| 7625639363 | Chapter 2: Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo-European migrations | The earliest urban societies emerged during the early foruth millennium BCE, in southwest Asia, particularly in Mesopotamia.
As people came together into larger cities, they sought a way to resolve conflicts, and began to regognize political authorities.
They built states thoughout Mesopotamia, which encouraged the production of empires, as some wished to extend their power and enhance security by imposing their rule on neighboring lands.
Urban society in Mesopotamia promoted the emergence of social classes, which caused social and economic complexes to rise.
Mesopotamians developed a system of writing, and supported the emergence of organized religion.
Mesopotamians supported tourism, and they regularly accepted migrants, like the ancient Hebrews.
Phoenicians were merchants who also embraced the Mesopotamian society, and built extensive meritime trade networks, which connected southwest Asia with the Mediterranean basin.
Some Indo-European people had direct dealings with Mesopotamians, which crutially effected Mesopotamian and Indo-European societies alike.
Other Indo-European societies had never heard of Mesopotamia, despite using Mesopotamian inventions, such as the wheel or metallurgy, when undertaking the extensive migrations that influened the early historical development of much of Eurasia, from western Europe to India and beyond.
4000 BCE -- as human population increased, inhabitants needed to find ways to hold the organization of such a large-scale society. By experimentation, they developed states and governmental machinery, and brought political and social order to their society.
The word "Mesopotamia" comes from two Greek words meaning "the land between rivers."
It refers to the fertile valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which are located in modern-day Iraq.
Mesopotamia received little rainfall, but early cultivators irrigated their fields using the Tigris and Euphrates at about 6000 BCE.
Artificial irrigation increased food supplied, which supported the ever-increasing human population, as well as the migrants.
Population grew especially fast in Sumer, located in the southern half of Mesopotamia.
It is possible that Sumerians already lived in this area in 6000 BCE, but more likely that they were migrants attracted by the agricultural potential of the area.
By 5000 BCE, Sumerians were already constructing elaborate irragation networks that helped them procure abundant agricultural harvests.
3000 BCE -- Sumerian population = near 100,000.
Sumerians were the dominant people of Mesopotamia.
The wealth of Sumeria attracted migrants from other regions, most often Semitic people (called that because they spoke languages of the Semetic family).
Semetic people were nomadic herders who went to Mesopotamia from Arabian and Syrian deserts to the south and west.
They often inter-married with Sumerian people, and adapted easily to their culture.
At around 4000 BCE, huamn population increased in southern Mesopotamia, and the Sumerians built the worlds first cities, markedly different from the preceding neolithic villages, most promiently bycause they were centers of political amd military authority, which power that extended into the outlying areas. They became cultural and economic centers.
From 3200 BCE to 2350 BCE, Sumerian cities like Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Nippur, Kish and others dominated public affairs. They all experienced internal and externam pressure, causing them to form states.
Internally, cities needed to maintain social order and prevent conflicts between its citizens.
Additionally, since agriculture was so important to sustaining the urban population, , all cities became city-states, with power over the surrounding agricultural area.
Governmental authorities also organized work on projects of value, to the community, such as palaces, temples, and defensive walls. | | 0 |
| 7625639364 | Chapter 4: Early Societies in South Asia | Background
Neolithic villages in Indus River valley by 3000 B.C.E.
Earliest remains inaccessible because of silt deposits and rising water table
Also little known because writing not yet translated
Foundations of Harappan society
The Indus River
Runs through north India, with sources at Hindu Kush and the Himalayas
Rich deposits but less predictable than the Nile
Wheat and barley were cultivated in Indus valley
Cultivated cotton before 5000 B.C.E.
Complex society of Dravidians, 3000 B.C.E.
No evidence about political system
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro: two main cities
Each city had a fortified citadel and a large granary
Broad streets, marketplaces, temples, public buildings
Standardized weights, measures, architectural styles, and brick sizes
Harappan society and culture
Social distinctions, as seen from living styles
Religious beliefs strongly emphasized fertility
Harappan society declined from 1900 B.C.E. onward
Ecological degradation led to a subsistence crisis
Another possibility: natural catastrophes such as floods or earthquakes
Population began to abandon their cities by about 1700 B.C.E.
Almost entirely collapsed by about 1500 B.C.E.
Some Harappan cultural traditions maintained
The Indo-European migrations and early Aryan India
The Aryans and India
The early Aryans
Depended heavily on a pastoral economy
No writing system, but had orally transmitted works called the Vedas
Sacred language (Sanskrit) and daily-use language (Prakit)
The Vedic Age: 1500-500 B.C.E.
A boisterous period; conflicts with indigenous peoples
Called indigenous people dasas--"enemies" or "subject people"
Indra, the Aryans' war god and military hero
Aryan chiefdoms fought ferociously among themselves
Most chiefdoms had leader raja, king
Aryan migrations in India: first Punjab and by 500 B.C.E. in northern Deccan
Used iron tools and developed agriculture
Lost tribal organizations but established regional kingdoms
Origins of the caste system
Caste and varna
The meaning of caste: hereditary, unchangeable social classes
The Sanskrit word varna, "color," refers to social classes
Social distinctions in the late Vedic Age
Four main varnas, recognized after 1000 B.C.E.: brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats), vaishyas (cultivators, artisans, and merchants), shudras (landless peasants and serfs)
Later the category of the untouchables was added
Subcaste, or jati
Represented more elaborate scheme of social classification; developed after the sixth century B.C.E.
Jati, or subcastes, were determined by occupations
Elaborate rules of jati life: eating, communication, behavior
In caste system, social mobility difficult but still possible
Usually a result of group, not individual, effort
Foreign peoples could find a place in society of the castes
Development of patriarchal society
Patriarchal and patrilineal society
The Lawbook of Manu
Prepared by an anonymous sage, first century B.C.E.
Dealt with moral behavior and social relationships
Advised men to treat women with honor and respect
Subjected women to the control and guidance of men
Women's duties: to bear children and maintain the household
Sati, social custom in which widow throws self on funeral pyre
Religion in the Vedic Age
Aryan religion
Aryan gods
War god, Indra
Gods of the sun, the sky, the moon, fire, health, disease
God Varuna: ethical concern, cosmic order
Ritual sacrifices were more important than ethics
Priests were specialists of the ritual sacrifices
Ritual sacrifices for rewards from the divine power
Sacrifices, chants, soma
Spirituality underwent a shift after about 800 B.C.E.
Thoughtful individuals retreated to forests as hermits
Dravidian notions of transmigration and reincarnation were adapted
The blending of Aryan and Dravidian values
The Upanishads, works of religious teachings (800-400 B.C.E.)
The religious forums: dialogues between disciples and sages
Brahman: the universal soul
Highest goal: to escape reincarnation and join with Brahman
Samsara: an individual soul was born many times
Karma: specific incarnations that a soul experienced
Moksha: permanent liberation from physical incarnation
Religion and Vedic society
Samsara and karma reinforced caste and social hierarchy
Upanishads were also spiritual and intellectual contemplations
Taught to observe high ethical standards: discourage greed, envy, vice
Respect for all living things, a vegetarian diet | | 1 |
| 7625639365 | Chapter 5: Early Societies in Mainland east Asia | Political organization in early China
Early agricultural society and the Xia dynasty
The Yellow River
Water source at high plateau of Tibet
Loess soil carried by the river's water, hence "yellow"
"China's Sorrow"--extensive flooding
Loess provided rich soil, soft and easy to work
Neolithic societies after 5000 B.C.E.
Yangshao society, 5000-3000 B.C.E.
Excavations at Banpo village: fine pottery, bone tools
The Xia dynasty
Archeological discovery of the Xia is still in its early stages
Established about 2200 B.C.E.
Legendary King Yu, the dynasty founder, a hero of flood control
Erlitou: possibly the capital city of the Xia
The Shang dynasty: 1766-1122 B.C.E.
Arose in the southern and eastern areas of the Xia realm
Many written records and material remains discovered
Bronze metallurgy, monopolized by ruling elite
Horses and chariots traveled with Indo-European migrants to China
Agricultural surpluses supported large troops
A vast network of walled towns
The Shang capital moved six times
Lavish tombs of Shang kings with thousands of objects
Other states besides Shang, for example, Sanxingdui
The Zhou dynasty: 1122-256 B.C.E.
Zhou gradually eclipsed Shang
Mandate of heaven, the right to rule
The Zhou needed to justify the overthrow
Ruler as "the son of heaven"
Mandate of heaven only given to virtuous rulers
Political organization: decentralized administration
Used princes and relatives to rule regions
Consequence: weak central government and rise of regional powers
Iron metallurgy spread through China in first millennium B.C.E.
The fall of the Zhou
Nomadic invasion sacked Zhou capital in 711 B.C.E.
Territorial princes became more independent
The Warring States (403-221 B.C.E.)
The last king of the Zhou abdicated his position in 256 B.C.E.
Society and family in ancient China
The social order
The ruling elites with their lavish consumption of bronze
Hereditary aristocrats with extensive landholding
Administrative and military offices
Manuals of etiquette
Free artisans and craftsmen mostly worked for elites
Merchants and trade were important
Trade networks linked China with west and south
Oar-propelled boats traded with Korea and offshore islands
Peasants, the majority of population
Landless peasants provided labor
Lived in small subterranean houses
Women's work: wine making, weaving, silkworm raising
Wood, bone, stone tools before iron was spread in the sixth century B.C.E.
Slaves, mostly war prisoners
Family and patriarchy
Early dynasties ruled through family and kinship groups
Veneration of ancestors
Belief in ancestors' presence and their continuing influence
Burial of material goods with the dead
Offering sacrifices at the graves
Family heads presided over rites of honoring ancestors' spirits
Patriarchal society evolved out of matrilineal one
The rise of large states brought focus on men's contribution
After the Shang, females devalued
Early Chinese writing and cultural development
The secular cultural tradition
Absence of organized religion and priestly class
Believed in the impersonal heavenly power--tian
Oracle bones used by fortune-tellers
Inscribed question, subjected to heat, read cracks
Discovery of the "dragon bones" in 1890s
Early Chinese writing, from pictograph to ideograph
More than two thousand characters identified on oracle bones
Modern Chinese writing is direct descendant of Shang writing
Thought and literature
Zhou literature--many kinds of books
The Book of Change, a manual of diviners
The Book of History, the history of the Zhou
The Book of Rites, the rules of etiquette and rituals for aristocrats
The Book of Songs, a collection of verses--most notable work
Most Zhou writings have perished
Ancient China and the larger world
Chinese cultivators and nomadic peoples of central Asia
Nomadic peoples of the steppe lands--herders
Exchange of products between nomads and Chinese farmers
Nomads frequently invaded rich agricultural society
Nomads did not imitate Chinese ways
Nomads relied on grains and manufactured goods of the Chinese
The southern expansion of Chinese society
The Yangzi valley; dependable river; two crops of rice per year
The indigenous peoples of southern China
Many were assimilated into Chinese agricultural society
Some were pushed to hills and mountains
Some migrated to Taiwan, Vietnam, Thailand
The state of Chu in the central region of Yanzi
Challenged the Zhou for supremacy
Adopted Chinese political and social traditions and writing | | 2 |
| 7625639366 | Chapter 8: The unification of China | In search of political and social order
Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) and his school
Confucius
Educator and political advisor
Sayings were compiled in the Analects by his disciples
Confucian ideas
Fundamentally moral and ethical in character
Thoroughly practical: how to restore political and social order
Concentrated on formation of junzi--"superior individuals"
Edited and compiled the Zhou classics for his disciples to study
Key Confucian values
Ren--a sense of humanity, kindness, benevolence
Li--a sense of propriety, courtesy, respect, deference to elders
Xiao--filial piety, familial obligation
Cultivate personal morality and junzi for bringing order to China
Mencius (372-289 B.C.E.), spokesman for the Confucian school
Believed in the goodness of human nature (ren)
Advocated government by benevolence and humanity
Xunzi (298-238 B.C.E.) had a less positive view of human nature
Believed that humans selfishly pursue own interests
Preferred harsh social discipline to bring order to society
Advocated moral education and good public behavior
Daoism featured prominent critics of Confucian activism
Preferred philosophical reflection and introspection, a life in harmony with nature
Laozi, founder of Daoism, allegedly wrote the Daodejing (Classic of the Way and of Virtue)
Zhuangzi (compendium of Daoist philosophy)
The Dao--the way of nature, the way of the cosmos
Elusive concept: an eternal principle governing all the workings of the world
Dao is passive and yielding, does nothing yet accomplishes everything
Humans should tailor their behavior to the passive and yielding nature of the Dao
Ambition and activism had only brought the world to chaos
Doctrine of wuwei: disengagement from worldly affairs, simple life
Advocated small, self-sufficient communities
Political implications: served as counterbalance to Confucian activism
Legalism
The doctrine of practical and efficient statecraft
No concern with ethics and morality
No concern with the principles governing nature
Shang Yang (ca. 390-338 B.C.E.), chief minister of Qin and Legalist writer
Han Feizi (ca. 280-233 B.C.E.) synthesized Legalist ideas in essays
Legalist doctrine
The state's strength was in agriculture and military force
Discouraged commerce, education, and the arts
Harnessing self-interest of the people for the needs of the state
Called for harsh penalties even for minor infractions
Advocated collective responsibility before the law
Not popular among Chinese, but practical; put end to Period of Warring States
The Unification of China
The Qin dynasty
Qin, Located in west China, adopted Legalist policies
Encouraged agriculture, resulted in strong economy
Organized a powerful army equipped with iron weapons
Conquered other states and unified China in 221 B.C.E.
The first emperor was Qin Shihuangdi (221 B.C.E.)
Established centralized imperial rule
Project of connecting and extending the Great Wall
Buried 460 scholars alive because of their criticism against the Qin
Burned all books except some with utilitarian value
Policies of centralization
Standardization of laws, currencies, weights, measures
Standardization of scripts
Tomb of the First Emperor, who died 210 B.C.E.
Tomb was underground palace with army of life-size terra-cotta figures
Excavation of the tomb since 1974
The collapse of the Qin dynasty
Massive public works generated tremendous ill will among the people
Waves of rebels overwhelmed the Qin court in 207 B.C.E.
Short-lived dynasty, but left deep marks in Chinese history
The early Han dynasty
Liu Bang; persistent and methodical; by 206 B.C.E. restored order
Early Han policies
Sought a middle way between Zhou decentralization and Qin overcentralization
Han Wudi, the Martial Emperor (reigned 141-87 B.C.E.), emphasized centralization and expansion
Han centralization; adopted Legalist policies
Built an enormous bureaucracy to rule the empire
Continued to build roads and canals
Levied taxes on agriculture, trade, and craft industries
Imperial monopolies on production of iron and salt
Established Confucian educational system for training bureaucrats
Han imperial expansion
Invaded and colonized northern Vietnam and Korea
Han organized vast armies to invade Xiongnu territory (nomads from steppes)
Han enjoyed uncontested hegemony in east and central Asia
From economic prosperity to social disorder
Productivity and prosperity during the Former Han
Patriarchal social structure
Women's subordination; Ban Zhao's Admonitions for Women
Children obey and honor parents
Vast majority of population were cultivators
Iron metallurgy: farming tools, utensils, and weapons
Silk textiles; sericulture spread all over China during the Han
Paper production; replaced silk and bamboo as writing material
Population growth: twenty million to sixty million from 220 B.C.E. to 9 C.E.
Economic and social difficulties
Expeditions consumed the empire's surplus
Raised taxes and confiscated land of some wealthy individuals
Taxes and land confiscations discouraged investment in manufacture and trade
Social tensions, caused by stratification between the poor and rich
Problems of land distribution
The reign of Wang Mang (9-23 C.E.)
Land reforms by the "socialist emperor"
Overthrown by revolts, 23 C.E.
The later Han dynasty (25-220 C.E.)
Yellow Turban Uprising: revolt due to problems of land distribution
Collapse of the Han
Factions at court paralyzed the central government
Han empire dissolved; China was divided into regional kingdoms | | 3 |
| 7625639367 | Chapter 9: State, Society, and the quest for salvation in India | The fortunes of empire in classical India
The Mauryan dynasty and the temporary unification of India
Magadha kingdom filled power vacuum left by withdrawal of Alexander of Macedon
Chandragupta Maurya began conquest in 320s B.C.E.
Founded Maurya dynasty stretching from Bactria to Ganges
Kautala's advice manual, Arthashastra, outlined administrative methods
Ashoka Maurya (reigned 268-232 B.C.E.)--peak of empire
Conquered the kingdom of Kalinga, 260 B.C.E.
Ruled through tightly organized bureaucracy
Established capital at Pataliputra
Policies were written on rocks or pillars
Empire declined after his death because of financial problems
The revival of empire under the Guptas
Greek-speaking Bactrians ruled in northwest India for two centuries
Kushans (nomads from Central Asia) conquered and ruled, 1-300 C.E.
High point was Emperor Kashika, 78-103 C.E.
Crucial role in Silk Road trading network
The Gupta dynasty, founded by Chandra Gupta (375-415 C.E.)
Smaller and more decentralized than Maurya
Invasion of White Huns weakened the empire
After the fifth century C.E., Gupta dynasty continued in name only
Large regional kingdoms dominated political life in India
Economic development and social distinctions
Towns and trade
Towns dotted the India countryside after 600 B.C.E.
Towns provided manufactured products and luxury goods
Active marketplaces, especially along Ganges
Trade with Persia, China, Indian Ocean basin, Indonesia, southeast Asia, Mediterranean basin
Family life and the caste system
Gender relations: patriarchal families, female subordination, child marriage
Development of caste system
With trade and commerce new social groups of artisans, craftsmen, and merchants appeared
These social groups functioned as sub castes, or jati
Vaishyas and shudras saw unprecedented wealth
Old beliefs and values of early Aryan society became increasingly irrelevant
Religions of salvation in classical India
Jainism and the challenge to the established cultural order
Vardhamana Mahavira (Jina) founded Jain religion in 5th century B.C.E.
Jainist doctrine and ethics
Inspired by the Upanishads: everything in universe has a soul
Striving to purify one's selfish behavior to attain a state of bliss
Principle of ahimsa, nonviolence toward all living things
Too demanding, not a practical alternative to the cult of the brahmans
Appeal of Jainism
Social implication: individual souls equally participated in ultimate reality
Jains did not recognize social hierarchies of caste and jati
Early Buddhism
Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 B.C.E.) became the Buddha
Gave up his comfortable life to search for cause of suffering
Received enlightenment under the bo tree
First sermon about 528 B.C.E. at the Deer Park of Sarnath
Organized followers into a community of monks
Buddhist doctrine: the dharma
The Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path are the way to end suffering
Suffering is caused by desire
Religious goal: personal salvation, or nirvana, a state of perfect spiritual independence
Appeal of Buddhism
Appealed strongly to members of lower castes because it did not recognize social hierarchies of castes and jati
Was less demanding than Jainism, which made it more popular
Used vernacular tongues, not Sanskrit
Holy sites venerated by pilgrims
The monastic organizations--extremely efficient at spreading the Buddhist message and winning converts to the faith
Ashoka converted and became important patron of Buddhism
Mahayana Buddhism
Early Buddhism made heavy demands on individuals
Development of Buddhism between 3rd century B.C.E. and 1st century C.E.
Buddha became a god
The notion of boddhisatva--"an enlightened being"
Monasteries began to accept gifts from wealthy individuals
These changes became known as Mahayana Buddhism
Educational institutions (like Nalanda) promoted new faith
The emergence of popular Hinduism
The epics Mahabharata, a secular poem revised by brahman scholars to honor the god Vishnu, the preserver of the world Ramayana, a secular story of Rama and Sita, was changed into a Hindu story
The Bhagavad Gita
A short poetic work: dialogue between Vishnu and warrior
Illustrated expectations of Hinduism and promise of salvation
Hindu ethics
Achieve salvation through meeting caste responsibilities
Lead honorable lives in the world
Hinduism gradually replaced Buddhism in India | | 4 |
| 7625639368 | Chapter 10: Mediterranean Society: The Greek Phase | Early development of Greek society
Minoan and Mycenaean Societies
Minoan society arose on the island of Crete, late third millennium B.C.E.
Between 2200 and 1450 B.C.E., was the center of Mediterranean commerce
Received early influences from Phoenicia and Egypt
Untranslated form of writing, Linear A, was used
By 1100 B.C.E., Crete fell under foreign domination
Mycenaean society: named after important city, Mycenae
Indo-European immigrants settled in Greece, 2000 B.C.E.
Adapted Minoan Linear A into their script, Linear B
Stone fortresses in the Peloponnesus (southern Greece) protected agricultural settlements
Overpowered Minoan society and expanded to Anatolia, Sicily, and Italy
Chaos in the eastern Mediterranean after Trojan War (1200 B.C.E.)
The world of the polis gradually emerged in Greece
Sparta began to extend control during eighth and seventh centuries B.C.E.
Reduced the neighboring peoples to the status of helots, or semi-free servants
Maintained domination by a powerful military machine
Spartan society
Discouraged social distinction, observed austere lifestyle
Distinction was drawn by prowess, discipline, and military talent
Athens gradually broadened base of political participation
Solon sought to negotiate order by democratic principles
Citizenship was open to free adult males, not to foreigners, slaves, and women
Athenian society
Maritime trade brought about prosperity to Attica, the region of Athens
Aristocratic landowners were primary beneficiaries
Class tension became intensified in the sixth century B.C.E.
Pericles (ca. 443-429 B.C.E.), most popular democratic leader of Athens
Greece and the larger world
Greek colonization
Greeks founded more than four hundred colonies
Facilitated trade among Mediterranean lands and people
Spread of Greek language and cultural traditions
Stimulated development of surrounding areas
Conflict with Persia and its results
The Persian War (500-479 B.C.E.)
Greek cities on Ionian coast revolted against Persia, 500 B.C.E.
Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C.E., is decisive victory for Athens
Xerxes tried again to seize Athens; his navy lost battle of Salamis (480 B.C.E.)
Persian army retreated back to Anatolia (479 B.C.E.)
The Delian League
Military and financial alliance among Greek poleis against Persian threat
When Persian threat subsided, poleis, other than Athens, no longer wanted to make contributions
The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.E.)
Tensions led to two armed camps, under leadership of Athens and Sparta
Unconditional surrender of Athens, 404 B.C.E.
The Macedonians and the coming of empire
The kingdom of Macedon, a frontier state north of peninsular Greece
Philip of Macedon (reigned 359-336 B.C.E.) brought Greece under control
Alexander of Macedon succeeds Philip at age twenty and begins conquests
By 331 B.C.E., controlled Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia
Invaded Persian homeland and burned Persepolis, 331 B.C.E.
Crossed Indus River by 327 B.C.E., army refused to go farther
Died in 323 B.C.E. at age of thirty-three
Hellenistic Empires: Alexander's realm was divided into Antigonid, Ptolemaic, Seleucid
Antigonid empire: Greece and Macedon
Continuous tension between the Antigonid rulers and Greek cities
Economy of Athens and Corinth flourished again through trade
The Ptolemaic empire: Egypt--the wealthiest
The rulers did not interfere in Egyptian society
Alexandria, capital at mouth of the Nile
Cultural center: the famous Alexandria Museum and Alexandria Library
The Seleucid empire: largest, from Bactria to Anatolia
Greek and Macedonian colonists flocked to Greek cities of the former Persia
Colonists created a Mediterranean-style urban society
Bactria withdrew from Seleucids and established independent Greek kingdom
The fruits of trade: Greek economy and society
Trade and the integration of the Mediterranean Basin
Trade and commerce flourished resulting in population growth and more colonies
Production of olive oil and wine, in exchange for grain and other items
Led to broader sense of Greek community
Panhellenic festivals (like Olympic Games) became popular
Family and society
Greek society in Homer's works
Heroic warriors and outspoken wives in Homer's world
Strong-willed human beings clashed constantly
Patriarchal society was the norm
Women could not own landed property but could operate small businesses
Priestess was the only public position for women
Spartan women enjoyed higher status than women of other poleis
Sappho: Talented female poet wrote poems of attraction to women
Instructed young women in music and literature at home
Critics charged her with homosexual activity (not acceptable for women)
Slavery: private chattel, property of their owners
Worked as cultivators, domestic servants
Educated or skilled slaves worked as craftsmen and business managers
The cultural life of classical Greece
Rational thought and philosophy
The formation of Greek cultural traditions: philosophy based on human reason
Socrates (470-399 B.C.E.): "An unexamined life is not worth living"
Encouraged reflection on questions of ethics and morality
Was condemned to death on charge of corrupting Athenian youths
Plato (430-347 B.C.E.): A zealous disciple of Socrates
The theory of Forms or Ideas--world of ideal qualities
This world is imperfect reflection of world of Forms
His Republic expressed the ideal of philosophical kings
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.): Plato's student, but distrusted theory of Forms
Devised rules of logic to construct powerful arguments
Philosophers should rely on senses to provide accurate information
Legacy of Greek philosophy
Intellectual authorities for European philosophers until seventeenth century
Intellectual inspiration for Christian and Islamic theologians
Popular religion and Greek drama
Greek deities: Zeus and scores of subordinate deities
Various types of religious cults; Cult of Dionysus most popular
Drama was performed at annual theatrical festivals
Great tragedians explored the possibilities and limitations of human action
Comic drama took delight in lampooning the public figures
Hellenistic philosophy and religion
The Hellenistic philosophers: search for personal tranquility
Epicureans: identified pleasure as the greatest good
Skeptics: doubted certainty of knowledge, sought equanimity
Stoics: taught individuals duty to aid others and lead virtuous lives
Religions of salvation spread through trade routes
Mystery religions promised eternal bliss for believers; like Cult of Osiris
Speculation about a single, universal god emerged | | 5 |
| 7625639369 | Chapter 11: Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase | The Etruscans and Rome
Romulus and Remus: legendary twins rescued by a she-wolf; founded Rome in 753 B.C.E.
The Etruscans dominated Italy eighth to fifth centuries B.C.E.
The kingdom of Rome was on the Tiber River
The Roman republic and its constitution
Establishment of the republic
Rome nobility deposed the last Etruscan king in 509 B.C.E.
Republican constitution included two consuls: civil and military
Consuls were elected by an assembly dominated by the patricians
Senate advised the consuls and ratified major decisions
Both Senate and consuls represented the interests of the patricians
Conflicts between patricians and plebeians
Patricians granted plebeians the tribunes
Tribunes' power to intervene and veto decisions
Plebeians' tribunes dominated Roman politics, early third century B.C.E.
The expansion of the republic
Rome consolidated its position in Italy, fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E.
Conflict with Carthage (Punic Wars) and Hellenistic realms
Rome became preeminent power in eastern and western Mediterranean
From republic to empire
Imperial expansion and domestic problems
The Gracchi brothers supported land redistribution; both were assassinated
Military commanders recruited rural and urban poor--intensely loyal armies
Gaius Marius: general who advocated land redistribution
Conservative aristocratic class supported general Lucius Cornelius Sulla
Civil war
The foundation of empire
Julius Caesar: very popular social reformer and conqueror (Gaul)
Seized Rome in 49 B.C.E.
Claimed the title "dictator for life," 46 B.C.E.
Social reforms and centralized control
Assassinated in 44 B.C.E.
Octavion brought civil conflict to an end
Senate bestowed title "Augustus", 27 B.C.E.
Monarchy disguised as a republic
Created a new standing army under his control
The imperial institutions began to take root
Continuing expansion and integration of the empire
Roman expansion into Mediterranean basin, western Europe, down Nile to Kush
Pax romana, Roman Peace, for two and a half centuries
Well-engineered Roman roads; postal system
Roman law--tradition: twelve tables (450 B.C.E.)
Economy and society in the Roman Mediterranean
Trade and urbanization
Owners of latifundia focused on specialized production for export
Mediterranean trade
Sea lanes linked ports of the Mediterranean
Roman navy kept the seas largely free of pirates
The Mediterranean became a Roman lake
The city of Rome
Wealth of the city fueled its urban development
Statues, pools, fountains, arches, temples, stadiums
First use of concrete as construction material
Rome attracted numerous immigrants
Attractions: baths, pools, gymnasia, circuses, stadiums, amphitheaters
Family and society in Roman times
The pater familias--eldest male of the family ruled
Women wielded considerable influence within their families
Many women supervised family business and wealthy estates
Wealth and social change
Newly rich classes built palatial houses and threw lavish banquets
Cultivators and urban masses lived at subsistence level
Poor classes became a serious problem in Rome and other cities
No urban policy developed, only "bread and circuses"
Slavery--one-third of the population
Spartacus's uprising in 73 B.C.E.
Urban slaves saw better conditions and possibility of manumission
The cosmopolitan Mediterranean
Greek philosophy and religions of salvation
Roman deities: gods, goddesses, and household gods
Greek influence--Stoicism
Appealed to Roman intellectuals
Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.) persuasive orator and writer on Stoicism
Religions of salvation gave sense of purpose and promised afterlife
Roman roads served as highways for religious spread
Mithraism was popular with Roman soldiers--men only
Cult of Isis very popular
Judaism and early Christianity
Monotheistic Jews considered state cults to be blasphemy
The Essenes, sect of Judaism; Dead Sea Scrolls
Jesus of Nazareth
Charismatic Jewish teacher, taught devotion to God and love for human beings
Attracted large crowds through his wisdom and miraculous powers
The teaching "the kingdom of God is at hand" alarmed the Romans
Crucifixion in early 30s C.E.
Became "Christ," or "the anointed one"
The New Testament and the Old Testament became the holy book of Christianity
Paul of Tarsus was principle figure in spread of Christianity
Rapid growth of early Christianity
Strong appeal to lower classes, urban population, and women
Became the most influential faith in the Mediterranean by the third century C.E. | | 6 |
| 7625639370 | Chapter 12: Cross-cultural Exchange on the silk Roads: During the late Classical era | Long-distance trade and the silk roads network
Zhang Qian's mission to the west
Held by Xiongnu for years
Told Han Wudi of possibility of establishing trade relations to Bactria
Han Wudi subdued Xiongnu, opening up region to safe trade routes
Trade networks of the Hellenistic era
Important developments of the classical era that reduced risks
Rulers invested in constructing roads and bridges
Large empires expanded until borders were closer
Trade networks of the Hellenistic world
Exchanges between India/Bactria in east and Mediterranean basin in west
Ptolemies learned about the monsoon system in Indian Ocean
Maritime trade included East Africa--Rhapta
The silk roads
Trade routes
Overland trade routes linked China to Roman empire
Sea lanes joined Asia, Africa, and Mediterranean basin into one network
Trade goods
Silk and spices traveled west
Central Asia produced large horses and jade, sold in China
Roman empire provided glassware, jewelry, artworks, perfumes, textiles
The organization of long-distance trade
Merchants of different regions handled long-distance trade in stages
On the seas, long-distance trade was dominated by different empires
Cultural and biological exchanges along the silk roads
The spread of Buddhism and Hinduism
Buddhism in central Asia and China
First present in oasis towns of central Asia along silk roads
Further spread to steppe lands
Foreign merchants as Buddhists in China, first century B.C.E.
Popularity of monasteries and missionaries, fifth century C.E.
Buddhism and Hinduism in Southeast Asia
The spread of Christianity
Christianity in the Mediterranean basin
Missionaries, like Gregory the Wonderworker, attracted converts
Christian communities flourished in Mediterranean basin by late third century C.E.
Christianity in Southwest Asia follows the trade routes
Sizable communities in Mesopotamia and Iran, second century C.E.
Sizable number of converts in southwest Asia until the seventh century C.E.
Their ascetic practices influenced Christian practices in the Roman empire
Nestorians emphasized human nature of Jesus, fifth century C.E.
Nestorian communities in central Asia, India, and China by seventh century C.E.
The spread of Manichaeism; best example of religion spread on silk roads
Mani and Manichaeism
Prophet Mani, a Zoroastrian, drew influence from Christianity and Buddhism
Dualism: perceived a cosmic struggle between light and darkness, good and evil
Offered means to achieve personal salvation
Ascetic lifestyle and high ethical standards
Differentiation between the "elect" and the "hearers"
Spread of Manichaeism; appealed to merchants
Attracted converts first in Mesopotamia and east Mediterranean region
Appeared in all large cities of Roman empire, third century C.E.
Persecuted by Sasanids and Romans but survived in central Asia
The spread of epidemic disease
Epidemic diseases
Common epidemics in Rome and China: smallpox, measles, bubonic plague
Roman Empire: population dropped by a quarter from the first to tenth century C.E.
China: population dropped by a quarter from the first to seventh century C.E.
Effects of epidemic diseases
Both Chinese and Roman economies contracted
Small regional economies emerged
Epidemics weakened Han and Roman empires
China after the Han dynasty
Internal decay of the Han state
Problems of factions and land distribution led to rebellions
Generals usurped political authority; the emperor became a puppet
By 220 C.E., generals abolished the Han and divided the empire into three kingdoms
Nomadic peoples came in; China became even more divided for 350 years
Cultural change in post-Han China
Gradual sinicization of nomadic peoples
Withering of Confucianism in light of political instability
Popularity of Buddhism; nomadic rulers embraced it
The fall of the Roman empire
Internal decay in the Roman empire
The barracks emperors: series of generals seizing throne (235-284 C.E.
The emperor Diocletian (284-305 C.E.)
Divided the empire into two administrative districts
A co-emperor ruled each district with the aid of a powerful lieutenant
The emperor Constantine and new capital Constantinople
Germanic invasions and the fall of the western Roman empire
Germanic migrations from northern Europe to eastern and northern part of Roman empire
Visigoths--settled agriculturalists; adopted Roman law and Christianity
Roman authorities kept Germanic peoples on the borders as a buffer
The Huns under Attila attacked Europe mid-fifth century C.E.
The collapse of the western Roman empire
Under the Huns' pressure, Germanic peoples streamed into the Roman empire
Established settlements in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and north Africa
Germanic general Odovacer deposed the Roman emperor, 476 C.E.
Imperial authority survived in the eastern half of the empire
Cultural change in the late Roman empire
Christianity most prominent survivor of the collapse of the empire
With Constantine's Edict of Milan, Christianity became a legitimate religion, 313 C.E.
Emperor Theodosius proclaimed Christianity the official religion, 380 C.E.
St. Augustine harmonized Christianity with Platonic thought
The Church became increasingly institutionalized
Conflicting doctrines and practices among early Christians
Established standardized hierarchy of church officials
The bishop of Rome, known as the pope, became spiritual leader
As Roman empire collapsed, Christianity served as a cultural foundation | | 7 |
