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Unit 1 AP Government Flashcards

AP government unit 1 constitutional underpinnings. Has terms and constitutional clauses

520039561	Bicameral legislature	two-house legislature.
520039562	Block grant	: money granted by the federal government to the states for a broad purpose ( e.g., transportation) rather than for a narrow purpose (e.g., school lunch program).
520039563	Categorical grant	money granted by the federal government to the states for a narrow purpose ( e.g., school lunch program) rather than for a broad purpose (e.g., transportation).
520039564	Centralists	who favor greater national authority rather than state authority.
520039565	Commerce clause	gives Congress the power to regulate commerce among the states, with foreign nations, and among Indian tribes. Granted through Article 1, section 8 of the Constitution.
520039566	Concurrent powers	those held by both Congress and the states, e.g., establishing law enforcement agencies.
520039567	Confederation	: system in which sovereign states are only loosely tied to a central government, e.g., the US under the Articles of Confederation.
520039568	Decentralists	who favor greater state authority rather than national authority.
520039569	Direct democracy	system in which the people rule themselves.
520039570	Elastic clause	states that Congress can exercise those powers that are "necessary and proper" for carrying out the enumerated powers, e.g., establishment of the first Bank of the United States.
520039571	Enumerated powers	those that are specifically granted to Congress in Article 1, section 8 of the Constitution, e.g., the power to tax. Also known as expressed powers.
520039572	Federalism	constitutional sharing of power between a central government and state governments.
520039573	Dual federalism	system in which the national government and state governments are coequal, with each being dominant within its respective sphere.
520039574	Cooperative federalism	system in which both federal government and state governments cooperate in solving problems
520039575	New Federalism	system in which the national government restores greater authority back to the states.
520039576	Federalist Papers	group of 85 essays written by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay for the purpose of persuading the people of New York to adopt the Constitution.
520039577	Formal amendment	a change in the actual wording of the Constitution. Proposed by Congress or national convention, and ratified by the states.
520039578	Implied powers	those that are "necessary and proper" to carry out Congress' enumerated powers, and are granted to Congress through the elastic clause.
520039579	Indirect democracy	system in which the people are rule by their representatives. Also known as representative democracy, or republic.
520039580	Inherent powers	foreign policy powers (e.g., acquiring territory) held by the national government by virtue of its being a national government.
520039581	Informal amendment	a change in the meaning, but not the wording, of the Constitution, e.g., through a court decisions such as Brown v. Board.
520039582	Judicial review	power of the courts to rule on the constitutionality of laws and government actions. Established by Marbury v. Madison, 1803.
520039583	Mandates	requirements imposed by the national government upon the states. Some are unfunded mandates, i.e., they are imposed by the national government, but lack funding.
520039584	Marbury v. Madison	1803: established the power of judicial review
520039585	McCulloch v. Maryland	1819: established principle of national supremacy and validity of implied powers.
520039586	Police powers	powers of the states to protect the public health, safety, morals, and welfare of the public.
520039587	Popular sovereignty	principle in which ultimate political authority rests with the people.
520039588	Reserved powers	powers held by the states through the 10th Amendment. Any power not granted to the US government is "reserved" for the states.
520039589	Separation of powers	principle in which the powers of government are separated among three branches: legislative, executive, judicial
520039590	Shays' Rebellion	1786 revolt by Massachusetts farmers seeking relief from debt and foreclosure that was a factor in the calling of the Constitutional Convention.
520039591	Supermajority	a majority greater than a simple majority of one over half, e.g., 3/5, 2/3.
520039592	Unicameral legislature	one-house legislature
520039593	Bill of Attainder Clause	Congress cannot pass a law that singles out a person for punishment without trial
520039594	Commerce Clause	Congress can regulate trade between nations, states, and among Indian tribes
520039595	Contracts Clause	No state can interfere with the execution of contracts. For example a state could not pass a law that declares all debts to be null and void
520039596	Due Process Clause 5th	The national government must observe fair procedures when it denies a person life liberty or property
520039597	Due Process Clause 14th	State governments must observe fair procedures when they deny a person of life liberty or property
520039598	Elastic Clause	Congress can exercise powers not specifically stated in the Constitution if those powers are "necessary and proper" for carrying out its expressed powers that are specifically stated.
520039599	Equal Protection Clause	States cannot unresonably discriminate against individuals. They must treat people equally
520039600	Establishment Clause	Congress cannot establish an official religion
520039601	Ex Post Facto Clause	Congress cannot pass a law that punishes a person after the fact.
520039602	Extradition Clause	An accused perdon who flees to another state must be returned to the state in which he or she allegedly committed the crime
520039603	Free Exercise Clause	Congress cannot pass laws that ban freedom of worship
520039604	Full Faith and Credit Clause	A state must recognize the validity of the public acts, records, and court decisions of other states. For example a state must recongnize as valid birth certificated issued by antother state
520039605	Preamble	Into to the Constitution
520039606	Privileges and Immunities Clause	A state cannot unreasonably discriminate against citizens of other states
520039607	Reserved Powers Clause	Any power that is not granted to the national government or denied to the statesautomatically reverts to the states
520039608	Searh and Seizure Clause	This is a protection against unreasonable search and seizure. The authorites dont have a general power to searchand arrest individuals at any time at any place and in any manner
520039609	Supremacy Clause	Federal law is supreme over state law
520039610	Eminent Domain	Government can take private property for a public purpose but it must provide fair compensation to the owners of that property

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American Pageant Chapter 8 Flashcards

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505888463	Second Continental Congress	Met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775. Represented all 13 colonies. No well-defined sentiment for independence (just a desire to fight in the hope that the king and Parliament would consent to a redress of grievances). They also adopted measures to raise money and create an army and a navy.
505888464	Single most important action of Second Continental Congress	Electing George Washington to head improvised army besieging Boston. This choice was suggested because he was from Virginia and all the colonies were beginning to distrust the New England army around Boston. He also was a man of wealth and clearly not a fortune seeker.
505888465	war of inconsistency	Americans were affirming loyalty to the King while raising army's and shooting British soldiers
505888466	Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold	Captured Fort Ticonderoga and Crown Point, securing a store of gunpowder and artillery for the siege of Boston
505888467	Bunker Hill	June 1775 the colonists seized a hill. The British blundered and instead of cutting them off, launched a frontal attack. When the colonists supply of gunpowder gave out, they had to abandon the hill.
505888468	Olive Branch Petition	Professing American loyalty to the crown and begging the king to prevent further hostilities. After Bunker Hill, King George III closed off all hope of reconciliation and proclaimed the colonies in rebellion
505888469	Hessians	German mercenaries who helped out British war effort. Many ended up staying in America after being tempted by promises of land
505888470	Portland, Maine	British burned this city - October, 1775
505888471	Invasion of Canada	American rebel leaders believed that the French were restive under the British yoke: tried to invade this place and therefore contradicted the claim that American colonists were just fighting defensively
505888472	General Richard Montgomery	Captured Montreal, and joined at Quebec by Benedict Arnold. This former British army general was killed, Arnold wounded. French-Canadian leaders who had been generously treated by the British in the Quebec Act of 1774 showed no real desire to welcome the plundering anti-Catholic invaders.
505888473	Norfolk, VA	British set fire to this town in January 1776
505888474	Evacuation of Boston	British forced to leave Boston in March 1776
505888475	Moore's Creek Bridge, NC, and Charleston Harbor	Rebellious colonists won two victories in 1776 in these places
505888476	Loyalty to the empire deeply ingrained; Americans considered themselves part of transatlantic community that British was a big leader of; colonial unity was poor; open rebellion was dangerous	Americans continue to deny any intention of independence
505888477	Common Sense	Thomas Paine called for independence and creation of a republic, and believed all government officials should derive their authority from popular consent.
505888478	Republican form of government	Many colonists had been practicing this form of government already in town meetings and annual elections, and committees of correspondence had demonstrated feasibility of a republic. Some Patriots didn't like it, and wanted an end to hereditary aristocracy but not to social hierarchy.
505888479	Richard Henry Lee	He motioned that Colonies should be free, and after considerable debate, the motion was adopted on July 2, 1776. Passing of his resolution was the formal "declaration" of independence
505888480	Thomas Jefferson	Drafted Declaration of Independence, where
505888481	Declaration of Independence	Declaration including natural rights and all the Kings grievances (imposing taxes without consent, dispensing with trial by jury, establishing military dictatorship, etc.); "should heard round the world" has been a source of inspiration to countless revolutionary movements since
505888482	Loyalists/Tories fought the Patriots; Rebels fought Redcoats	War within a war
505888483	The American Revolution	A minority movement. Many colonists were apathetic or neutral (Byrds of Virginia).
505888484	militia units	Served as remarkably effective agents of Revolutionary ideas. Once the Redcoats left, they would take up the task of "political education"
505888485	Loyalists	People of education and wealth. Believed any violent change would be for the worse. More numerous around older generations, and support also came from the Anglican Church and the king's officers. Served as spies, incited the Indians, and kept Patriot soldiers at home to protect their families
505888486	New England	self-government was especially strong and mercantilism was especially weak here; Rebels were the most numerous here
505888487	Before/After the Declaration	Before, persecution of Loyalists was mild. After, Loyalists were imprisoned, and some hanged. The estates of those driven away were sold to finance the war
505888488	New York	After Boston was evacuated in March 1776, the British wanted to make this city the base of operation
505888489	Battle of Long Island	Americans were outgeneraled and outmaneuvered, but luckily, Washington was able to escape to Manhattan Island, where he retreated north to the Hudson and eventually the Delaware River.
505888490	General William Howe	Commanded Bunker Hill, and also contributed to Burgoyne's Blunder: at a time when it seemed that he should be starting up the Hudson to NY, he went to Philadelphia to force a engagement with Washington's army, thinking he would have ample time to help Burgoyne should he be needed. He defeated Washington at Brandywine Creek and Germantown, and then decided to rest and left Burgoyne to flounder through upper New York.
505888491	Trenton, December 26th, 1776	Washington surprised and captured 1000 Hessians
505888492	General Burgoyne	Tried to capture the Hudson River valley via Lake Champlain route (helped by General Howe and Colonel Barry St. Leger's force)
505888493	Benedict Arnold	During Burgoyne's attempt at the Hudson River valley, he bought time for America, forcing the British back to Canada due to the oncoming Winter. If he had not contributed his daring skill, the British invaders would have recaptured Fort Ticonderoga
505888494	Saratoga	North of Albany, Burgoyne was swarmed by American militiamen. The British army was trapped. Burgone was forced to surrender his entire command at this battle on October 17, 1777. This battle ranks high among the decisive battles of both American and world history. The victory revived the colonial cause and made possible French foreign aid which helped to ensure American independence.
505888495	France	Thirsting for revenge against Britain. Intrigued by American liberty and wanted Britain to lose being a front-rank power (which would come at the loss of their most valuable overseas possession). After shooting at Lexington, they secretly provided Americans with firearms and gunpowder (90% of gunpowder used in the first 2 1/2 years came from this country)
505888496	After Saratoga	British parliament passed a measure that offered the Americans home rule within the empire (everything but independence)
505888497	Louis XVI	France's king who was reluctant to intervene; saw the grave dangers in aiding the Americans openly and incurring war with Britain. Decided to fight while they had an American ally rather than watch Britain regain colonies who then might try to seize French West Indies
505888498	France offered Americans treaty of alliance, including everything Britain offered PLUS independence	First entangling military alliance in the experience of the Republic and one that later caused prolonged trouble
505888499	Spain and Holland	Enter war against Britain in 1779. Along with France and the US, made up Belligerants
505888500	Armed Neutrality	Organized by Catherine the Great of Russia, involving Russia, Denmark-Norway, Sweden, Holy Roman Empire, Prussia, Portugal, and Two Sicilies (those who had suffered from Britain's dominance over the seas and now began demanding more respect). Passive hostility toward Britain. The war was now being fought in Europe, North America, South America, the Caribbean, and Asia
505888501	The Americans did not achieve independence...	...UNTIL the conflict erupted into a multipower world war that was too big for Britain to handle
505888502	France's entrance into the conflict	Forced British to change their basic strategy in America. In a position to jeopardize Britain's blockade and lines of supply, the British evacuated Philadelphia and concentrated their strength in NYC
505888503	Monmouth, New Jersey	June 1778 - Washington attacked redcoats. British escaped to New York, GW stayed around the NY area hemming in the British
505888504	Comte de Rochambeau	Commanded a powerful French army to Newport, Rhode Island. Americans were somewhat suspicious of their new French allies (bloodshed had already occurred). No real military advantage came immediately from this French reinforcement, although preparations were made for a Franco-American attack on New York
505888505	Plotted with the British to sell out the key stronghold of West Point, which commanded the Hudson River. The plot was detected and he fled back to the British	Benedict Arnold turned traitor
505888506	Georgia was overrun in 1778-79; Charleston, SC, fell in 1780 -- this surrender involved the capture of men adn cannon: was a heavier loss to Americans than that of Burgoyne to the British	British tried to roll up the colonies in the South, where Loyalists were numerous
505888507	General Nathanael Greene	Quaker-reared tactician in the Carolina campaign of 1781 distinguished himself by his strategy of delay: kept retreating then standing against his foe, General Charles Cornwallis, and finally succeeded in clearing most of GA and SC of British troops. "The Fighting Quaker"
505888508	Two nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, Oneidas and the Tuscaroras	Indians siding with America
505888509	Senecas, Mohawks, Cayugas, and Onondagas	Indians siding with British
505888510	Mohawk chief Joseph Brant	Convert to Anglicanism who believed that a victorious Britain would restrain American expansion to the West
505888511	Treaty of Fort Stanwix	First treaty between the US and an Indian nation. Under its terms the Indians ceded most of their land Pro-British Iroquois were forced to sign it in 1784
505888512	"The Bloody Year"	1777 on the frontier - pro-American and pro-British Indians
505888513	George Rogers Clark	British were vulnerable in Illinois country, holding only a few posts captured from the French. This man conceived the idea of seizing the forts by surprise. He floated down the Ohio River in 1778 and captured many forts. Many admirers say his success forced the British to cede the region north of the Ohio River to the US at the peace table in Paris
505888514	John Paul Jones	Most famous navy officer
505888515	Navy	Chief contribution was in destroying British merchant shipping and thus carrying the war into the waters around the British isles
505888516	Privateers	privately owned armed ships specifically authorized by Congress to prey on enemy shipping Diverted manpower from the main war effort and involved Americans (Benedict Arnold) in speculation Brought in urgently-needed gold, harassing the enemy, and uplifting morale by being victorious when victories were few Brougt up insurance rates, and British shippers and manufacturers brought increasing pressure on Parliament to end the war on honorable terms
505888517	General Cornwallis	After operations in VA, he had fallen back to Chesapeake Bay at Yorktown to await seaborne supplies and reinforcements. Assuming Britain would continue to control the sea, however these weeks were one of the briedf pweiods when British naval superiority slipped away. French Admiral de Grasse advised Americans to join them in an assault on Cornwallis at Yorktown. Completely corner, Cornwallis surrendered his entire force
505888518	Admiral de Grasse	Helped corner Cornwallis at Yorktown
505888519	Peace at Paris	Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay negotiated for peace in this city. Each had explicit instructions from Congress to make no separate peace and to consult with their French allies at all stages.
505888520	John Jay	Knowing France's game of trying to keep a weak America that is easy to control, he secretly made separate overtures to London, contrary to instructions from Congress. British speedily came to terms with America, preliminary treaty signed in 1782, final peace in 1783
505888521	Treaty of Paris 1783	British formally recognized the independence of the United States; granted generous boundaries Americans had to agree that Loyalists could not be further persecuted, and Congress was to recommend that confiscated Loyalist property was to be restored. They agreed to put no lawful obstacles in the way of overdue debts to British creditors (Loyalists and debts not carried out in manner that London wanted)

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American Pageant Ch 7 Review Flashcards

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440045779	Navigation Laws	The set of Parliamentary laws, first passed in 1650, that restricted colonial trade and directed it to benefit Britain.
440045780	enumerated goods	The term for products, such as tobacco, that could be shipped only to England and not to foreign markets.
440045781	admiralty courts	Hated British courts in which juries were not allowed and defendants were assumed guilty until proven innocent.
440045782	virtual representation	British governmental theory that Parliament spoke for all British subjects, including Americans, even if they did not vote for its members.
440045783	nonimportation agreement	The effective form of organized colonial resistance against the Stamp Act , which made homespun clothing fashionable.
440045784	Tea	The product taxed under the Townshed Acts that generated the greatest colonial resistance.
440045785	Committees of Correspondence	Underground networks of communication and propaganda, established by Samuel Adams, that sustained colonial resistance and were used to spread word of any new English aggression.
440045786	Roman Catholicism	Religion that was granted toleration in the trans-Allegheny West by the Quebec Act, arousing deep colonial hostility.
440045787	Whigs	British poitical party opposed to Lord North's Tories and generally more sympathetic to the colonail cause.
440045788	Hessians	German mercenaries hired by George III to fight the American revolutionaries.
440045789	continentals	Paper currency authorized by Congress to finance the Revolution that depreciated to near worthlessness.
440045790	The Association	Effective organization created by the First Continental Congress to provide a total, unitied boycott of all British goods.
440045791	Minute Men	Rapidly mobilized colonial militiamen whose repusal to desperse sparked the first battle of the Revolution
440045792	Redcoats	Popular term for British regular troops, scorned as "lobster backs" and "bloody backs" by Bostonians and other colonials.
440045793	John Hancock	Wealthy president of the Continental Congress and "King of the Smugglers".
440045794	George Grenville	British minister who raised a storm of protest by passing the Stamp Act.
440045795	Stamp Act	Legislation passed in 1765 but repealed the next year, after colonial resistance made it impossible to enforce.
440045796	Sons and Daughters of Liberty	Male and female organizations made up of a network of lawyers, merchants, tradesmen, and other townspeople organized colonial protests against British regulations.
440045797	"Champagne Charley" Townshend	Minister whose clever attempt to impose import taxes nearly succeeded, but eventually brewed trouble for Britain.
440045798	Cripus Attucks	Alleged leader of radical protesters killed in Boston Massacre.
440045799	George III	Stubborn ruler, lustful for power, who promoted harsh ministers like Lord North.
440045800	Samuel Adams	Zealous defender of the common people's rights and organizer of underground propaganda committees.
440045801	Boston Tea Party	Event organized by disguised "Indians" to sabotage British support of a British East India Company monopoly.
440045802	Intolerable Acts	aka Coercive Acts. Harsh measures of retaliation for a tea party, including the Boston Port Act closing that city's harbor.
440045803	Thomas Hutchinson	British governor of Massachusetts whose stubborn policies helped provoke the Boston Tea Party.
440045804	First Continental Congress	Body led by John Adams that issued a Declaration of Rights and organized The Association to boycott all British goods.
440045805	Marquis de Lafayette	19 yr old major general in the Revolutionary army.
440045806	Baron von Steubon	Organizational genius who turned raw colonial recruits into tough professional soldiers.
440045807	Quartering Act	Legislation that required colonists to feed and shelter British troops.
440045808	Resolution on Reconciliation	This document, proposed by Lord North , promised any colony that would provide for its own government and defense virtual immuntiy from taxation. This plan was rejected by the colonies.
440045809	writs of assistance	A general search warrant used by the British customs officials to hunt for smuggled goods.
440045810	Treaty of Paris	This ended the French and Indian War and gave England all of the French territories in North America.
440045811	Salutary Neglect	This pre-1763 British policy overlooked colonial violations fo Britain's trade laws and allowed the coloies to govern themselves.
440045812	Albany Plan of Union	A proposal that was drafted by Ben Franklin in an attempt to bring the Iroquois into the Seven Years' War and deal with other military affairs. It presented the idea that colonial defense problems should be handled by a royally appointed president-general and a federal council of delegates chosen by the colonies.
440045813	Letter from a Pennsylvania Farmer	written by John Dickinson; protested against the Townshend Acts and questioned the right of Parliament to levy "external" duties to raise revenue in the colonies.
440045814	Sugar Act	1774- First law ever passed for raising tax revenue in the colonies for the crown; increased the duty on foreign sugar imported from West Indies.

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The American Pageant Chapter 7 & 8 Terms Flashcards

Terms that will most likely be on your test.

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472654605	2nd Continental Congress	the body that choose George Washington commander of the Continental Army.
472654606	Canada	the British colony that Americans invaded in hopes of adding it to the rebellious thirteen
472654607	Common Sense	the inflammatory pamphlet that demanded independence and heaped scorn on "the Royal Brute of Great Britian"
472654608	Declaration of Independence	the document that provided a lengthy explanation and justification of Richard Henry Lee's resolution that was passed by Congress on July 2, 1776
472654609	Whigs	the term by which the American Patriots were commonly known, to distinguish them from the American "Tories"
472654610	Loyalists	Another name for the American Tories
472654611	Anglican Church	the church body most closely linked with Tory sentiment, except in Virgina.
472654612	Ohio	The river valley that was the focus of Britian's early military strategy and the scene of Burgoyne's surrender at Saratoga in 1777.
472654613	"Armed Nullity"	term for the alliance of Catherine the Great of Russia and other European powers who did not declare was but assumed a hostile neutrality toward Britian.
472654614	Yorktown	the region that saw some of the Revolution's most bitter fighting, from 1780 to 1782, between American General Greene and British General Cornwallis.
472654615	privateers	"Legalized pirates", more than a thousand strong, who inflicted heavy damage on British shipping.
472654616	Whigs	British political party that replaced Lord North's Tories in 1782 and made a generous treaty with the United States.
472654617	Mississippi River	The western boundary of the United States established in the Treaty of Paris
472654618	Militamen	the irregular American troops who played a crucial role in swaying the netural civilian population toward the Patriot cause
472654619	Holland & the Netherlands	the other European nation besides France and Spain that supported the American Revolution by declaring war on Britian
472654620	Bunker Hill	Military engagment that led King George III offically to declare colonist in revolt
472654621	Hessians	German mercenaries hired by George III to fight the American revoultionaries
472654622	Yorktown	the British defeat that led to the fall of North's governement and the end of the war
472654623	Saratoga	the decisive early battle of the American Revolution that led to the alliance with France
472654624	Stamp Act	Legislation passed in 1765 but repealed the next year, after colonial resistance made it impossible to enforce.
472654625	Boston Tea Party	event organized but disguised "Indians" to sabotage British support of a British East India Company monopoly
472654626	Sons and Daughters of Liberty	male and female organization that enforced the nonimportation agreements, sometimes by coercive means
472654627	Townshend Acts	The series of four acts imposed duties on imports of white lead, paint, glass, paper, and tea and established a board of customs commissioners to enforce collection
472654628	Proclamation of 1763	prohibited settlement by whites on Indian territory.
472654629	Merchantilism	the basic economic and political theory by which seventeenth- and eighteenth- century European powers governed their overseas colonies
472654630	Navigation Laws	the set of Parliamentary laws, first passed in 1650, that restricted colonial trade and directed it to the benefit of Britian
472654631	Enumerated Goods	the term for products, such as tobacco, that could be shipped only to England and not to foreign markets
472654632	Admiralty Courts	Hated British courts in which juries were not allowed an defendants were assumed gulity until proven innocent.
472654633	virtual representation	british governmental theory that Parliament spoke for all British subjects, including Americans, even if they did not vote for its members.
472654634	Nonimportation Agreements	the effective form organized colonial resistance against the Stamp Act, which made homespun clothing fashionable
472654635	Tea	the product taxed under the Townshend Acts that generated the colonial resistance
472654636	Committee of Correspondence	Underground networks of communication and propaganda, established by Samuel Adams, that sustained colonial resistance.
472654637	Catholic	religion that was granted toleration in the trans-Allegheny West by Quebec Act, arousing deep colonial hostility.
472654638	The Association	Effective organization created by First Continental Cognress to provide a total, unified boycott of all British goods.

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Chapter 22 Progressives and Reformers Flashcards

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44265203	partronage	practice of giving jobs to loyal supporters.
44265204	civil service	all federal jobs except elected positions and the armed forces
44265205	Gilded Age	period of time between 1870s and 1890s where reform was focused on political corruption.
44265206	James Garfield	became president in 1881 and believed jobs should be given based on merit rather than as a political reward.
44265207	Chester Arthur	was Garfield's Vice President and became President upon his death. Worked to reform the spoils system.
44265208	Grover Cleveland	President that signed the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887.
44265209	Interstate Commerce Act	law forbade practices such as pools and rebates. It also set up the Interstate Commerce Commission to oversee the railroads.
44265210	Benjamin Harrison	became President in 1888 and signed the Sherman Antitrust Act.
44265211	Sherman Antitrust Act	act prohibited trusts or other businesses from limiting competition.
44265212	muckraker	journalist who exposed corruption and other problems of the late 1800s and early 1900s.
44265213	public interest	the good of the people
44265214	primary	election in which voters choose their party's candidate for the general election.
44265215	initiative	process by which voters can put a bill directly before the state legislature by collecting signatures on a petition.
44265216	referendum	process by which people vote directly on a bill.
44265217	recall	process by which voters can remove an elected offical from office.
44265218	graduated income tax	tax on earnings that charges different rates for different income levels.
44265219	William Tweed	during 1860s and 1870s cheated New York out of more than $100 million dollars. His corruptions was exposed by cartoonist Thomas Nast.
44265220	Ida Tarbell	muckraker that targeted the unfair practices of big business. She wrote articles about the Standard Oil Company demanding tighter controls on trusts.
44265221	Upton Sinclair	shocked nation when he published "The Jungle", which revealed gruesome details about the meatpacking industry in Chicago.
44265222	Progressives	reformers who wanted to improve American life in the late 1800s and 1900s
44265223	John Dewey	Progressive educator that wanted schools to promote reform. He encouraged students to think, ask questions, and work together to solve problems.
44265224	Robert La Follette	elected governor in 1900. He introduced a statewide program of progressive reforms called the Wisconsin Idea.
44265225	Wisconsin Idea	one thing this reform program did was lower railroad rates.
44265226	Sixteenth Amendment	this act gave Congress the power to impose an income tax.
44265227	trustbuster	person who wanted to end all trusts.
44265228	conservation	protection of natural resources.
44265229	national park	natural or historic area set aside and run by the federal government for people to visit.
44265230	Theodore Roosevelt	worked to break up trusts, conserve resources, and protect consumers.
44265231	Square Deal	Theodore Roosevelt's promise that all groups should have an equal opportunity to succeed.
44265232	Pure Food and Drug Act	passed in 1906, this act required ingredients to be listed on food and drug packages.
44265233	William Howard Taft	was popular until he passed a bill that raised most tarriffs. Broke up more trusts that T. Roosevelt, supported the graduated income tax, approved new safety regulations for mines, and signed laws for 8 hour work day for gov't employees.
44265234	Bull Moose Party	Roosevel and supporters were known as...
44265235	Woodrow Wilson	took office in 1913. Introduced his New Freedom program.
44265236	New Freedom	program introduced by Wilson which focused on breaking up trusts and lowering tariffs to create more competition from imports.
44265237	Federal Reserve Act	passed in 1913 by Congress to regulate banking.
44265238	Federal Trade Commission	created in 1914, it had the power to investigate companies and order them to stop using business practices that destroyed all competitors.
44265239	suffragist	person who campaigned for women's right to vote.
44265240	temperance movement	campaign against the sale of drinking of alcohol.
44265241	Carrie Chapman Catt	was a school principal, reporter, and later the head of the National American Woman Suffrage Association. Created a detailed plan for fighting the war for suffrage.
44265242	Alice Paul	spoke to President Wilson regarding creating a constitutional amendment for women.
44265243	Nineteenth Amendment	guaranteed women the right to vote.
44265244	Florence Kelley	investigated conditions in sweatshops. Later became the first chief factory inspector for the state of Illinois.
44265245	Frances Willard	1874 became the leader of the Christian Temperance Union (WCTU).
44265246	Carry Nation	swinging a hatchet, she stormed saloons smashing beer kegs and liquor bottles. Radical crusader.
44265247	Eighteeth Amendment	1917 law made it illegal to sell alcoholic drinks anywhere in the united states.
44265248	barrio	neighborhood of Spanish speaking people
44265249	mutualista	Mexican American mutual aid group.
44265250	Ida B. Wells	African American journalist. Her newspaper "Free Speech" published shocking statistics about lynching.
44265251	Booker T. Washington	stressed living in harmony with whites and to work patiently and move upward slowly. Promoted learning trades.
44265252	W. E. B. Du Bois	disagreed with the theory that blacks could live in harmony with whites. Urged blacks to actively fight discrimination.
44265253	NAACP	association that worked to gain equal rights for African Americans.
44265254	George Washington Carver	discovered hundreds of new uses for peanuts. Wrote about crop rotation.
44265255	Society of American Indians	group of artists, writers, ministers, lawyers, and doctors that worked for social justice and tried to educate others about their way of life.
44265256	Gentlemen's Agreement	Agreement with Japan made in 1907 that curbed the number of workers coming to the United States.
44265257	Elkins Act	outlawed rebates.
44265258	Meat Inspection Act	passed in 1906 forced packers to open their doors to more inspectors.
44297703	Thomas Nast	famouse cartoonist that exposed corruptions.
44297704	Pendleton Act	created a Civil Service Commission to conduct exams for federal jobs.
45635656	urbanization	the growth of cities.
45635657	tenement	apartment with little sanitation or safety.
45635658	slum	a poor, overcrowded neighborhood.
45635659	social gospel	movement aimed at improving the lives of the poor.
45635660	Jane Addams	social reformer who founded Hull House in Chicago.
45635661	Hull House	settlement house that offered services to Chicago's poor.
45635662	political machine	organization that influences enough votes to control a local government.
45635663	Tammany Hall	famous New York City political machine.

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American Pageant Chapter 6 Flashcards

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479859317	Coureus des bois	French-Canadian fur trappers, "runners of the woods"
479859318	Edict of Nantes	Issued in 1598 by the crown of France, it granted limited religious freedom to the French Protestants, and stopped religious wars between the Protestants and the Catholics.
479859319	Quebec	Established by France in 1608 (Catholic) with large help of Samuel de Champlain, "Father of New France"
479859320	Tried to convert Indians to Christianity and to save them from the fur trappers	French Catholic Missionaries, notably the Jesuits
479859321	Antoine Cadillac	Founded Detroit in 1701 to thwart English settlers from pushing into the Ohio Valley
479859322	Robert de La Salle	Explored the Mississippi and Gulf basin, naming it Louisiana after King Louis XIV.
479859323	The French planted several fortified posts in Mississippi and Louisiana to...	block the Spanish on the Gulf of Mexico
479859324	France's garden empire of North America due to the amount of grain produced here	Illinois
479859325	King William's War (1689-1697) and Queen Anne's War (1702-1713)	Earliest battles among European powers for control of North America. Most battles fought between France, British Colonists, and French ally Spain.
479859326	Peace terms signed at Utrecht	Ended King William's War and Queen Anne's War in 1713. France and Spain were terribly beaten and Britain received Acadia, Newfoundland, and the Hudson Bay, as well as limited trading rights in Spanish America.
479859327	The War of Jenkin's Ear	1739 between the British and the Spaniards. Confined to the Carribean Sea and Georgia. This small battle became a war, and soon merged with the War of Austrian Succession in Europe, and became known as King George's War in America. Britain was able to capture the French fortress of Louisbourg.
479859328	Peace Treaty of 1748	Handed Louisbourg back to the French. New Englanders were angry: they had worked hard to capture it and Louisbourg was a "cocked pistol pointed at the heart of the American continent".
479859329	Ohio Valley	Critical area into which the westward-pushing British colonists would penetrate. For France, it was the key to linking Canadian holdings with those of the lower Mississippi Valley.
479859330	In 1754, George Washington was sent to the	Ohio Valley to secure the land of the Virginians who had secured legal rights to 500,000 acres. Washington, with his 150 VA militiamen, fired the first shots and killed the French leader.
479859331	Fort Necessity	The French returned with reinforcements, surrounding Washington at this Fort. After a 10-hour siege, he surrendered his command in July 1754.
479859332	Cajuns	Fearing the French Acadians, whom Britain had acquired in 1713, the British uprooted some 4000 in 1755, and scattered them as far south as Louisiana.
479859333	The French and Indian War (the Seven Years War)	fought in America, Europe, the West Indies, the Phillipines, Africa, and on the ocean. Britain and Prussia vs. france, Spain, Austria and Russia
479859334	The Albany Congress	Met in 1754. Only 7/13 colonies showed up. The immediate purpose was to keep the Iroquois tribes loyal to the British in the spreading war (chiefs were given gifts). The longer-range purpose was to achieve colonial unity and bolster a common defense against France.
479859335	Feelings toward Albany Congress	Delegates were for it. London hated it: gave colonists too much independence. Individual colonists hated it: gave colonists too little independence.
479859336	General Braddock set out in 1755 with 2000 men to capture	Fort Duquesne
479859337	A few miles from Fort Duquesne, Braddock encountered...	a much smaller French and Indian army, who were victorious. The Indians took on a wider warpath because they were inflamed by their easy victory.
479859338	William Pitt, the "Great Commoner"	In 1757, Pitt became the foremost leader in the London government. He decided to soft-pedal assaults on the French West Indies, who had been bleeding away much British strength, and to concentrate on the vitals of Canada: the Quebec-Montreal area.
479859339	First significant British victory of the war	Pitt's expedition against Louisbourg in 1758
479859340	Pitt Against Quebec	John Wolfe helped lead the expedition. The two armies faed each other on the Plains of Abraham, where both leaders were killed (Wolfe and Marquis de Montcalm), but the French were defeated and the city surrendered.
479859341	The Battle of Quebec	ranks as one of the most significant engagements in British and American history.
479859342	Montreal's Fall in 1760	French were officially out of Canada
479859343	Peace settlement at Paris 1763	Ended the battle and French power was completely thrown off of North America. The French were allowed to retain several small but valuable sugar islands in the West Indies, but had to cede all trans-Mississippi Louisiana to Spain for its losses. Spain had to give Florida to Britain in return for Cuba.
479859344	Bolstered Colonial self-esteem and shattered the myth of British invincibility	French and Indian War
479859345	American shippers refused to support the common cause wholeheartedly, and developed a trade with enemy ports of Spanish and French West Indies. The British navy was trying to subdue them.	British authorities were forced to forbid the export of all supplies from New England and the middle colonies.
479859346	Intercolonial disunity thrived on	enormous distances, geographic barriers, conflicting religions, varied nationalities, different types of colonial governments, boundary disputes, and resentment of backcountry settlers against the aristocratic bigwigs.
479859347	The Treaty of Paris' affect on the Indians	Now that Spain was out of Florida and the French were out of Canada, the Indians could no longer play rival European powers off of one another. Now, Indians would have to negotiate exclusively with the British
479859348	Pontiac	1763, Ottawa chief, led several tribes (with help of French) in a violent campaign to drive the British out of the Ohio country. Captured Detroit and all but 3 British outposts west of the Appalachians. The British countered these attacks and eventually defeated the Indians.
479859349	Pontiac's Battle Effects	British realized they needed to stabilize relations with the western Indians and to keep regular troops stationed along the restless frontier.
479859350	Proclamation of 1763	Prohibited settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians. The truth is that this hastily drawn document was not designed to oppress the colonists at all, but to work out the Indian problem fairly and prevent another bloody eruption like Pontiac's uprising, but the colonists were still angry.
479859351	French and Indian War: Colonist's New Destiny	Path cleared for conquest of a continent, birthrate high and energy boundless, they were in no mood to be restrained.

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(B2) BC1 Biotechnology Flashcards

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459467501	How many base pairs are in the human genome?	3 Billion
459467502	How many genes are in the human genome?	20,000-25,000
459467503	What are some important achievements leading to modern molecular biology?	Restriction Endonucleases, Cloning of DNA, Creation of Synthetic Probes, PCR
459467504	What are Restriction Enzymes?	Endonucleases that cleave specific DNA sequences
459467505	What are characteristics of sequences cleaved by Restriction Enzymes?	They are usually short and palindromes
459467506	How are Palindromes read?	5' --> 3'
459467507	What is an easy to tell if a sequence is a palindrome?	If it would bind on itself when folded in half
459467508	What are the two possible results of Restriction enzymes?	Sticky and Blunt
459467509	Why is it important for the 3'OH and the 5'Phosphate to remain after cleavage?	Ligation
459467510	What are Restriction Enzymes named for?	The organism they were derived from
459467511	What is a restriction site?	A DNA Sequence that can be cleaved by a restriction enzyme
459467512	What is recombinant DNA?	Fragments of DNA pasted together for hybrid molecules
459467513	Where is the Restricton Fragment inserted in DNA cloning?	The Cloning Vector
459467514	Where must Cloning Vectors be replicated?	Inside Host Cells
459467515	What are Vectors?	Molecules of DNA that can accept fragments of foreign DNA
459467516	What are the requirements for DNA Cloning vectors?	Must be capable of autonomus replication, must carry at least one restriction site to insert foreign DNA, must carry one gene for selection
459467517	What is the most common vector?	Prokaryote Plasmids
459467518	What are the contents of Genomic DNA Libraries?	All sequences in the genome (coding regions as well as introns)
459467519	What is the beginning molecule of cDNA libraries?	mRNA
459467520	What happens to the beginning mRNA in cDNA Libraries?	It is reverse transcribed
459467521	What happens to the DNA of cDNA Libraries after it is transcribed?	It is ligated into a vector and cloned
459467522	What is the benefit of cDNA Libraries?	Allows one to see what genes are expressed in a particular cell
459467523	What is the purpose of DNA Sequencing?	To determine the exact sequence of cloned DNA
459467524	What are the materials in DNA Sequencing?	Single stranded template, dNTPs, Primer and Polymerase
459467525	What is the process for DNA Sequencing?	Divide materials into four tubes, add specific dideoxyribonucleotides and gel electrophoresis
459467526	What is the function of Probes?	To identify DNA fragments
459467527	What happens in DNA Probing?	Single Stranded DNA is labeled and hybridized to a complementary ssDNA
459467528	What is Hybridization in Probing?	The Target DNA must be made single stranded
459467529	What prevents the target DNA from reannealing in probing?	A solid support (nitrocellulose membrane)
459467530	What is Southern Blotting?	Analysis of DNA by isolation and subjection to restriction digestion that is then electrophoresed, Denatured and blotted. The blot is then probed
459467531	What is different about Northern Blotting from Southern Blotting?	Uses mRNA, the probe must be complementary, only detects expressed sequences
459467532	What does a Western Blot use?	Protein
459467533	How many nucleotides are different in non related humans?	1/1500
459467534	What is the majority of the genome made of?	Various intervening sequences
459467535	What are polymorphisms?	Genetic Variations in Non-Coding Regions
459467536	When is a RFLP present?	If a genetic change creates or deletes a restriction site of has more or less of a type of repeated sequence
459467537	What accounts form most of the genetic variation in humans?	Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms
459467538	What is a Single Nucleotide Polymorphism?	When a single nucleotide change can create or abolish a restriction site
459467539	What happens if a variable number of tandem repeats is cleaved on either side?	an RFLP is produced
459467540	What is the difference between DNA cloning and PCR?	PCR takes place in a tube
459467541	What is the first step in PCR?	Denature target DNA using heat
459467542	What are the steps of PCR?	Denature, Anneal, Extend (x30)
459467543	What is the temperature of DNA Denaturing?	95C
459467544	What is the temperature of DNA Annealing?	55C
459467545	What is the temperature of DNA Extension?	72C
459467546	What are the advantages of PCR?	Sensitivity, Speed, Blotting, Mutation Detection, Detection of Viruses, Forensics
459467547	What are the Quantitative Techniques?	Northern, Western, Microarray, ELISA, and Proteomics, PCR
459467548	What is Southern Blot used for?	DNA
459467549	What is Northern Blot used for?	RNA
459467550	What is Western Blot used for?	Protein
459467551	What is ASO used for?	DNA
459467552	What is Microarray used for?	RNA/cDNA
459467553	What is ELISA used for?	Proteins/Antibodies
459467554	What is Proteomics used for?	Proteins
459467555	What is PCR used for?	DNA (RNA)
459467556	Which techniques are Gels used in?	All but ASO, Microarray, ELISA
459467557	What is the purpose of Southern Blot?	Detects DNA changes
459467558	What is the purpose of Northern Blot?	Measures mRNA
459467559	What is the purpose of Western Blot?	Measures Protein amounts
459467560	What is the purpose of ASO?	Detects DNA changes
459467561	What is the purpose of Microarray?	Measures many mRNA levels
459467562	What is the purpose of ELISA?	Detects proteins/antigens or antibodies
459467563	What is the purpose of proteomics?	Measures abundance, distribution, posttrans modifications, functions, and interactions of proteins
459467564	What is the purpose of PCR?	Many applications
459467565	What is the mutation in Sickle Cell?	Mutation in Beta Globin eliminates Restriction Site for MstII
459467566	What is unique about the RFLP in the sickle cell mutation?	It can be used for Diagnosis
459467567	What is the clinical diagnostic hallmark of CF?	Elevated Chloride Levels, leading to dehydration of Mucus in lungs and pancreas
459467568	Why do false positives occur in ELISAs?	They're so sensitive
459467569	What kind of tests are typically used for paternity?	PCR Tests

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AP Bio Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Macromolecules Vocab Flashcards

Vocab for Chapter 5

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446601609	macro-molecule	giant molecules, consist of potentially thousands of covalently connected atoms that form a molecular colossus with a mass of over 100,000 daltons
446601610	polymer	long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds
446601611	monomers	repeating units that serve as the building blocks of a polymer
446601612	condensation reaction/ dehydration reaction	when monomers are connected by a reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other through loss of a water molecule
446601613	Hydrolysis	used to dissamble polymers to monomers, process that is the reverse of the dehydration reaction
446601614	Diversity of Polymers	small molecules common to all organisms are orders into unique macro-molecules
446601615	carbohydrates	include both sugars and the polymers of sugars
446601616	monosaccarides	single sugars (aka simple sugars), generally have molecular formulas that are some multiple of the unit CH20
446601617	disaccharides	double sugars, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a condensation reaction known as a glycosidic linkage
446601618	polysaccharides	polymers composed of many sugar building blocks
446601619	Glucose, Galactose, and Fructose	C6H12O6
446601620	Maltose	Glucose +Glucose
446601621	Sucrose	Glucose + Fructose
446601622	Lactose	Glucose + Galactose
446601623	Starch	a storage polysaccharide of plants, made of entirely glucose monomers
446601624	Glycogen	polymer of glucose, found in animals
446601625	cellulose	a polymer of glucose monomers, major components of the tough walls that enclose plant cells
446601626	chitin	carbohydrate polysaccharide, used by insects to build their exoskeleton
446601627	lipids	do not consist of polymers, have little or no affinity for water, mostly consist of hydrocarbons
446601628	fat	constructed from glycerol and fatty acids (fatty acid is a long carbon skeleton)
446601629	triglycerol/ triglyceride	three fatty acids, combined to a a glycerol molecule
446601630	saturated fatty acids	have no double bonds, tend to be packed solidly at room temp., linked to heart disease, produced by animals
446601631	unsaturated fatty acids	have some double bonds(results in kinks), tends to be liquid at room temp, commonly found in plants
446601632	Major function of fat	to store energy
446601633	adipose cells	humans store energy in these
446601634	phospholipid	has a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid tails, third hydroxyl group is linked to a phosphate
446601635	phospholipid bilayer	form cell membrane, with hydrophobic heads pointing towards each other, and hydrophilic heads pointing towards water
446601636	steroids	made up of four carbon rings fused together
446601637	cholesterol	steroid, common component of cell membranes
446601638	enzymatic proteins	selective acceleration of chemical reactions ex. digestive enzymes
446601639	structural proteins	support ex. silk fibers in cocoons and webs
446601640	storage proteins	storage of amino acids ex. plants have storage acids in their seeds
446601641	transport proteins	transport of other subtances ex. hemoglobin transports oxygen
446601642	hormonal proteins	coordination of an organism's activities
446601643	receptor proteins	response of cell to chemical stimuli ex. membranes of nerve cells detect chemical signals
446601644	contractile and motor proteins	movement ex. actin and myosin
446601645	defensive proteins	protection against disease ex. antibodies
446601646	polypeptides	polymers of amino acids
446601647	protein	consists of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into specific conformations
446601648	amino acids	organic molecules possessing both carboxyl and amino groups
446601649	4 types of amino acids	nonpolar, polar, acidic, and basic
446601650	peptide bond	covalent bond between separate amino acids
446601651	primary structure	unique sequence of amino acids
446601652	secondary structure	polypeptide chains repeatedly coil or fold in patterns that contribute to protein's overall conformation
446601653	alpha helix	a delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding
446601654	beta pleated sheet	two or more regions of the polypeptide chain lying side by side are connected by hydrogen bonding between two parallel polypeptide chains
446601655	tertiary structure	overall shape of a polypeptide resulting from interactions between side chains and various amino acids
446601656	hydrophobic interaction	amino acids with hydrophobic side chains usually end up in clusters at the core of the protein
446601657	disulfide bridges	form where two cysteine monomers are brought close together
446601658	quaternary structure	two or more polypeptide chains aggregated into one functional macro-molecule
446601659	chaperonins	protein molecules that assist in the proper folding of proteins within one cell
446601660	denaturation	occurs when a protein A is denatured when it loses its shape and ability to function due to HEAT or CHANGE IN pH
446601661	genes	program the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
446601662	Two types of nucleic acids	DNA and RNA
446601663	nucleotides	monomers of nucleic acids
446601664	Three Parts of Nucleotides	- nitrogenous base - pentose - phosphate group
446601665	DNA	molecule of heredity, double stranded helix
446601666	DNA nucleotides	adenine, thymine, ctyosine, and guanine a-t, c-g
446601667	RNA	single stranded, plays a role in protein synthesis
446601668	RNA nucleotides	anenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine, NO thymine

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Chapter 4 - Carbon & the Molecular Diversity of Life Flashcards

Organic Chemistry, Carbon

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153705924	hydrocarbon	an organic molecule consisting of only carbon & hydrogen
153705925	isotope	one of the several forms of an element each with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons - differs in atomic mass
153705926	isomer	one of several compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures, and there different properties
153705927	functional group	a specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules & usually involved in chemical reactions
153707341	structural isomers	differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms
153707342	geometric isomers	same covalent partnerships, but differ in spatial arrangements
153707343	enantiomers	isomers that mirror images of each other
153707344	hydroxyl group	polar; can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules
153707345	carbonyl group	alcetone & aldehyde may be structural isomers; also found in sugars
153707346	carboxyl group	has acidic properties; carrboxyl ion
153707347	amino group	acts as base, can pick up H+; ionized 1+
153707348	sulfhydryl group	2 of this group can react, creating covalent bond; curliness of hair...
153707349	phosphate group	contributes negative charge to molecule; has potential to react with water, releasing energy
153707350	methyl group	affects expression of genes; arrangement in male & female sex hormones

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Chapter 4: Carbon & the molecular diversity of life. Flashcards

4.1 Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds.
4.2 Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms.

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455186830	How does carbon enter the biosphere?	through the action of plants, which use solar energy to transform atmospheric CO2 into the molecules of life. Then these molecules are passed along to animals that feed on plants.
455186831	carbons paralleled ability	carbon has the aility to form molecules that are large, complex, and diverse.
455186832	...	protiens, dna, carbohydrates, and othervmolecules that distinguish living matter from inanimate material are all composed of carbon atomsbonded to one another and to atoms of other elements.
455186833	organic chemistry	the branch of chemistry that specializes in the study of carbon compounds, regardless of origin. the foundation of the unique versatility of the element carbon.
455186834	...	most organic compounds contain hydrogen atoms in addition to carbon attoms.
455186835	vitalism	the belief in a life forced outside the jurisdiction of physical and chemical laws, provided the foundation for the new discipline of organic chemistry. Crumbled completely after several decades of laboratory synthesis of some increasingly complex organic compounds.
455186836	stanley miller	1953, helped bring abiotic (nonliving) synthesis of organic conpounds into the context of evolution in a classic. His and other scientists' experiments support the idea that abiotic synthesis of organic compounds could have been an early stage in the origin of life.
455186837	mechanism	the view that physical and chemical laws govern all natural phenomena, including the process of life.
455186838	what produces most of the naturally occuring compunds?	organisms, and these molecules represent a diversity and range of complexity unrivaled by inorganic compunds.
455186839	how many electrons does carbon have?	6, with 2 in the front electron shell and 4 in the second shell. Having 4 valence electrons in a shell that hold 8, carbon would have to donate or acct 4 electrons to complete its valence shell and become an ion.
455186840	tetravalence *	one facet of carbon's versatility that makes large, complex molecules possible. when
455186841	Methane*	when a carbon atom has four single bonds to other atoms, the molecule is tetrahedral CH4
455186842	Ethane	A molecule may have more than one tetrahedral group of single-bonded atoms. (Ethane contains of two such groups)
455186843	Ethene (ethylene)	When two carbon atoms are joined by a double bond, all atoms attached to theose carbons are in the same plane,; the molecule is flat.
455186844	hydrocarbons	organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen.
455186845	isomers	compunds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence differennt properties.
455552030	structural isomers*	differ in the covalent arrangments of their atoms.
455552031	geometric isomers	have the same covalent partnerships, but they differ in their spatial arrangmets.
455552032	enantiomers	isomers that are mirror images of each other
455552033	functional groups	the chemical groups that affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical reactions;

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