| 8606252860 | mercantilism | european government policies of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries designed to promote overseas trade between a country and its colonies and accumulate precious metals by requiring colonies to trade only with their motherland country. | | 0 |
| 8606252861 | papacy | the central administration of the roman catholic church, of which the pope is the head. | | 1 |
| 8606256130 | indulgences | the forgiveness to the punishment due for past sins, granted by the catholic church authorities as a reward for a pious act. | | 2 |
| 8606258418 | "salvation by faith alone" | a christian theological doctrine that distinguishes the lutheran and reformed branches of protestant christianity, as well as some other denominations, from the catholic church, the eastern orthodox church, and some parts of the restoration movement, as well as the methodist churches. | | 3 |
| 8606258419 | celibacy | the state of voluntary being unmarried, sexually abstinent, or both usually for religious reasons. | | 4 |
| 8606258420 | heresy | opinion or doctrine at variance with the orthodox or accepted doctrine, especially of a church or religious system. | | 5 |
| 8606263250 | huguenots | a member of the reformed or calvinistic communion of france in the 16th and 17th centuries; a french protestant. | | 6 |
| 8606265604 | heliocentric theory | the theory that the earth revovles around the sun. this is a theory that was created through the collaboration of many people over many years including aristarchus, copernicus, kepler, and galileo. | | 7 |
| 8606265605 | absolutism | a political theory that absolute power should be vested in one or more rulers (government by an absolute ruler). | | 8 |
| 8606268937 | estates general | france's traditional national assembly with representatives of the three estates, or classes, in french society: the clergy, nobility, and commoners. | | 9 |
| 8606268938 | constitutionalism | a political philosophy based on the idea that government authority is derived from the people and should be limited by a constitution that clearly expresses what the government can and can't do. | | 10 |
| 8606272749 | columbian exchange | the exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the americas and the rest of the world following columbus's voyages. | | 11 |
| 8606274364 | encomiendas | a grant of authority over a population of amerindians in the spanish colonies. it provided the grant holder with a supply of cheap labor and periodic payments of goods by the amerindians. it obligated the grant holder to christianize the amerindians. | | 12 |
| 8606274365 | mitas | andean labor system based on shared obligations to help kinsmen and work on behalf of rulers or religious organizations. | | 13 |
| 8606276989 | triangular trade system | a historical term for trade between three regions, using a commodity from one region as payment for commodities from another region. its best-known example is the transatlantic slave trade that operated among europe, west africa, and the americas in the 17th through 19th centuries. | | 14 |
| 8606276990 | middle passage | the part of the atlantic circuit involving the transportation of enslaved africans across the atlantic of the americas. | | 15 |
| 8606280296 | capitalism | the economic system of large financial institutions- banks, stock exchanges, investment companies- that first developed in early modern europe. commercial capitalism, the trading system of the early modern economy, is often distinguished from industrial capitalism, the system based on machine production. | | 16 |
| 8606280297 | indentured servitude | a migrant to british colonies in the americas who paid for passage by agreeing to work for a set term ranging from four to seven years. | | 17 |
| 8606282641 | manumission | a grant of legal freedom to an individual slave. | | 18 |
| 8606282642 | janissaries | infantry, originally of slave origin, armed with firearms and constituting the elite of the ottoman army from the fifteenth century until the corps was abolished in 1826. | | 19 |
| 8606284353 | serfs | in medieval europe, an agricultural laborer legally bound to a lord's property and obligated to perform set services for the lord. in russia some serfs worked as artisans and in factories; serfdom was not abolished there until 1861. | | 20 |
| 8606284354 | land-grant | a grant of land made by the government especially for roads, railroads, or agricultural colleges. first known use: 1862. | | 21 |
| 8606286343 | boyars | a member of the old nobility of russia, before peter the great made rank dependent on state service. | | 22 |
| 8606286344 | cossacks | peoples of the russian empire who lived outside the farming villages, often as herders, mercenaries, or outlaws. cossacks led the conquest of siberia in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. | | 23 |
| 8606287676 | patriarch | the male head of a family or tribal line. | | 24 |
| 8606287677 | the manchus | federation of northeast asian peoples who founded the qing empire. | | 25 |
| 8606289858 | samurai | literally "those who serve," the hereditary military elite of the tokugawa shogunate. | | 26 |
| 8606289859 | bushido | traditional code of the japanese samurai which stressed courage and loyalty and self-discipline and simple living. | | 27 |
| 8606291884 | "ronin" | a samurai who no longer serves a daimyo, or feudal lord. | | 28 |
| 8606291885 | joint-stock companies | a business, often backed by a government charter, that sold shares to individuals to raise money for its trading enterprises and to spread the risks (and profits) among many investors. | | 29 |
| 8606294678 | prince henry the navigator | (1394-1460) prince of portugal who established an observatory and school of navigation at sagres and directed voyages that spurred the growth of portugal's colonial empire. | | 30 |
| 8606294679 | marco polo | venetian merchant and traveler. his accounts of his travels to china offered europeans a firsthand view of asian lands and stimulated interest in asian trade. | | 31 |
| 8606305753 | king ferdinand/ queen isabella | the king of castile and aragon who ruled jointly with his wife isabella; his marriage to isabella I in 1469 marked the beginning of the modern state of spain and their capture of granada from the moors in 1492 united spain as one country; they instituted the spanish Inquisition in 1478 and supported the expedition of christopher columbus in 1492 (1452-1516). | | 32 |
| 8606305754 | hernando cortes | spanish explorer and conquistador who led the conquest of aztec mexico in 1519-1521 for spain. | | 33 |
| 8606309140 | christopher columbus | genoese mariner who in the service of spain led expeditions across the atlantic, reestablishing contact between the peoples of the americas and the old world and opening the way to spanish conquest and colonization. | | 34 |
| 8606310629 | ferdinand magellan | portuguese navigator who led the spanish expedition of 1519-1522 that was the first sail around the world. | | 35 |
| 8606310630 | martin luther | a german monk who became one of the most famous critics of the roman catholic church. In 1517, he wrote 95 theses, or statements of belief attacking the church practices. | | 36 |
| 8606313070 | john calvin | responsible for founding calvinism, which was reformed catholicism. he writes about it in "institutes of a christian religion" published in 1536. he believed god was all knowing and everyone was predestined for heaven or hell. | | 37 |
| 8606313071 | henry 8 | (1491-1547) king of england from 1509 to 1547; his desire to annul his marriage led to a conflict with the pope, england's break with the roman catholic church, and its embrace of protestantism. henry established the church of england in 1532. | | 38 |
| 8606317267 | ignatius of loyola | founded jesuit order in 1534 (approved by pope in 1540), militant arm of catholic church to convert people to catholicism, went to the new world to preach, established jesuit schools which were originally seminary schools. | | 39 |
| 8606317268 | galileo | was an astronomer and mathematician who invented an improved telescope. he was able to see sun spots on the moon and to observe the moons of jupiter. his findings challenged the views of the day including that the heavenly bodies did not change. these ideas became the basis for the idea that the universe is much bigger than previously thought. | | 40 |
| 8606320864 | copernicus | astronomer who produced a workable model of the solar system with the sun in the center which was contrary to the widely held belief that the sun moved around the earth. it is likely that copernicus based his ideas on works by islamic astronomers 200 to 300 years before him. | | 41 |
| 8606320865 | francis bacon | was and english philosopher, statesman, author, and scientist. he was an influential member of the scientific revolution, and is best known for work on the scientific method. | | 42 |
| 8606322883 | isaac newton | was an english scientist who formulated the concept of universal gravitation leading to the three laws of motion. newton's ideas laid the groundwork for modern mechanics. | | 43 |
| 8606322884 | john locke | english philosopher who advocated the idea of a "social contract" in which government powers are derived from the consent of the governed and in which the government serves the people; also said people have natural rights to life, liberty and property. | | 44 |
| 8606324981 | louis 14 | french monarch of the late 17th century who personified absolute monarchy. | | 45 |
| 8606326917 | suleiman the magnificent | the most illustrious sultan of the ottoman empire (r. 1520-1566); also known as suleiman kanuni, "the lawgiver". he significantly expanded the empire in the balkans and eastern mediterranean. | | 46 |
| 8606326918 | aurangzeb | mughal emperor in India and great-grandson of akbar 'the great', under whom the empire reached its greatest extent, only to collapse after his death. | | 47 |
| 8606329326 | peter the great | russian tsar (r. 1689-1725). he enthusiastically introduced western languages and technologies to the russian elite, moving the capital form moscow to the new city of st.petersburg. | | 48 |
| 8606329327 | kangxi | qing emperor (r.1662-1722). he oversaw the greatest expansion of the qing empire. | | 49 |
| 8606330788 | the new world | a name for the americas, especially during the time of first exploration and colonization of the americas by europeans. | | 50 |
| 8606330789 | colony of brazil | from the 16th to the early 19th century, brazil was a colony and a part of the portuguese empire. | | 51 |
| 8606333162 | jamestown | the first permanent english settlement in north america, founded in 1607 in virginia. jamestown was named for king james I of england. It was destroyed later in the seventeenth century in an uprising of virginia's residents against the governor. | | 52 |
| 8606333163 | ottoman empire | islamic state founded by osman in northwestern anatolia around 1300. after the fall of the byzantine empire, the ottoman empire was based at istanbul (formerly constantinople) from1453 to 1922. it encompassed lands in the middle east, north africa, the caucasus, and eastern europe. | | 53 |
| 8606335103 | anatolia | a vast plateau between the black and the mediterranean seas: in ancient usage, synonymous with the peninsula of asia minor; in modern usage, applied to turkey in asia. | | 54 |
| 8606335104 | safavid empire | iranian kingdom (1502-1722) established by ismail safavi, who declared iran a shi'ite state. | | 55 |
| 8606338924 | mughal empire | muslim state (1526-1858) exercising domination over most of india in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries before political fragmentation caused decline. | | 56 |
| 8606338925 | ming dynasty | empire based in china that zhu yuanzhang established after the overthrow of the yuan empire. the ming emperor yongle sponsored the building of the forbidden city and the voyages of zheng he. the later years of the ming saw a slowdown in technological development and economic decline. | | 57 |
| 8606341714 | qing dynasty | empire established in china by manchus who overthrew the ming empire in 1644. at various times the qing also controlled manchuria, mongolia, turkestan, and tibet. the last qing emperor was overthrown in 1911. | | 58 |
| 8606344224 | tokugawa shogunate | the last of the three shogunates of japan. | | 59 |
| 8606344225 | russian empire | the expansion of russia over northern asia as well as westward to incorporate poles, germans, ukrainians, belorussians and baltic peoples. the russian empire became the world's largest state. | | 60 |
| 8606347153 | protestant reformation | religious reform movement within the latin christian church beginning in 1519. it resulted in the "protesters" forming several new christian dominations, including the lutheran and reformed churches and the church of england. | | 61 |
| 8606347154 | counter reformation | the movement in the 16th century within the catholic church to reform itself as a result of the protestant reformation. | | 62 |
| 8606348926 | scientific revolution | the intellectual movement in europe, initially associated with planetary motion and other aspects of physics, that by the seventeenth century had laid the groundwork for modern science. | | 63 |
