
| 2821471301 | Steppe Nomads | Chinese cultivators encountered nomadic people who had built pastoral societies in the grassy steppe lands of central Asia. It was too dry to support agriculture, but it did support herds of animals. |  | 56 |
| 2821472661 | The Yangzi Valley | The valley of the Yangzi River supports even more intense agriculture than is possible in the Yellow River basin. The water from the lofty Qinghai mountains of Tibet to its mouth near the modern Chinese city of Shanghai. |  | 57 |
| 2821474083 | The State of Chu | Agricultural surplus and growing populations led to the emergence of cities, states, and complex societies. The powerful State of Chu challenged the Zhou for supremacy. They were in regular communication with their counterparts in the Yellow River valley. |  | 58 |
| 2821475462 | Early Agriculture in Mesoamerica | The people of Mesoamerica experimented with the cultivation of beans, chili peppers, avocados, squashes, and gourds. Maize soon became a staple food in the region. Soon agriculture spread throughout Mesoamerica. |  | 59 |
| 2821477388 | Ceremonial Centers | Permanent residents of the ceremonial centers included members of the ruling elite, priests, and craftsman. The ceremonial centers observed rituals or on market days to exchange goods. |  | 60 |
| 2821478784 | Olmecs: The Rubber People | On the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, they served as the nerve center of the first complex society of the Americas. Their name derives from the rubber trees that flourish in the region they inhabited. Olmec traditions influenced all complex societies of Mesoamerica until the arrival of Europeans. |  | 61 |
| 2821479164 | Trade in Jade and Obsidian | The Olmecs spread their influence by trade . It was a link between the Olmec heartland and other regions in Mesoamerica. Like jade, obsidian came from the Gulf coast from distant regions. In exchange, Olmecs traded small works of art fashioned from jade , basalt, or ceramics. |  | 62 |
| 2821479165 | The Maya | The earliest heirs of the Olmecs were the Maya. They created a remarkable society in the region now occupied by southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador. One capital was Kaminalijuyu and served as the religious ceremonial center of Mayan civilization. |  | 63 |
| 2821480028 | Tikal | The Maya built more than eighty large in the lowlands . Some of the larger centers attracted dense populations. Tikal was the most important Maya political center. It was a wealthy and bustling city.The Temple of the Jaguar represented Tikal's control over the surrounding region. |  | 64 |
| 2821480029 | Maya Warfare | Mayan kingdoms fought constantly with each other. The victors usually took over the ceremonial centers. Warriors won prestige when they brought back important captives. |  | 65 |
| 2821481175 | Chicken Itza | The state of Chicken Itza wanted to dampen hostile instincts and established a larger political framework for the Mayan society. |  | 66 |
| 2821481176 | Maya Decline | When the Mayan populations began to desert their cities , it was because of different theories. There could have been an invasion by foreigners from Mexico, internal dissension, failure of the system of water control, or an ecological problem. |  | 67 |
| 2821481785 | The Mayan Calendar | Mayan priests constructed the most elaborate calendar of the ancient Americas. It shows a powerful urge to identity meaningful cycles of time to understand human events. It had 365 days which is a solar year. |  | 68 |
| 2821481786 | Maya Writing | Mayans expanded upon their predecessors' tradition of written inscriptions. It contained both ideographic elements and symbols for syllables. The writing was used for history, poetry, and myth. |  | 69 |
| 2821482425 | Maya Religious Thought | The Popol Vuh is the Mayan creation myth. It says that the gods created humans from maize and water. This shows the role of agriculture in their society. |  | 70 |
| 2821483085 | The City of Teotihuacan | Teotihuacan was a large agricultural village. Its two monuments were the colossal pyramids of the sun and the moon and dominated the skyline. The Pyramid of the Sun is the largest single structure in Mesoamerica. |  | 71 |
| 2821483615 | Cultural Traditions | The residents of Teotihuacan built on cultural foundations established by the Olmecs. Thy borrowed Olmec's calendar, ball game, and graphic symbols. |  | 72 |
| 2821484159 | Decline of Teotihuacan | Teotihuacan experienced more military pressure, and even art showed animals fighting for military conquest. Invaders had sacked and burned the city. |  | 73 |
| 2821484504 | The Chavin Cult | The Chavin Cult arose when maize became an important crop and supported large populations. It promoted fertility and abundant harvests. Temples and carvings the Chavin Cult seized by imagination of agricultural people. |  | 74 |
| 2821484505 | The Mochina State | The Mochina State had paintings that survived on pottery vessels. It often detailed expressive depiction of early Andean society. |  | 75 |
| 2821487386 | The Early Agriculture in South America | The earliest cultivators of the region relied on beans, peanuts, and sweet potatoes. They also cultivated cotton which was used for fishnets and textiles. The Pacific Ocean provided agricultural harvests. |  | 76 |
| 2821489169 | Early Hunting and Gathering Societies in Australia | The aboriginal Australians lived in small, mobile communities that undertook migrations in search for food. Plant foods were the bulk of their diet. They also used axes, spears, etc. to bring down animals from rats to giant kangaroos. |  | 77 |
| 2821489827 | Austronesian Peoples | The earliest inhabitants of New Guiana forged for food. The Austronesian People possessed remarkable seafaring skills. They sailed in large canoes without triggers. |  | 78 |
| 2821491577 | Early Agriculture in New Guinea | Austronesian seafarers depended on the cultivation of root crops and the heading of animals. They introduced yams, taro,pigs, and chicken to the island. After changing the agriculture, specialization came in, and pottery and crafted tools came into play. |  | 79 |
| 2821492412 | Austronesian Migrants to Polynesia | Austronesian People had a sophisticated maritime technology and agricultural expertise. So, they could sail easily to Bismarck and Solomon islands for trade and stayed there. |  | 80 |
| 2821493507 | Austronesian Migrants to Micronesia and Madagascar | From the Philippians, some Austronesians ventured to Micronesia. Some even sailed to Madagascar. Even Malagasy, the dominant language in Madagascar is obviously an Austronesian tongue. |  | 81 |
| 2821493508 | The Lapita Peoples | Early Austronesian migrants sailed to the blue waters of Lapita. It maintained communications and exchange networks throughout a large region. They established agricultural villages and domesticated animals. |  | 82 |
| 2821496495 | Chiefly Political Organization | Lapita trade networks fell into disuse. Austronesian people and Lapita people established hierarchical chiefdoms the Pacific Islands. Leadership was passed the chief to his eldest son. |  | 83 |
| 2821675447 | Bloodletting Rituals | The Mayans believed shedding human blood would prompt the gods to send rain to water their crops of maize. It was usually centered around war captives. |  | 84 |
| 2821681569 | The Maya Ball Game | Maya inherited a distinctive ball game from the Olmecs. The object of the game was for players to propel a rubber ball through a ring or onto a marker without using their hands. |  | 85 |
| 2821724934 | Sumer | Sumerians constructed elaborate irrigation networks that helped them realize abundant agricultural harvests. |  | 86 |
| 2821837413 | Semitic Migrants | The wealth of Sumer attracted migrants from other regions. Most were Semitic migrants that were nomadic headers who intermarried the Sumerians. |  | 87 |
| 2821839585 | Sumerian Kings | Early governments were assemblies of prominent men who made decisions on behalf of the whole community. Later almost all Sumerian cities had kings who claimed absolute authority within their realms. |  | 88 |
| 2821840161 | Sargon of Akkad | The creator of empire in Mesopotamia was Sargon of Akkad. He conquered the cities one by one, destroyed city walls, and placed them under his own governors and administrators. |  | 89 |
| 2821842054 | Hammurabi's Laws | Hammurabi sought to maintain his empire by providing it with a code of law. He borrowed liberally from his predecessors in compiling the most extensive and most complete Mesopotamian law code. |  | 90 |
| 2821845347 | The Assyrian Empire | The Assyrian state was one among many jockeying for power and position in northern Mesopotamia. They made use of recently invented iron and weapons and strengthened their army. |  | 91 |
| 2821846410 | Bronze Metallurgy | Pure copper was too soft to use for weaponry, but they discovered that by adding copper with tin, it would make it stronger. Therefore, inventing bronze. |  | 92 |
| 2821846809 | Shipbuilding | Sumerians built watercrafts that allowed them to venture into the Persian Gulf. Then they even sailed all the way to the Harappan society. |  | 93 |
| 2821848160 | Trade Networks | Assyrian merchants traveled regularly by donkey caravan to Anatolia. Merchants and their families operated a well organized business. |  | 94 |
| 2821848984 | Temple Communities | Priests and priestesses were mostly younger relatives of the rulers. They were to intervene with the gods to ensure good fortune for their communities. For their service, they were able to stay in temple communities and receive offerings. |  | 95 |
| 2821850372 | Slaves | Slaves came from prisoners of war, convicted criminals, and heavily indebted people who sold themselves into slavery. Some slaves worked as agricultural laborers, but were mostly domestic servants. |  | 96 |
| 2821850373 | Patriarchal Society | Mesopotamia vested authority over public and private affairs in adult men. The men were the head of the household and dominated public life as well. |  | 97 |
| 2821852565 | Women's Roles | Women made their influence felt in Mesopotamia. They advised kings and their governments. They could become priestesses or obtain a formal education and work as scribes. |  | 98 |
| 2821854288 | Astronomy and Mathematics | Scholars studied mathematics and astronomy. It was important to their sciences for agricultural societies. Making calendars helped them come up with patterns during the year. They divided the year in 12 months and the hours into 60 minutes, a minute is 60 seconds. | | 99 |
