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Chapter 1-Reproduction in organisms Flashcards

12602017938	Life span	Period from birth to natural death of the organism.	0
12602019047	Maximum lifespan	Maximum number of years survived or greatest age reached by any member of a species, and it is a characteristic of species.	1
12602021480	Life expectancy	It is the age at which half the population still survives, and is characteristic of a population.	2
12602024781	Why are single celled organisms considered mortal?	Because of their rapid cell division, they seldom die of senescence- rare natural cell death.	3
12602028042	Reproduction	It is the means of self-perpetuation where parents give rise to viable offspring of the same species.	4
12602030331	Why is reproduction necessary?	Replaces individuals lost due to ageing, predation or disease, and sexual reproduction introduces necessary variations.	5
12602035954	Semelparous organisms	They reproduce only once in their lifetime.	6
12602039857	Iteroparous organisms	They produce offspring in successive cycles.	7
12602041411	Types of reproduction	asexual and sexual	8
12602042830	What is asexual reproduction?	It is the mode of reproduction in which new individuals develop directly from specialized or unspecialized parts of a single parent without involving fusion of gametes or sex cells. It is also called agamogenesis or agamogeny, and is typically uniparental.	9
12602052277	What are the offspring of asexual reproduction called?	They are called ramets, and a colony of ramets is called a clone. They are exactly identical to the parent and each other except in size but can differ later due to the development of mutations.	10
12602057014	Fission	It is a mode of asexual reproduction in which body of a mature individual divides into two or more similar and equal sized daughter individuals.	11
12602062163	Binary fission	It is the division of the body into two equal halves, each of which functions as an independent daughter individual.	12
12602066445	Simple binary fission	Amoeba	13
12602066853	longitudinal binary fission	Euglena, Vorticella	14
12602067536	Oblique binary fission	Ceratium, Gonyalaux	15
12602067537	Transverse binary fission	Paramoecium, Planaria, diatoms, bacteria	16
12602076774	Paramoecium transverse binary fission	It is unequal and is preceded by amitotic division of meganucleus and mitotic division of micronucleus. Produces an anterior proter and a posterior opisthe.	17
12602069684	Multiple fission	The nucleus divides several times by amitosis too produce many nuclei without cytokinesis. Later each nucleus gathers a tiny amount of cytoplasm and splits into many tiny daughter cells.	18
12602069685	Cyst formation	It occurs in response to unfavorable living conditions, and is the formation of a dormant thick walled layer that ruptures to liberate the offspring formed by multiple fission- pseudopodiospores.	19
12602089713	Exogenous budding	A small outgrowth of the parent's body develops into a miniature individual that later separates to live a free life.	20
12602090634	Gemmule formation	It is a specialised mass of cells called totipotent archaeocytes enclosed in a common opaque envelope-which on germination gives rise to offspring. It is also called endogeneous budding.	21
12602090635	Fragmentation	The body of the parent breaks into distinct pieces, each of which can produce an offspring.	22
12602091936	Epimorphosis	An organism can repair or renew a lost part of its body.	23
12602091937	Morphallaxis	The whole body can be reformed from a small fragment.	24
12602092817	Advantages of asexual reproduction	uniparental, rapid, simpler, clone production	25
12602093692	Disadvantages of asexual reproduction	No evolution or new linkages, overcrowding, no variation, lower adaptibility	26
12602119207	Sexual reproduction	It is the biparental production of offspring by formaton and fusion of haploid gametes.	27
12602119838	Menstrual cycle	Primate female sexual cycle.	28
12602119839	Estrus cycle	Cyclic changes in female reproductive system of non-primates.	29
12602120845	Events in sexual reproduction	Pre-fertilization event, syngamy and post-fertilization events	30
12602121489	Pre-fertilisation events	Gametogenesis and gamete transfer	31
12602121490	Gametogenesis	The process of formation of gametes	32
12602122473	Sexuality	Unisexual or Bisexual	33
12602123010	Cockroach reproductive system	Male cockroach has two testis just beneath 4th to 6th abdominal terga, and females has one pair of ovaries, each with eight ovarioles, embedded in fat bodies from 4th to 6th abdominal segments.	34
12602123695	Earthworm Reproductive System	Hermaphrodite, two pairs of testes- segments 10 and 11, and two pairs of seminal vesicles in segments 11 and 12, and one pair of ovaries in segment 13. Protandry leads to cross fertilization.	35
12602185364	Crassostrea virginica	Hermaphrodite with regular annual alternation of sexes.	36
12602124712	Cell division during gametogenesis	Meiosis is an essential feature of the sexual cycle, which results in the formation of haploid daughter cells. It prevents successive chromosomal doubling.	37
12602125237	Gamete transfer	Male and female gametes must be brought together in physical contact. Pollination occurs in plants, copulation occurs in some animals, or release of gametes by some females occurs.	38
12602125238	Syngamy	The fusion of male and female gametes to produce a zygote.	39
12602125239	Fertilization	All the events that ultimately lead to syngamy	40
12602126465	Parthenogenesis	The process by which female gametes develop into a new individual without being fertilized by a male gamete.	41
12602127631	Arrhenotoky	Only males are produced by parthenogenesis	42
12602127632	Thelytoky	Only females are produced by parthenogenesis	43
12602128745	Amphitoky	Parthenogenetic egg my develop into individual of any sex.	44
12602128746	External fertilization	The process by which the female lays eggs and the male fertilizes them once they are outside of the female	45
12602129777	Internal fertilization	Process in which eggs are fertilized inside the female's body	46
12602131418	Embryogenesis	Development of embryo from diploid zygote by cell division and cell differentiation.	47
12602131419	Oviparous	Eggs hatch outside the mother's body	48
12602132172	viviparous	live birth	49
12602132173	Ovoviviparous	the embryo develops within the uterus and is nourished by the egg yolk	50

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Human health and disease - chapter 8 Flashcards

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14710278076	What does health mean?	Health can be defined as state of body and mind which allows a person to function well physically, mentally and socially.	0
14710282055	Factors Affecting Our Health	1. Our dietary habits: A person eating a well balanced diet containing adequate amounts of nutrients required by our body on daily basis is healthier than a person taking nutritionally deficient diet. 2. Lifestyle: A person having a sedentary lifestyle is less healthy than a person doing moderate amount of physical activity. 3. Our social environment: A person living under stressful social environment with lot of antisocial activities are always under stressful mental conditions and more prone to stress related disorders as compared to a person living in relaxed environment. 4. The kind the work that we do to earn our living: People working in the factories or environment with air or noise pollution will get respiratory and hearing problems respectively. 5. State of the mind: Affects the neural system and endocrine system which in turn affects our immune system. State of the immune system has a vital role to play in keeping us in a healthy state. 6. Genetic information: Genetic information inherited from parents can be cause of many physical abnormalities and some genetic diseases can be passed on from parents to the offspring. 7. Our physical environment: People living in clean areas with a proper garbage and sewage disposal system in place and lot of greenery are healthier than people living under unhygienic conditions and areas lacking greenery. 8. Economic conditions of individual: affects the health by affecting the buying capacity and also amount of the money spend by the individuals on health.	1
14710293760	What is a disease	A state when the functioning of one or more organs of the body is affected resulting in altered physiological state with signs and symptoms telling us that there is something wrong with our health, it is called as disease.	2
14710296099	Infectious Diseases	Diseases which are easily transmitted from one person to another are called infectious diseases. They are caused by pathogens. Examples include Common cold, malaria, AIDS	3
14710312349	Non infectious Diseases	Disease which cannot be transmitted from one person to another are called non -infectious diseases. Examples - Cancer and Diabetes.	4
14710315800	Pathogens	Organisms that cause diseases in a host are called pathogens. They are usually microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, viruses, etc.	5
14710320105	Widal test	It is a serological test that can be used for detecting typhoid.	6
14710322623	Disease caused by bacteria; Typhoid fever	Name of bacteria : Salmonella typhi Mode of transmission : Contaminated food and water Symptoms : Sustained high fever Stomach pain Weakness Constipation Loss of appetite (in severe cases - Intestinal perforations and death )	7
14710333268	Disease caused by bacteria; Pneumonia	Name of bacteria : Streptococcus pneumoniae/ Haemophilus influenzae Mode of transmission : Sharing of glasses and utensils , inhaling droplet nuclei Symptoms : Alveoli of lungs get infected leading to respiratory problems ,fever , chills ,cough and headache (lips and nails become grey in severe cases )	8
14710340091	Disease caused by viruses; Common Cold	Name of virus : Rhino Virus Mode of transmission : Air - through droplet nuclei, and through contaminated objects. Symptoms : Infection of nose and respiratory tract. Nasal congestion and discharge, hoarseness, cough headache tiredness	9
14710352296	Disease caused by protozoa; Malaria	Name of protozoa : Plasmodium (P.falciparum ,P.vivax, P. malaria) Mode of transmission : By vector (Female Anopheles mosquito) Symptoms : High fever and chills at fixed time interval due to release of haemozoin after rupture of infected RBC's.	10
14710375941	Disease caused by protozoa; Amoebiasis (amoebic dysentery)	Name of protozoa : Entamoeba histolytica Mode of transmission : Houseflies act as mechanical carriers) serve to transmit the parasite from faeces of infected person to food (faeco-oral transmission) Symptoms : constipation, abdominal pain and cramps, stools with excess mucous and blood clots	11
14710441133	Life Cycle of Plasmodium:	1. Plasmodium enters the human body as sporozoites (their infectious form) through the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. 2. Multiplication of parasites inside the liver cells. 3. Attack of the RBCs by the parasites causing the rupture of the RBCs (red blood cells) 4. Release of a toxic substance called haemozoin by the ruptured RBCs that causes chills and recurring fevers every three to four days. 5. Transfer of the parasites into the body of the female Anopheles mosquito when the infected person is bitten by the mosquito. 6. Multiplication of the parasites within the mosquito to form sporozoites. These sporozoites are stored in the salivary glands of the mosquito. 7. The infected mosquito bites an uninfected person and the cycle repeats. • It is important to note that the malarial parasite Plasmodium requires two hosts to complete its life cycle- the human host and the female Anopheles mosquito.	12
14710521633	Disease caused by worms; Ascariasis	Name of pathogen : Ascaris Mode of transmission : Faeco-oral transmission Symptoms : Fever, anaemia, muscular pain, internal bleeding and blockage of intestinal passage	13
14710526463	Disease caused by worms; Elephantiasis/Filariasis	Name of pathogen : Wuchereria bancrofti, W.malayi Mode of transmission : Bite of female mosquito vectors Symptoms : Chronic inflammation of lymphatic vessels of lower limbs and genital organs causing gross deformities.	14
14710593357	Diseases caused by Fungi; Ringworm	Name of pathogen : Microsporum, Trichophyton, Epidermophyton Mode of transmission : Direct contact through soil, contaminated clothes, combs, etc. Symptoms : Dry, scaly lesions on skin, nails and scalp accompanied by intense itching. Symptoms worsen with increased heat and moisture	15
14710911590	Prevention and Control	1. Maintenance of personal and public hygiene 2. Isolation and Quarantine 3. Elimination of vectors and their breeding places 4. Protection against vectors 5. Vaccination 6. Antibiotics	16
14710919594	Immunity	The ability of the host to fight and protect against disease-causing organisms conferred by the immune system is called immunity. Immunity is of two types: (i) Innate immunity (ii) Acquired immunity.	17
14710931122	Innate Immunity	Innate immunity is a non-specific type of immunity in an individual that is present at the time of birth. It works by preventing the entry of pathogens through various barriers. There are various types of barriers by which the body prevents the entry of the foreign agents into our body. Innate immunity consist of four types of barriers. These are — (i) Physical barriers Examples - Skin, Mucus coating of the epithelium lining the respiratory, gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts (ii) Physiological barriers: Acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth, tears from eyes (iii) Cellular barriers: Certain types of leukocytes (WBC) of our body can phagocytose and destroy microbes. For example, the polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes (PMNL-neutrophils), monocytes, natural killer (type of lymphocytes) in the blood, as well as macrophages in tissues. (iv) Cytokine barriers: Cells infected with a virus secrete certain special proteins called as interferons which protect other non-infected cells from further viral infection.	18
14710947183	Acquired Immunity	This type of immunity is pathogen specific and is characterized by a memory .When the pathogen is encountered for the first time a low intensity primary response is produced. Subsequent encounters with the same pathogen produces a high intensity response with the help of memory cells. This is called secondary or anamnestic response. Primary and secondary response are carried out with the help of 2 special types of lymphocytes B- lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. B-Lymphocytes produce special proteins called antibodies whereas the T lymphocytes help B-lymphocytes to produce antibodies.	19
14710961853	Antibody Structure	Each antibody has 2 light chains and 2 heavy chains. It is represented as H₂L₂ Antibodies in our bodies are of different types such as IgA, IgG, IgE, and IgM.	20
14710987877	Humoral Immune response	It is the kind of immune response that involve production of antibodies as these antibodies are present in the blood (body humor)	21
14710991449	Cell-mediated immunity	It is an immune response that does not involve antibodies, but rather involves the activation of phagocytes, antigenspecific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. The body is able to differentiate 'self' and 'non-self' and the cell-mediated immune response is responsible for the graft rejection.	22
14710997748	Active immunity	- When a host is exposed to antigens, which may be in the form of living or dead microbes or other proteins, antibodies are produced in the host body. This type of immunity is called active immunity. -Effective after a lag period -Memory cells are produced which can produce stronger response the next time body encounters same antigen -Examples - Vaccines like BCG, MMR	23
14711033544	Passive immunity	- When ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect the body against foreign agents, it is called passive immunity. - This type of immunity is immediately effective after antibodies are given -Memory cells are not produced and there is no long term protection provided to the body. -Examples - Anti-Tetanus injection ,Injections for snake bite, colostrum(yellowish fluid produced by the mother in the initial days of lactation) contains abundant IgA antibodies to protect the infant against infections	24
14711273906	Vaccination	It is the introduction of antigenic proteins of pathogens or part or whole of inactivated or weakened pathogens into the host body so as to trigger the host immune system to produce antibodies against the antigens. Vaccination works on the principle of memory. The antibodies produced in response to the vaccine will then help the body fight against the actual infection. During the actual infection these antibodies will be produced in large amounts by the activation of memory B and T cells of the immune system which will recognize the antigen and form the suitable antibodies faster. In some cases, if a person has been severely infected or needs antibodies in his body faster to fight the infection readymade antibodies may be introduced into his body. This is called as passive immunization. This method is employed when time is insufficient to activate the host immune system so as to produce the required antibodies. Newer techniques like recombinant DNA technology allows the production of antigenic polypeptides in bacteria and yeast. This allows for large scale manufacture of vaccines against specific antigenic polypeptides of various pathogens. As the cellular material of the pathogen is not present in the vaccine, the side effects to the vaccine may also be lesser in these cases.	25
14711293037	What are allergies	The aggravated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in the environment is called allergy. The substances to which such an immune response is produced are called allergens. The antibodies produced to these are of IgE type.	26
14711295206	Examples of allergies	mites in dust, pollens, animal dander, etc. Symptoms of allergic reactions include sneezing, watery eyes, running nose and difficulty in breathing. Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin from the mast cells. Drugs like anti-histamines, adrenalin and steroids act quickly to reduce the symptoms of allergy. Modern-day lifestyle has led to lowered immunity and increased susceptibility to allergies.	27
14711304971	Auto immunity	The human immune system can differentiate antigen which are foreign to the body from the antigen which are part of the body. This is called auto immunity. In some cases the body attacks its own cells due to genetic and other unknown reasons. This causes damage to the body and is called auto-immune disease. Example -Rheumatoid arthritis.	28
14711316771	Immune System in the Body	It consists of: • Lymphoid organs • Tissues • Cells • Antibodies The immune system functions as follows: • It differentiates between self and non-self • It protects the body against non-self or foreign antigens • It acts on the basis of memory and protects the body against antigens to which it has been previously exposed • It is involved in allergic reactions • It is important in auto-immune diseases • It is important in organ transplant and graft rejection.	29
14711321756	Lymphoid organs	These are the organs where origin and/or maturation and proliferation of lymphocytes occur -Lymphoid organs defend the body against foreign antigens or spread of tumors. - These organs exist as primary, secondary and tertiary. This is based on the stage of lymphocyte development and maturation the organ is involved in. - Lymphoid organs contain connective tissues with different types of leukocytes or white blood cells. Of these, lymphocytes are usually present in the highest percentage regardless of the type of lymphoid organ	30
14711330025	The primary lymphoid organs	* bone marrow, thymus *immature lymphocytes differentiate into antigen-sensitive lymphocytes	31
14711339461	Secondary lymphoid organs	* Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer's patches of small intestine and appendix *provide the sites for interaction of lymphocytes with the antigen, which then proliferate to become effector cells	32
14711346911	Bone-marrow and the thymus	* The bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cells including lymphocytes are produced. The thymus is a lobed organ. It is located beneath the breastbone and near the heart. The thymus is quite large at the time of birth but its size keeps decreasing with increase in age and by the time puberty is attained it reduces to a very small size. Both bone-marrow and thymus provide micro-environments for the development and maturation of T-lymphocytes.	33
14711357047	The spleen	The spleen is a large bean shaped organ. It mainly contains lymphocytes and phagocytes. It acts as a filter of the blood by trapping blood-borne microorganisms. Spleen also has a large reservoir of erythrocytes.	34
14711370704	The lymph nodes	The lymph nodes are small solid structures located at different points along the lymphatic system. Lymph nodes trap the micro-organisms or other antigens that get into the lymph and tissue fluid. Antigens that get trapped in the lymph nodes are responsible for the activation of lymphocytes present within the lymph nodes. This causes the immune response. Lymphoid tissue is also located within the lining of the major tracts (respiratory, digestive and urogenital tracts). It is called as mucosal associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). It forms approximately 50 percent of the lymphoid tissue in human body	35
14712206207	AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)	This refers to an acquired condition of deficiency of immune system. It is a condition acquired during the lifetime of an individual referring to the fact that it is not a congenital disease. 'Syndrome' means a group of symptoms. AIDS was first reported in 1981 and in approximately the last twenty-five years, it has spread all over the world killing more than 25 million people. Causative Agent -The Human Immuno deficiency Virus (HIV) It is a member of a group of viruses called retrovirus. They have an envelope enclosing the RNA genome. They also contain the reverse transcriptase gene.	36
14712211911	Transmission of HIV-infection	(a) Sexual contact with infected person, (b) By transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products, (c) By sharing infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug abusers and (d) From infected mother to her child through placenta. People who are at high risk of getting this infection -individuals who have multiple sexual partners -drug addicts who take drugs intravenously, -Individuals who require repeated blood transfusions (certain cancers, anemia, and thalassemia) -children born to an HIV infected mother.	37
14712223628	does HIV/AIDS spread through mere touch or physical contact?	No, It spreads only through contact with body fluids. It is important for the physical and psychological well-being of the infected person that the HIV/AIDS infected persons not be isolated from family and society. There always exists a sufficient time interval between the infection and appearance of symptoms. This incubation period may vary from a few months to many years (usually 5-10 years).	38
14712274602	How does HIV affect the body?	- The virus enters the body of the person and infects the macrophages. - The RNA genome of the virus replicates to form viral DNA with the help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase. - This viral DNA is thus incorporated into host cell's DNA and then directs the infected cells to produce more virus particles. - The macrophages continue to produce virus. - At the same time HIV enters into helper T-lymphocytes (TH) to replicate and produce progeny viruses. - The progeny viruses released in the blood attack other helper T-lymphocytes. This entire cycle is repeated leading to a progressive decrease in the number of helper T-lymphocytes in the body of the infected person. - During this period, the person suffers from bouts of fever, diarrhea and weight loss. - Due to decrease in the number of helper T lymphocytes, the person starts suffering from infections that could have been otherwise dealt with by the immune system. This includes diseases such as those caused by bacteria especially Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi and even parasites like Toxoplasma. The patient becomes immuno-deficient and is unable to protect themselves against these infections.	39
14712286990	Detection of HIV	Enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA): It is a biochemical technique used in immunology to detect the presence of an antibody or an antigen in a sample. A western Blot test is also done to confirm results of ELISA test.	40
14712292625	Treatment of HIV	Use anti-retroviral drugs. By this the life span of patient can be prolonged but it cannot prevent death.	41
14712296057	Prevention of AIDS	As AIDS has no cure, prevention is the best option. - Spread can be limited by conscious effort and behavior patterns. -More effective monitoring can prevent infection through blood transfusion, transmission from mother to new-born.	42
14712300483	Role of government and non government organization in limiting spread of this disease (HIV)	-National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) and other non-governmental organisation (NGOs) are making efforts to educate people about AIDS. -WHO conducts a number of programmes to prevent the spreading of HIV infection. Prevention and Control Methods: • Making blood transfusions safe from HIV • Ensuring the use of only disposable needles and syringes in public and private hospitals and clinics. • Free distribution of condoms • Controlling drug abuse • Advocating safe sex • Promoting regular check-ups for HIV in susceptible populations.	43
14712304877	Role of Society in preventing spread of this disease	- Sympathy for HIV/AIDS patients. - Disclosure about the HIV status to prevent further spread to more people. - Co-operation and co-ordination between society and medical fraternity to prevent the spread of the disease.	44
14712310395	Cancer	- In our body, cell growth and differentiation is highly controlled and regulated. - In cancer cells, there is breakdown of these regulatory mechanisms. - Normal cells exhibit contact inhibition. Due to this contact of a cell with other cells inhibits its uncontrolled growth. - Cancer cells lose contact inhibition. As a result of this, cancerous cells continue to divide giving rise to masses of cells called tumors. Tumors are of two types: 1. Benign tumors normally remain limited to their original location and do not spread to other parts of the body. They cause less damage. 2. The malignant tumors are a mass of proliferating cells called neoplastic or tumor cells. These cells grow very rapidly. They thus invade and damage the surrounding normal tissues. As these cells are actively dividing and growing it leads to the starvation of the normal cells by competing for vital nutrients. Cells may be sloughed from such tumors and reach distant sites through blood. Wherever they get lodged in the body they cause the emergence of a new tumor. This property is called metastasis.	45
14712585755	Causes of cancer	Transformation of normal cells into cancerous neoplastic cells may be induced by physical, chemical or biological agents. These agents are called carcinogens.	46
14712590423	Common carcinogens	-Ionising radiations: X-rays and gamma rays -Non-ionizing radiations: UV Both ionizing and non-ionising radiations cause DNA damage that causes neoplastic transformation. -The chemical carcinogens present in tobacco smoke have been identified as a major cause of lung cancer Oncogenic viruses are cancer causing viruses. They have genes called viral oncogenes. Several genes called cellular oncogenes(c-onc) or proto oncogenes have been identified in normal cells which can be activated under certain conditions and therefore lead to oncogenic transformation of the cells.	47
14712596694	Cancer Detection and Diagnosis	Early detection of cancers is essential as it allows the disease to be treated successfully in many cases. Cancer detection is based on: - Biopsy: a piece of the suspected tissue cut into thin sections is stained - Histopathological studies of the tissue (thin sections are examined under the microscope) - Blood and bone marrow tests: for increased cell counts in the case of leukemias. - Radiography: (use of X-rays), - CT (computed tomography): This technique uses X-rays to generate a three-dimensional image of the internals of an object. - MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): MRI involves use of strong magnetic fields and non-ionizing radiations to accurately detect pathological and physiological changes in the living tissue. -Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens: Used for detection of certain cancers. - Techniques of molecular biology: To detect genes in individuals with inherited susceptibility to certain cancers. Identification of such genes may be helpful in prevention of cancers. Such individuals may be advised to avoid exposure to particular carcinogens to which they are susceptible (e.g., tobacco smoke in case of lung cancer).	48
14712610128	Treatment of cancer	- Treatment of cancer can be done by one or combinations of different approaches. The common approaches for treatment of cancer are surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy and immunotherapy. - In radiotherapy, tumor cells are irradiated lethally, taking proper care of the normal tissues surrounding the tumor mass. - Several chemotherapeutic drugs are used to kill cancerous cells. These drugs may be specific for particular tumors. Most drugs have side effects like hair loss, anemia, etc. - Majority of the cancers are treated by a combination of all the above methods. - Tumor cells avoid detection and destruction by immune system. Therefore, they are treated with substances called biological response modifiers. They are substances such as α-interferon which activate their immune system and help in destroying the tumor.	49
14712616621	Drug Abuse	Drugs are chemical substances which when taken inside the body for a purpose other than the medicinal use or in amounts and frequency that impairs ones physical, psychological functions, it constitutes a drug abuse.	50
14712618699	Commonly abused drugs	-opioid -cannabinoids -coca alkaloids	51
14712625593	Opioids / Diacetylmorphine	Obtained from - Latex of Poppy plant (Papaver somniferum) Taken by - snorting or injection Effects : -bind specifically to the opioid receptors present in the CNS and GI tract. -Depressant and slows down body functions	52
14712642167	Cannabinoids	Obtained from - Inflorescences of plant Cannabis sativa Taken by - Oral ingestion Inhalation Effects : Has effect on cardiovascular systems of the body.	53
14712651499	Coca alkaloids or Cocaine	Obtained from - Coca Plant Erythroxylum coca Taken by - snorted Effects : It interferes with the transport of the neurotransmitter Dopamine and has potent stimulating effect on the CNS producing a sense of Euphoria and increased energy. Excessive dosage leads to hallucination.	54
14712667078	Smoking	Tobacco is smoked, chewed or used as a snuff. - Contains large amounts of chemical substance including nicotine which is an alkaloid. - It stimulates the adrenal gland to release adrenaline and non adrenaline into blood circulation, both of which raise blood pressure and increase heart rate. -Smoking increases the incidence of lung cancer. It also affects urinary bladder and throat causing bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart diseases and gastric ulcers. -Tobacco chewing increases the risk of cancer of oral cavity. - Smoking increases CO content in the blood and therefore reduces the content of haem -bound oxygen. This causes oxygen deficiency in the body leading to anemia. -An addict usually requires counseling and medical help to get rid of habit.	55
14712672725	Adolescence and Drug/Alcohol abuse	Adolescence is a period during which an individual reaches reproductive maturity. It is a link between childhood and adulthood. It is a period where there is emotional and behavioral growth of the individual. It is therefore characterized by several physiological and psychological changes. Therefore, during this period an individual is highly vulnerable. Youngsters are motivated towards drugs and alcohol use due to: • Curiosity • Need for adventure • Experimentation • Perceived benefits of alcohol and drug use • Stress and academic pressure • Need to appear cool/peer pressure • Influence of popular media • Unstable family structure	56
14712679708	Smoking addiction	Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects such as euphoria and a temporary feeling of well being usually associated with drugs and alcohol. With repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of the receptors present in our body increases. As a result the receptors respond only to higher doses of drugs or alcohol. This leads to greater intake and more addiction	57
14712681502	Smoking dependance	Dependence is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic and unpleasant withdrawal syndrome if regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued. This is typically manifested as nausea, anxiety shakiness and sweating. These may be relieved when use is resumed again. In some cases, withdrawal symptoms can be severe and even life threatening and the person may need medical supervision. Dependence causes the patient to ignore all social norms just so as to get sufficient funds to satiate his/her needs. These result in many social problems.	58
14712710340	Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse	- reckless behavior - Vandalism and violence. - Excessive doses of drugs may lead to coma and death due to respiratory failure, heart failure or cerebral hemorrhage. - Intravenous intake of drugs could lead to increases susceptibility to diseases like AIDS, Hepatitis, etc. - Damage to nervous system and Liver cirrhosis - Adverse effect on foetus due to consumption during pregnancy - Side effects of performance enhancing drugs for sports: - In females: masculinization, increased aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, abnormal menstrual cycle, excessive facial and body hair, enlargement of clitoris and deepening of voice - In males: acne, aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, reduction in testicles, decreased sperm production, kidney and liver dysfunction, breast enlargement, premature baldness, enlargement of the prostate	59
14712718864	Common warning signs of drug and alcohol abuse	- Drop in academic performance -unexplained absence from school/college -lack of interest in personal hygiene -withdrawal, isolation, depression, fatigue, aggressive and rebellious behavior - deteriorating relationships with family and friends -loss of interest in hobbies - Change in sleeping and eating habits - Fluctuations in weight, appetite, etc. - Stealing to get money to buy drugs/alcohol.	60
14712723076	Prevention and Control for drug and alcohol abuse	1. Avoid undue peer pressure 2. Education and counselling 3. Seeking help from parents and peers 4. Looking for danger signs 5. Seeking professional and medical help	61

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Biotechnology and its applications - chapter 12 Flashcards

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14723812919	Biotechnology	The use of biology to develop technologies and products for the welfare of human beings is known as biotechnology. It has various applications in different fields such as therapeutics, diagnostics, processed food, waste management, energy production, genetically modified crops etc.	0
14723819566	Biotechnological application in agriculture	Biotechnology has different application in agriculture. It can be used in agro-chemicals, organic agriculture, and genetically engineered crop-based agriculture. It can be used to produce genetically modified organisms. Genetically modified organisms (GMO) can be obtained by alteration in their genetic material. Different application of genetically modified organisms is- • Production of crops which are resistant to abiotic factors such as heat, cold, etc. • Pest-resistant crops. • Help to reduce post-harvest losses. • Minerals can be used efficiently by the plants. • Food with enhanced nutritional values. The most important application in the field of biotechnology is the formation of pest resistant plants. Bacillus thuringiensis is a bacterium that produces a Bt toxin which has insecticidal activity. Gene that codes for Bt toxin can be isolated and inserted into the plant to provide insect or pest resistance.	1
14723828693	Bt cotton	Bacillus thuringiensis produces certain proteins that can kill insects such as lepidopterans, coleopterans, and dipterans. They produce insecticidal protein, which when enter the body of the insect will become active. This toxin when binds to the midgut produces causes cell to swell and eventually death of the insect. These Bt genes are isolated and inserted into cotton plants. Such cotton is known as Bt cotton. The gene that codes for insecticidal protein is known as cryIAc and cryIIAc.	2
14723895847	Pest resistant plants	Various pests affect the plants which causes loss as well as decrease in the yield of the plant. A nematode Meloidegyne incognitia infects the roots of tobacco plants and causes a decrease in the yield of the plant. To prevent this, RNA interference technology was used. This method involves silencing of a specific mRNA due to a complementary dsRNA molecule. This inhibits the translation of the mRNA.	3
14723902405	Biotechnology applications in medicine; Human insulin production	Biotechnology has contributed a lot in medicine industry. The use of biotechnology in medicine is known as medicinal biotechnology. They provide methods for the formation of genetically modified insulin known as humulin. This helps in treatment of large number of diabetes patients. Earlier insulin was extracted from the pancreas of the slaughtered animals such as cattle and pigs. Such insulin has chances to cause allergies to humans. The most important issue with the production of insulin is formation of mature and assembled insulin.	4
14723918240	Biotechnology applications in medicine; Gene therapy	To correct the heredity diseases, gene therapy is used. The correction of gene defects is known as gene therapy. A normal gene is inserted into the individual or in an embryo to replace the abnormal gene. The first gene therapy was given to a 4-year-old girl in 1990 for Adenosine deaminase deficiency. Earlier, bone marrow transplantation and enzyme replacement therapy were used to treat adenosine deaminase deficiency. But both strategies are not completely curative.	5
14723934663	Biotechnology applications in medicine; Molecular diagnosis	It helps in disease diagnosis by various techniques such as ELISA, PCR, and recombinant DNA technology. ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay) is based on antigen and antibody reaction to detect different diseases. PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is technique to amplify specific DNA segment. This helps to detect HIV in AIDS patients.	6
14724074010	Biotechnology applications in medicine; Transgenic animals	Animals that have their DNA manipulated to possess and express an extra (foreign) gene are known as transgenic animals. For example, rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep etc. These animals help to understand how genes are regulated and how they help in development of animals. It helps to study how genes are responsible for the development of various diseases. They can be used to manufacture chemicals that are useful. They can also be used for testing of drugs and vaccines.	7
14724083947	Biotechnology in production of antibiotics	Plants are used to develop antibiotics for humans as well as for animal use. It helps in production of antibiotics, vaccines and artificial hormones for hormone therapies. Ethical Issues: 1. The manipulation of living organisms by man is similar to man "playing God". It is a tool with great power and therefore, immense responsibility. 2. The genetic modification of any organism is not always completely predictable. It may lead to problems in the organism. 3. The impact of introduction of a GMO into an ecosystem is not completely known. It could have unpredictable results.	8
14724093055	GEAC	Genetic Engineering Approval Committee is a committee set up by the Indian Government to oversee all decisions regarding GM research and the safety of GMOs for public use.	9
14724097325	Biopiracy	Use of bio-resources by commercial and multinational companies and other organizations without the appropriate authorization and permission from the countries and people concerned without making the compensatory payment.	10

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Biotechnology and it's Applications Flashcards

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10814671045	Three critical research areas of Biotechnology are-	1) providing the best catalyst (as a microbe/ even pure enzyme) 2) Creating opteimal temperature for that catalyst to act (using genetic engg) 3) Downstream processing tech to purify the product obtained	0
10814800603	Three ways to increase food production	1) Agro- Chemical based 2) Organic agriculture/ Farming 3) Genetically engineered crops- based agriculture	1
10814826987	What was the first success of the Green revolution	Tripled the food supply but it was still not enough for feeding the need of the growing population	2
10814848193	Hinderances of Green revolution	Agrochemicals were expensive Further inc. in yields of existing var. with conventional methods was not possible Cost and hamful effects of fertilisers and pesticides The fact that farmers minimised the use of chemicals required	3
10814895338	Possible solution to hinderances of Green revolution	Genetically modified crops (doraemon gadget voice)	4
10816020236	How are crops genetically modified for better yeild?	By gene addition/ subtraction	5
10816030388	Transgenic organisms	Organisms whose genes have been altered by manipulation/ genetically modified organisms	6
10816119276	Uses of genetically recombinant plants	Crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses. Pest-resistant crops. Reduce post harvest losses. Prevents early exhaustion of fertility of soil. Enhanced nutritional value of food.	7
10816233156	Key feature of golden rice	Increased Vitamin A and Iron content	8
10816421840	What are golden rice?	Transgenic variety of oryza Sativa with good quantity of b-carotene/ provitamin A which is golden in colour	9
10816453918	Where are the genes for synthesis of b-carotene in golden rice taken from?	Daffodil (narcissus pseudonarcissus)	10
10816521876	Which plant is tailor made for production of hirudin?	Grapes (Brasicca napus). Here transgenic product is our product of interest	11
10818327300	Possible alternate to industry fuels	From Oil seed	12
10818355777	How was hirudin gene introduced in brassica nupus?	Chemically synthesised the gene and transformed by Agrobacterium tumeficium	13
10818410062	In what form is hirudin produced in the transgenic plants?	There the transgenic product is the product of interest. It just accumulates and is extracted from the seeds	14
10818538925	How did bacteria (b. thurengiensis) develop defence against insects that eat them?	By creating an inactive antitoxin during sporulation which gets activated by proteases (alkaline conditions in the gut) of the insect. toxin gets cleaved hence becoming active and damages epithelium by pores which causes lysis, the insect is unable t feed and starves to death	15
10818829897	Name of endotoxin	Bt toxin	16
10818877347	How are Bt plants made?	Using the vector adrobacterium tumfaciens to produce a transgenic plant	17
10818891175	Which gene is incorporated to make plants resistant to such pests?	The choice of gene depends mostly on the crop and the pest as most endotoxins are insect group specific	18
10819021550	Examples of transgenic plants with Bt-endotoxin	Cotton, corn, rice, tomato, potato, soyabean	19
10819076086	Gene that encodes the toxin	cry	20
10819099547	Which protiens control cotton bollworm	Coded by cryIAc and cryIIAb	21
10819110859	Which protiens control cornborer?	coded by cryIAb	22
10857950096	GENE//////////////////////////	SUBTRACION//////////////////////////	23
10857950097	Example of use of anti sense RNA for abiotic stresses	Flavr Savr	24
10857974933	How is anti sense rna induced to make Flavr Savr tomato?	By transforming recombinant plasmid with RNA sequence (complementary to the one responsible for enzyme p.galacturonase) into Agrobacterium tumefaciens and then allowing bacteria to infect tomato stem segments	25
10857956310	Who developed the tomato variety Flavr Savr?	Calgene	26
10857960417	Modification in Flavr Savr transgenic tomato	Expression of a native tomato gene is blocked	27
10857964689	What enzyme does the gene codes in tomato?	Polygalacturonase, which helps in softening of fruit by dissolving cell wall constituents	28
10858000503	How many recombinant therapeutics have been approved for human use?	30	29
10858009341	How many recombinant (from human DNA) therapeutics have been approved for human use in India?	12	30
10858077377	How was insulin primarily obtained?	From pancreas of slaughtered cattle and pigs	31
10858091535	Why was insulin from non-human sources not prepared?	Because it would illicit unwanted immunological responses	32
10858289894	Why can insulin not be taken orally?	It is a protein it would be digested off in the alimentary canal	33
10858296770	Constituents of insulin (mature)	A chain- 21 amino acids B chain- 30 amino acids A-B chains are joint together by disulphide bonds	34
10858317008	Difference between proinsulin and mature insulin	Prohormone contains an extra C-chain which is removed during maturation	35
10858338535	How many amino acids are present in the C-chain of insulin?	31	36
10858342026	How many amino acids are present in proinsulin	86	37
10858350393	Where is C-chain dissected?	When proinsulin is transported through the Golgi apparatus the C-peptide is cleaved	38
10858363328	Difference between A and B chains of Insulin	An additional disulfide is formed within the A chain	39
10858470591	Why is C-chain of Human insulin cleaved?	o achieve proper folding	40
10858368266	Main challenge for artificially producing insulin	To get Insulin assembled in a mature form	41
10858380732	Who produced the first artificial Insulin?	Eli Lilly (An American company)	42
10858388577	When was the first artificial insulin produced?	1983	43
10858391246	How did Eli Lilly make Insulin?	Prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to A and B chains (of insulin) separately. Then transformed the genetic sequences into E.Coli by pBR322 to produce A and B chains of Insulin separately and then extracting them and combining by creating disulfide bonds between them; to produce human insulin	44
10858436212	Which selectable marker is used to identify recombinant E.coli with Insulin gene?	lac z gene (blue-white screening)	45

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Biotechnology: Principles and Processes Flashcards

Biology Chap 11

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11714887093	Biotechnology	The integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services.	0
11714956511	Genetic Engineering	Techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material to introduce these into host organisms and thus change the phenotype of host organisms.	1
11715103985	2 Principles of biotech	Genetic engineering Maintenance of sterile ambiance to enable growth of only the desired microbe in large quantities to help in manufacture of biotech products.	2
11715121605	Characteristic feature of asexual and sexual reproduction	Sexual- permits variation by unique combinations of genetic setup Asexual- Preserve genetic info	3
11715130286	2 genetic engineering techniques that involve creation of recombinant DNA.	Gene cloning Gene transfer	4
11715133442	Why is genetic engineering preferred over traditional hybridisation?	Involves inclusion and multiplication of undesirable genes too Genetic engineering techniques introduce only 1 set of desirable genes in target organism.	5
11715145141	What prob occurs if an alien DNA enters our body? How can this prob be rectified?	Not be able to multiply itself in progeny cells of organism. Can be rectified if alien DNA is part of a chromosome of host called origin of replication and thus, replicated with it.	6
11715850713	Cloning	Making multiple identical copies of template DNA	7
11715913091	First instance of construction of an artificial recombinant DNA molecule	Linking a gene encoding antibiotic resistance with a native plasmid of Salmonella Typhimurium	8
11715917755	Plasmid	Autonomously replicating circular extra-chromosomal DNA Eg- pBR322 cloning vector	9
11715926496	Scientists who formed the first recombinant DNA	Stanley Cohen Herbert Boyer 1972	10
11715938459	Molecular scissors	Restriction enzymes Cutting of DNA at specific locations	11
11715957324	Function of DNA ligase in genetic modification	Acts on cut DNA molecules and joins their ends Eg- Linking of antibiotic resistance gene with plasmid vector	12
11715948573	Function of plasmid DNA	Act as vectors to transfer the piece of DNA attached to it.	13
11715969540	Recombinant DNA	New combination of circular autonomously replicating DNA created in vitro after genetic modification	14
11715982897	Basic steps of genetic modification of an organism	Identification of DNA with desirable gene Introduction of identified DNA into host Maintenance of introduced DNA in host Transfer of DNA to its progeny	15
11716012040	2 enzymes responsible for restricting growth of Bacteriophages in EColi.	1963 Milestone of biotechnology Methyl transferase- added methyl grps to DNA to protect it from fragmentation Restriction endonucleases- Fragmentation of DNA	16
11716034133	1st restriction endonuclease isolated	1968 Hind II Cut DNA molecule at particular point by recognizing a specific 6 b.p. sequence.	17
11716044313	Recognition sequence	Specific base pair sequence at which a restriction enzyme cuts the DNA	18
11716053554	Naming of restriction enzyme	1st letter- genus 2nd n 3rd letter- species of prokaryotic cell frm which they were isolated 4th letter- name of strain Roman no. after name- order of isolation of enzymes frm the strain of bacteria.	19
11716070404	Naming of Hind II	H- haemophilus in- influenzae d- d-type II- 2nd isolated RE	20
11716076443	Isolation of EcoRI	Escherichia coli RY 13	21
11716087518	Exonucleases	Remove nucleotides from the ends of DNA	22
11716088752	Endonucleases	Make cuts at specific positions within the DNA	23
11716096235	How does a restriction endonuclease function?	Inspects length of DNA sequence Finds specific recognition sequence Bind to DNA and cut each strand of double helix at specific points	24
11716124204	Palindromic nucleotide sequences	Palindrome in DNA is a sequence of base pairs that reads the same on 2 strands when orientation of reading is kept the same. Eg- 3'-->5' orientation	25
11716139778	At what point do REs cut DNA?	Cut the strand of DNA a little away from the centre of palindrome sites , but b/w the same 2 bases on the opposite strands	26
11716153453	Sticky ends	Overhanging stretches on each strand after action of REs.	27
11716157426	Why are sticky ends called so?	Form H-bonds with their complementary cut counterparts	28
11716161411	Use of sticky ends	Facilitates action of enzyme DNA ligase	29
11716177524	Use of REs	In genetic engineering to form recombinant molecules of DNA.	30
11716191312	Why should vector and foreign DNA be cut by same RE?	Same kind of sticky ends on both Joined 2gether end to end using DNA ligase.	31
11716211207	How are DNA fragments separated?	By gel electrophoresis	32
11716213927	Gel Electrophoresis	Technique used to separate biomolecules under electric field based on their size	33
11716223698	Principle behind gel electrophoresis	DNA fragments- -vely charged Forcing them to move to anode under electric field thru matrix Smaller fragment, farther it moves	34
11716238429	Commonly used matrix	Agarose gel Natural polymer extracted frm sea weeds Its sieving effect causes separation of fragments.	35
11716407242	Stain used in gel electrophoresis	Ethidium bromide	36
11716417101	How to see DNA fragments in visible light?	Staining of DNA Exposure to UV radiations Bright orange coloured bands seen	37
11716423733	Elution	Separated bands of DNA are cut out from agarose gel and extracted frm gel piece	38
11716442012	Why does an alien DNA need a vector?	Multiplication of alien DNA numbers to equal copy no. of plasmid or bacteriophage. Help easy linkage of foreign DNA Easy selection of recombinants frm non- recombinants.	39
11716490608	Features required to facilitate cloning in a vector	Origin of replication that supports high copy no. Selectable marker Cloning sites	40
11716501820	Origin of replication	Specific DNA sequence responsible for initiating replication	41
11716511440	Uses of ori	Piece of DNA linked to this sequence can replicate within host cells Controls copy no. of linked DNA	42
11716537694	Selectable markers	A gene introduced into a vector, that confers a trait suitable for artificial selection.	43
11716611088	Use of selectable marker	Identifying and eliminating non-transformants Selectively permitting the growth of transformants	44
11716618114	Transformation	Process by which piece of DNA is introduced in host bacterium.	45
11716633954	Why shld there be few or preferably 1 recognition site in vectors?	More than 1 recognition sites in vector will generate several fragments Complicates gene cloning.	46
11716652196	Where is ligation of alien DNA carried out?	Restriction site present in one of 2 antibiotic resistance genes.	47
11716676922	Selection of recombinants based on antibiotic resistance	Recombinants selected based on antibiotic resistant nature Non- recombinants- Resistant to ampicillin, tetracyclin Recombinants- Resistant to ampicillin	48
11716704891	How to isolate recombinants based on antibiotic resistance?	Plating of recombinants and non- recombinants in ampicillin and tetracyclin containing medium. Ampicillin- Both survive Tetracycline- Recombinants can't survive	49
11716799328	Why is insertional inactivation a better method of selection of recombinants?	Selection by antibiotic resistance is a time-consuming process as it req. simultaneous plating on 2 plates having diff. antibiotics.	50
11716904126	Insertional inactivation	Easy method of isolation of recombinants by colour production	51
11716973179	Principle behind insertional inactivation	Usage of selectable markers which can differentiate recombinants and non- recombinats on basis of ability to produce color in the presence of chromogenic substrate.	52
11716922255	Procedure of insertional inactivation	Insert incorporated in coding sequence of beta- galactosidase gene Recombinants- colorless due to inactivation of beta-galactosidase gene Non- recombinants- produce blue color in presence of chromogenic substance	53
11717013232	Why is insertional inactivation called so?	Insertion of foreign gene inactivates the enzyme	54
11717042226	Agrobacterium tumifaciens	Soil bacterium Pathogen of dicot plants Uses T-DNA to transform normal plant cells into tumour	55
11717090749	Ti plasmid	Tumour inducing plasmid Used if host is a plant cell T-DNA present in this Tumour inducing property is inactivated and it is now used as a cloning vector	56
11717108051	Ti plasmid is called natural gene engineer	During infection, Ti plasmid induced and tumor formed Due to this specific property of altering gene.	57
11717120252	Retrovirus	Ability to transform normal cells into cancerous cells Disarmed and used to deliver desirable genes in animal cells.	58
11717326545	Why can't DNA pass thru cell membranes?	Hydrophilic molecule The bacterial cells must be made competent to take up DNA	59
11717336017	Heat shock	Treat bacteria with specific conc. of Ca Recombinant DNA forced in cells by putting cells and DNA on ice, 42' conditions and ice again.	60
11717358913	Why are bacterial cells treated with Ca in heat shock method?	Method of insertion of recombinant DNA in host Increases efficiency with which DNA enters bacteria thru pores in cell wall.	61
11717367010	Micro injection	Method of insertion of recombinant DNA in host Recombinant DNA directly injected into nucleus of animal cell	62
11717373297	Biolistics/ Gene Gun	Method of insertion of recombinant DNA in host Cells are bombarded with high velocity micro particles of gold or tungsten coated with DNA Suitable for plants	63
11717383424	Usage of disarmed pathogen vectors	Method of insertion of recombinant DNA in host Disarmed pathogen vectors infect the cell and transfer recombinant DNA in host	64
11717409747	Processes of Recombinant DNA Technology	Isolation of DNA Fragmentation of DNA by REs Isolation of desired gene fragment by gel electrophoresis Ligation of DNA fragment in vector Transfer of recombinant DNA in host Culturing host cells in a medium on large scale Extraction of desired product	65
11717439275	Isolation of bacterial DNA	Lysozyme	66
11717443023	Isolation of plant DNA	Cellulase	67
11717445868	Isolation of fungal DNA	Chitinase	68
11717452623	Removal of RNA	Treatment with ribonuclease	69
11717461304	Removal of Proteins	Treatment with proteases	70
11717464876	Removal of lipids	Treatment with lipases	71
11717470444	How to obtain purified DNA after isolation?	Addition of chilled ethanol leads to precipitation of purified DNA Collection of fine threads in suspension	72
11717486409	How are restriction enzyme digestions performed?	Incubating purified DNA molecules with restriction enzyme at optimal conditions req. for that specific enzyme Electrophoresis to chk progression of digestion. After cutting by REs, ligation gv rDNA	73
11717532144	Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)	Multiple copies of gene of interest is synthesised in vitro using 2 sets of primers and DNA polymerase enzyme.	74
11717550243	Primers	Small chemically synthesised oligonucleotides tht are complementary to regions of DNA.	75
11717561636	Use of DNA polymerase enzyme	Extends primers by use of nucleotides in reaction and genomic DNA as template.	76
11717568765	Thermostable DNA polymerase	-Helps in repeated amplification of DNA by repeated replication of DNA -Isolated frm Thermus aquaticus bacterium -Remains active during high temp. induced denaturation step of PCR.	77
11717596015	How to induce further cloning of recombinant DNA?	Amplified fragment used to ligate with vector.	78
11717611323	Why is there a need for recombinant DNA to be expressed?	In almost all recombinant technologies, ultimate is to produce proteins, which is not possible unless DNA gets assimilated in host cells	79
11717657651	Why is there a need for large scale production of recombinant DNA?	Large amount of target proteins needed.	80
11717659855	Recombinant protein	Protein encoding gene is expressed in a heterologous host.	81
11717674033	How to produce higher yield of desired protein?	Cont. culture system- Used medium drained frm 1 side and fresh medium enters frm other. Maintains cells in physiological active exponential phase. Produces larger biomass	82
11717688543	Req. for bioreactors	Small volume cultures cannot yield appreciable quantities of products Large volumes of culture can be processed (100-1000L)	83
11717713253	Bioreactors	Vessels in which raw materials are biologically converted into specific products, individual enzymes, etc. using microbial plant, animals or human cells	84
11717729081	Use of bioreactors	Provides optimum growth conditions (temp., pH, substrate, salts, vitamins, O2) to achieve product	85
11717775875	Stirred- tank reactor	cylindrical or curved base- facilitates mixing of contents Stirrer- facilitates even mixing and O2 availability thru bioreactor Air can be bubbled thru reactor Agitator system O2 delivery system Foam control system Temp. control system pH control system Sampling ports- small vol. of culture withdrawn periodically	86
11717804975	Downstream processing	Series of separation and purification processes that protein has to go thru b4 marketing Formulated with suitable preservatives. Strict quality control testing	87

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Biotechnology; Principles and processes - Chapter 11 Flashcards

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14721362063	Genetic engineering	Genetic engineering is defined as the direct manipulation of DNA and RNA in the genome of an organism. It involves the transfer of new genes to improve the function or trait. The most important technique of genetic engineering is gene cloning.	0
14721431340	Maintenance of sterile environment in chemical engineering processes	To grow only the desired microbe. This is important for the manufacturing of antibiotics, vaccines, drugs etc.	1
14721437520	Basic Principles of Biotechnology	Genetic engineering allows the isolation and introduction of only the desired genes into the organism without introducing the undesirable genes. The steps involved in genetic engineering are: 1. Development of recombinant DNA (rDNA). 2. Cloning of desired gene 3. Transfer of the cloned gene into suitable host organism. ➢ Origin of replication (ori): A specific DNA sequence in the chromosome that can initiate DNA replication. The foreign DNA introduced into the host genome has to be linked to the origin of replication in the host chromosome for the gene to be able to multiply. If the foreign gene is not linked to the ori sequence it may not be able to multiply. ➢ Cloning: The process of making multiple identical copies of a template DNA ➢ Plasmid: A circular extra-chromosomal material that is capable of autonomous replication. Plasmids are used as vectors for cloning and expression. Foreign gene is introduced into a plasmid and the plasmid is allowed to multiply. This causes the multiplication of the desired gene. ➢ Antibiotic resistance gene: The gene in certain microorganisms that bestows on them the ability to grow in the presence of the specific antibiotic as the gene gives them resistance. These genes are present on plasmids. These are used as indicators of cloning and transformation. ➢ Restriction Enzymes: They are enzymes that can cut DNA at specific fragments. They are also called as "molecular scissors". The sequences at which they cut the DNA are specific for the restriction enzyme. They allow the desired gene to be cut and be introduced in specific locations in the vector or host DNA. ➢ Vectors: These are plasmids that are used to multiply and transfer the desired gene from one organism to the next. ➢ Ligase: Enzymes that are responsible for the joining of the desired gene fragment with the host DNA. Ligases function by getting DNA fragments to stick together. ➢ The basic steps in genetic modification of an organism: ▪ Identification of desired DNA fragment ▪ Introduction of desired DNA fragment into suitable host ▪ Maintaining foreign DNA in the host and its transfer to the progeny	2
14721509550	Restriction enzymes or molecular scissors	Restriction enzymes or molecular scissors are used to cut DNA to be inserted into the vector. These enzymes add methyl group to the DNA, which help in restricting the digestion of their own DNA. They are used to cut DNA fragments with specific recognition sequences.	3
14721512841	Recognition sequences	The sequence of DNA bases that can be recognized by the restriction enzyme as the site for restriction or cutting. They exist as palindromic sequences.	4
14721532976	two types of restriction enzymes	endonucleases and exonucleases	5
14721535583	Endonucleases	Endonucleases cut the DNA in the middle whereas exonucleases cut at the ends. For example, ECoR1, Hind III, etc. are examples of restriction endonucleases. Restriction enzymes cut at a specific site on DNA known as restriction site. The restriction site is characterized by a specific recognition sequence for the endonuclease. Each restriction endonuclease identifies a specific palindromic nucleotide sequences in DNA. Palindrome in DNA is a sequence of base pairs that are present in the same order on the two strands when orientation of reading is kept same.	6
14721640319	Ligases	Ligases are the enzyme that joins the two DNA fragments. Presence of sticky ends (similar overhanging sequences due to the action of the same restriction enzyme) helps in ligation.	7
14721690161	Separation and Isolation of DNA Fragments	The DNA fragments obtained through restriction are separated by a technique called as gel electrophoresis.	8
14721705047	Gel Electrophoresis	It involves the migration of negatively charged DNA to the positive electrode through a porous polymer gel matrix under the influence of an electric field. The DNA fragments separate or resolve depending on their size as well as the pore size of the gel. The smaller DNA fragments are able to migrate farther than the larger DNA fragments. The most common matrix used for DNA electrophoresis is agarose. Agarose is obtained from seaweeds.	9
14721711891	Visualization	DNA fragments cannot be directly observed. To observe the DNA fragments they need to be first stained with a compound called as ethidium bromide (EtBr) and then placed in UV light. DNA stained with EtBr fluoresces under UV	10
14721731727	Elution	Purification of desired DNA fragments from the gel using various methods is called as elution	11
14721735488	Cloning vectors	Vector is any DNA molecule that carries a gene of interest to be inserted into the host organism. For example, plasmid. Plasmid is an autonomously replicating extrachromosomal genetic content present in the bacteria. It is different from the chromosomal DNA. It is used as a vehicle for transfer of gene of interest into the host cell. Plasmid contain origin of replication, site where replication begins when gene of interest enters the host cell. It also contains antibiotic resistance gene	12
14721741325	features required for a cloning vector	• Origin of replication, this is known as ori. This is important for replication within the host cell as well as to maintain the copy number. • Selectable marker to identify transformed cells. Transformation is the process used to introduce piece of DNA into the host cells. The genes encoding resistance to antibiotics such as ampicillin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, or kanamycin, etc. are some of the useful selectable markers for E. coli. The normal E. coli cells do not show any resistance against any of these antibiotics. • There should be cloning site in the cloning vector. Presence of more than one recognition site can complicate the cloning, so single cloning site is preferable. The ligation of the foreign DNA usually occurs at the site of antibiotic resistance gene. Once of the gene of interest gets inserted at the site of antibiotic resistance gene, antibiotic resistance will be lost. So, a recombinant plasmid will lose antibiotic resistance. So, recombinants can be selected from the non-recombinants. Another method to find out the transformed cells is insertional inactivation. This is based on the ability to produce color in the presence of a chromogenic substrate. For this technique, a recombinant DNA is inserted within the coding sequence of an enzyme, β-galactosidase. Beta-galactosidase converts galactose into lactose. If a gene is inserted into this region, β-galactosidase will not be formed and therefore galactose will not be converted into lactose. This results in the inactivation of the enzyme. This is called as insertional inactivation. The presence of a chromogenic substrate causes non-transformed colonies to give blue colour. Presence of gene of interest results in the insertional inactivation of the galactosidase and the colonies therefore, do not produce any color. These colonies can be inferred as recombinant colonies.	13
14721947671	Insertional inactivation	The inactivation of an enzyme due to the insertion of gene of interest in the region of DNA coding for the enzyme.	14
14722112478	Vectors for cloning in plants	Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a pathogen of several dicot plants is used as a vector for plants. It can deliver a piece of DNA known as 'T-DNA' to transform normal plant cells into a tumor and direct these tumor cells to produce the chemicals required by the pathogen. Gene of interest is inserted into T-DNA to transform plant cells with required gene. The tumor inducing (Ti) plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens has now been modified into a cloning vector which is no more pathogenic to the plants. Cytokinin and auxin coding genes in plasmid acts as growth regulator. Opine catabolism gene codes for energy source. Right and left border are needed to transfer T-DNA into the required host plant cell.	15
14722231912	Competent host	In order to allow bacterial cells to take up the DNA, bacterial cell should be made competent. This can be done by treating the cells with specific concentration of divalent ions such as calcium ions, which creates pores in the cell wall of the bacteria. Such bacteria are subjected to heat shock. In this method the calcium treated competent cells are kept in ice. They are then briefly incubated at 42◦C for 1-2 minutes and then immediately placed in ice. This forces the rDNA into the competent cell. Apart from this, DNA can be inserted into host cells using biolistics, microinjection, gene gun etc. Using microinjection, DNA can be directly inserted into the nucleus of the host cell. A high velocity microparticles of gold or tungsten coated with DNA is methodology used in biolistics.	16
14722243606	Process of recombinant DNA technology	1. Isolation of the genetic material: To isolate the DNA, membranes needs to be broken down. Cells can be treated with lysozyme (in case of bacteria), cellulase (in case of plant cells), and chitinase (in case of fungus). Ribonucleases are used to remove the RNA whereas proteases are used to remove the proteins. After this, the pure DNA can be obtained through precipitation via ethanol. DNA is then obtained as fine threads in suspension. 2. Restriction digestion of the isolated DNA: Agarose gel electrophoresis is used to check the progression of restriction digestion of the DNA. The gene of interest is now inserted into specific vector and joined via enzyme known as ligase. This forms a recombinant DNA molecule. 3. Amplification of gene of interest using PCR: Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used to amplify the target gene of interest. For this two sets of primers- forward primer and reverse primer is used. DNA polymerase enzyme is used to amplify the DNA. The most common polymerase used during PCR is Taq polymerase. 4. Insertion of recombinant DNA is into host cell or organism: Recipient cell is made competent to take up the recombinant DNA. 5. Expression of desired protein: The ultimate goal of recombinant DNA technology is to obtain desired protein of interest. The protein obtained is known as recombinant protein.	17
14723187512	how to produce large quantities of recombinant protein?	To produce large quantities of recombinant protein, large vessels known as bioreactors are used. A bioreactor provides the optimal conditions for achieving the desired product by providing optimum growth conditions (temperature, pH, substrate, salts, vitamins, oxygen).	18
14723193240	Basic parts of a bioreactor	1. Agitator 2. Oxygen Control system 3. Foam control system 4. Temperature control 5. pH control 6. Sampling port 7. Inlet 8. Outlet	19
14723205650	Bioreactors are mainly of two types - which?	Stirred type and the sparger type	20
14723209791	Stirring type bioreactor	A stirrer is fixed to a bioreactor having a curved base to facilitate better mixing of the contents. It also improves aeration of the medium.	21
14723216151	Sparger type bioreactor	In this air is bubbled into the bioreactor from the base of the bioreactor. This bubbling of air results in mixing as well as aeration of the contents.	22
14723221685	Downstream Processing	The processes and methods involved in the separation and purification of the desired product are called as downstream processing. In case of drugs, the product needs to be suitably formulated and drug tested before being made available commercially.	23

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Biotechnology and it's processes Flashcards

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11127842087	herbert boyer was bron in	1936	0
11127842088	the European Federation of Biotechnology	the integration of natural science and organisms cells parts thereof and molecular analogues for products and services	1
11127842089	genetic engineering	techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material dna and rna to introduce these into gost and thus change the phenotype	2
11127842090	Bioprocess Technology	maintenance of sterile ambience in chemical engineering process to enable growth of only desired microbe	3
11127842091	origin of replication	initiation of replication	4
11127842092	Cloning	making multiple identical copies of any template dna	5
11127842093	Plasmid	autonomously replicating circular extra Chromosomal dna	6
11127842094	1st plasmid	salmonella typhimurium	7
11127842095	Stanley Cohen and herbert boyer in	1972	8
11127842096	normal ecoli is	not antibiotic resistant	9
11127842097	restriction enzyme	smith and nathan	10
11127842098	bacteria protect themselves from viruses	by fragmenting viral dna with endonuclease	11
11127842099	Molecular scissors	restriction enzymes	12
11127842100	endonuclease is	nuclease	13
11127842101	1963	two enzymes were discovered in	14
11127842102	1 endonuclease	hind \|\|	15
11127842103	methyl group	enzyme endonuclease cannot cut it's own DNA bcoz	16
11127842104	ecoli strian	R	17
11127842105	removed dna from ends	exonuclease	18
11127842106	removes dna at specific points	endonuclease	19
11127842107	palindromic nucleotide sequences	each restriction endonuclease recognize a specific	20
11127842108	cohesive ends	sticky ends	21
11127842109	gel electrophoresis	dna fragments are separated	22
11127842110	agarose gel	sea weed	23
11127842111	using ethidium bromide	dna is seen	24
11127842112	the ser fragments	move farther	25
11127842113	the separated bands of dna are cut out from the agarose gel and extracted from the gel piece	elution	26
11127842114	transformation	process through which price of dna is introduces in a host bacteria	27
11127842115	terR	BamH I Sal I	28
11127842116	Bam HI	GGATCC	29
11127842117	Bam H1	Bacillus amyloliquefaciens	30
11127842118	ampR	Pvu I Pst T	31
11127842119	insertional inactivation	inactivation of gene synthesis of that enzyme	32
11127842120	when big dna	BAC YAC	33
11127842121	ss bacteriophage	m13 vector	34
11127842122	ds bacteriophage	lambda phage	35
11127842123	PUC	plasmid university of California	36
11127842124	chromatogenic substance	change into blue by beta galactosidase	37
11127842125	chromatogenic no color	a galactosidase	38
11127842126	Agrobacterium tumefaciens	vector for ti plasmid	39
11127842127	pcr by	kary mullis	40
11162407171	gel electrophoresis by	tiselius	41

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DNA, Processes and Biotechnology Flashcards

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8984554058	DNA	a double-stranded helix information molecule containing genetic material that code for production of proteins by the cell	0
8984554061	what the helix strands are held together by	hydrogen bonds between opposing pairs of nitrogen bases	1
8984554066	Nucleotides	basic building blocks of nucleic acids (DNA/RNA) linked together by phosphodiester bonds. consist of 5 carbon sugar, negatively charged phosphate and nitrogenous base	2
8984554074	Semi-conservative replication	1 of 2 strands is conserved from one generation while another strand is new	3
8984554076	DNA helicase	unzips the long molecule of DNA, at the origin, by breaking hydrogen bonds between nucleotides.	4
8984554077	Replication fork	junction between unwound single strands of DNA and the intact double helix and moves along parental DNA strand for continuous unwinding	5
8984554079	DNA primase	shows polymerase where to start by setting primers on the origin. DNA polymerase attaches loose nucleotides from the nucleus with matching base pairs on both separate strands of DNA.	6
8984554081	DNA primase	sets RNA primers on fragments of the lagging strand.	7
8984554082	DNA ligase	seals the nucleotides together to form the bond between 2 pieces of DNA. Nucleotides link together in a 5' 3' direction	8
8984554083	Okazaki fragments	short, newly synthesized DNA fragments that are formed on the lagging template strand and are joined together by ligase.	9
8984554095	Composition of chromosome:	DNA > NUCLEOSOMES > CHROMATIN > LOOPED DOMAINS > METAPHASE CHROMOSOME	10
8984554097	Histone proteins	package the DNA into a compact form to become chromatin and allow DNA to fit into nucleus	11
8984554100	Nucleosome	group of histones with DNA coiled around to form a bead.	12
8984554101	how chromatin is formed	With help of 5th histone, H1, histones coil into fibres called chromatin	13
8984554102	looped domains	loops formed from chromatin fibres	14
8984554103	Homologous chromosomes	a pair of chromosomes that have the same size, shape and genes at same location	15
8984554104	Autosomes	first 22 chromosomes, do not include sex chromosomes	16
8984554105	Heterosome	non-identical chromosomes pairing up at meiosis	17
8984554106	locus	The location of a particular gene	18
9005377483	nucleoid	particular region within the cell where prokaryotic chromosomes are found	19
8984554111	Plasmids	small rings of DNA and may also be present in cytoplasm and commonly encode non-essential genes. they replicate independently to the main chromsoomes and can be easily transferred from one bacterium to another and replictae rapidly	20
8984554114	supercoiling	number of proteins act together to fold and condense the DNA so Prokaryotic chromosomes fit into small areas	21
8984554119	Mrna	carries genetic messages from nucleus to ribosomes	22
8984554120	tRNA	carries amino acids from cytoplasm to ribosomes to match with mRNA codons	23
8984554121	Transcription	Occurs in cell nucleus Generates single stranded RNA molecule The copying of RNA from a section of DNA to code for building a protein	24
8984554127	Non-template strand	has same sequence as mRNA (U not T)	25
8984554132	Methylated cap	added at the 5' end of RNA and used as a recognition signal for ribosomes to bind to the mRNA and prevents degradation of mRNA and provides stability	26
8984554136	Poly-A tail	added on 3' which contains 100-200 adenine nucleotides and provides stability	27
8984554138	RNA splicing	coding regions (exons) are kept and regions not translated (introns) are removed from pre-mRNA	28
8984554139	Translation	Occurs at ribosomes and is The conversion of information in mRNA nucleotides into a sequence of amino acids that bond together to build a protein	29
8984554156	Genetic mutations		30
8984554157	Gene mutations: errors in 1 or more nucleotides in the duplicated DNA sequence		31
8984554158	-	May occur in replication or protein synthesis	32
8984554159	Chromosome mutations: changes in the number or structure of chromosomes and added or deleted sections of chromosomes		33
8984554160	Biotechnology		34
8984554161	The use of living things to make new products or systems		35
8984554162	Genetic engineering - changing the genetic sequence of an organism through human use of biotech techniques		36
8984554163	-	Genetically modified organisms/transgenic organisms	37
8984554164	Cutting DNA		38
8984554165	Done by restriction endonucleases/enzymes		39
8984554166	-	Cut DNA into smaller pieces called restriction fragments	40
8984554167	-	DNA is digested by enzymes	41
8984554168	-	Enzymes only cut specific sits - restriction sites	42
8984554169	-	Restriction enzymes occur naturally in bacteria - cut foreign DNA from invading viruses	43
8984554170		R.enzymes bind to restriction site and cut double stranded DNA and may form overhanging/sticky ends - leaves nucleotides exposed	44
8984554171		Blunt ends - cut has occurred at same position in each strand of DNA and there are no overlapping strands	45
8984554172	Recombining DNA		46
8984554173	Combining 2 samples of DNA by DNA ligase joining different pieces together		47
8984554174	-	Acts by forming a phosphodiester bond between 2 fragments of DNA	48
8984554175	-	Joins 3' end to 5' end	49
8984554176	-	DNA ligase used to recombine 2 DNA fragments that have been cut with same enzyme that generates sticky ends and complementary bases are exposed	50
8984554177	-	E.g. EcoR1 can be used to cut both human DNA and bacterial plasmid DNA, leaving sticky ends that are complementary and increase chance of correct 2 ends coming together	51
8984554178	-	Blunt ends can be joined by ligase	52
8984554179		Sticky ends is more efficient	53
8984554180	Amplifying DNA - polymerase chain reaction (PCR)		54
8984554181	To increase amount of DNA, polymerase chain reaction is used		55
8984554182	PCR needs:		56
8984554183	-	Template	57
8984554184	-	DNA polymerase	58
8984554185	-	Buffer solution - salts and other chemicals that helps polymerase function	59
8984554186	-	Nucleotides	60
8984554187	-	2 primers	61
8984554188		Short sequences of single stranded DNA complementary to nucleotide sequences at either end of copying DNA section	62
8984554189		Act as starting point for polymerase	63
8984554190	3 steps of PCR		64
8984554191	1.	Denaturation ('melting stage') - DNA heated to 95c - breaks hydrogen bonds between bases and causes 2 strands to denature	65
8984554192	2.	Annealing - temperature reduced 50-60c - primers anneal together to complementary sequences on opposite ends of each strand - genomic DNA or PCR products	66
8984554193		Allows base pairing ad formation of hydrogen bonds	67
8984554194	3.	Extension - temp raised 72c (optimum for DNA polymerase) where primers start the new DNA strands to be synthesised by polymerase and available nucleotides	68
8984554195		By end, 2 copies of double stranded DNA	69
8984554196	*the cycle is repeated until enough copies of DNA are obtained to work with		70
8984554197	Gel electrophoresis		71
8984554198	Separates fragments of DNA according to size and shape		72
8984554199	-	Agarose gel is melted and poured into flat mould to cool	73
8984554200	-	Wells are created where negatively charged DNA can be loaded	74
8984554201	-	Gel in tray with buffer solution and positive and negative electrodes are attached at each end of gel	75
8984554202	-	Electric current runs and fragments are repelled from negative to positive electrode	76
8984554203	-	Gel acts as sponge	77
8984554204	To view DNA ethidium bromide or other fluorescent dye is added to gel before it sets		78
8984554205		Dye binds to DNA and glows under ultraviolet light - shows pattern of bands	79
8984554206	Each band on the gel contains millions of pieces of DNA		80
8984554207	-	To determine size of DNA fragments - molecular size markers	81
8984554208	Probing for genes		82
8984554209	Gene probing uses a single strand DNA complementary to a gene of interest to identify, isolate or position gene on a chromosome		83
8984554210	-	Tools called gene probes are used to search for specific regions within the genome	84
8984554211		Either have radioactive tag or fluorescent dye tag - Huntington's	85
8984554212		Natural or nucleotides synthesised	86
8984554213		Used in Huntington's disease	87
8984554214	Uses:		88
8984554215	-	Finding fragment of gene after gel electrophoresis	89
8984554216	-	Identify position of gene on chromosomes	90
8984554217	-	Identify allele of specific gene associated with genetic disease	91
8984554218	-	A gene probe binds to target sequences in DNA	92
8984554219		Specific single length of a single stranded DNA of 20-40 nucleotides or 1000 that is complementary to sequence if DNA from specific gene	93
8984554220	-	DNA is heated to separate strands and expose bases	94
8984554221	-	Single strand probes bind to complementary sequences	95
8984554222	Micro array		96
8984554223	-	Allows thousands of genes to be tested at same time	97
8984554224	-	Arrayed on single microscope slide of glass or a silicon chip	98
8984554225	1.	mRNA of cell is extracted and reverse transcribed to DNA	99
8984554226	2.	copied DNA (cDNA) is labelled with fluorescent marker	100
8984554227	3.	labelled cDNA is hybridised (allowed to bind) with probes	101
8984554228	4.	scanner measures amount of fluorescence - stronger fluorescence = more active gene	102
8984554229	DNA sequencing		103
8984554230	A process of determining the nucleotide sequence of a gene determine genetic basis for particular phenotypes		104
8984554231	-	Help identify individuals with deletion mutations e.g. cystic fibrosis	105
8984554232	-	Identify substitution mutations e.g. sickle cell anaemia	106
8984554233	Manually - gel electrophoresis		107
8984554234	Automatically - automatic DNA sequencer		108
8984554235	Sanger method		109
8984554236	1.	4 nucleotides are labelled with 4 different coloured fluorescent dyes	110
8984554237	2.	Laser scans across gel in gel electrophoresis and detects different dyes and the base sequence	111
8984554238	3.	Computer automatically analyses info from the gel to read base sequence #	112
8984554239	Next generation sequencing is faster and cheaper and uses whole genomic DNA as a template greater efficiency		113

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Biotechnology Flashcards

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15740183062	Biotechnology	Any technology that uses living organism or substances from those organisms in agriculture, industry, or medicine (farming)	0
15740211082	What are the 4 organic molecules?	Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic acids	1
15740216437	Why are they called organic molecules?	They have a carbon base	2
15740218859	What type of organic molecule is an enzyme?	Protein	3
15740221779	Which 2 of the 4 types of organic molecules are involved in genetics?	Proteins Nucleic acids	4
15740223991	What are the 2 types of Nucleic Acids?	DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) RNA (ribonucleic acid)	5
15815156483	What is a "Genome"?	All the DNA in one cell of an organism	6
15815163845	What is a "Chromosome"?	DNA divided into chunks	7
15815171287	What is a "Gene"?	A section of DNA	8
15815202124	How many genomes do humans have?	3 billion base pairs	9
15815209609	How many chromosomes do humans have?	46 (23 pairs)	10
15815217472	How many genes do humans have?	20,000	11
15815366367	What are the 3 parts of a gene	Promoter Coding region Termination sequence	12
15815220053	Promoter	Region where RNA polymerase attaches (attaches to nucleotide) and initiates transcription	13
15815378914	Coding region	Where RNA polymerase makes mRNA	14
15815394994	Termination sequence	RNA polymerase releases from the DNA (end)	15
15815408288	Chromosomes come in...	Matching pairs (Homologous Pairs)	16
15815418706	Where did each member of the pair come from?	From the parents	17
15815467918	What does "XX" represent?	Female	18
15815472397	What does "XY" represent?	Male	19
15815482070	Chromosome theory of inheritance	"The two members of each homologous pair of chromosomes carry alleles for the same gene and therefore affect the same trait" - Walter Sutton 1903	20
15815509141	2 alleles that are identical are...	Homozygous	21
15815521216	2 alleles that are different are...	Heterozygous	22
15815601789	How many copies (Alleles) are there for every gene?	Two	23
15815644458	The most common allele is known as the "Wild-Type", also known as...	Dominant allele (WT)	24
15815648740	SNP	Single nucleotide polymorphism	25
16104832627	Gene codes for...	Protein	26
16104832628	What's the order of Gene Address	Chromosome Arm Region Band	27
16104832629	Nucleotides	Building blocks of DNA	28
16104832630	Sequence	Order of DNA	29
16104832631	DNA is made up of how many different nucleotides? What are they called?	Adenine Thymine Cytosine Guanine (4)	30
16104832632	What are the 3 parts of a nucleotide?	Phosphate group Sugar Base	31
16104832633	What are the 5 elements make up a nucleotide?	Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Phosphorus Sulfur (sometimes)	32
16105264734	What is the function of "Globin" Genes?	Contain instructions for making hemoglobin protein, which allows our blood to carry oxygen throughout the body	33
16105294350	The phosphate group is attached to...	The 5th carbon of the sugar	34
16105358601	A hydrogen or a hydroxide is attached to...	The 2nd carbon of sugar	35
16105384161	What is the function of the 3rd carbon of sugar	Used to attach the phosphate group of the next nucleotide in the sequence	36
16105406905	Which carbon of sugar is the base attached to?	Attached to the 1st carbon	37
16105429415	What are the backbones of DNA called? (sides of the ladder)	Sugar Phosphate	38
16134523289	What are Purines?	Adanine Guanine	39
16134524537	What are Pyrimidines?	Cytosine Thymine Uracil	40
16134624669	Examples of Prions	Mad Cow Disease Kuru CJD Scrapies	41
16134653172	Mutation	Physical change caused by a change in DNA	42
16134592827	How many amino acids are used by every human organism?	20	43
16134728973	eRNA	Enhancer RNA, activates transcription	44
16134613010	Proteins are made up of...	Amino acid chains	45
16134618209	What determines the primary structure?	DNA	46
16134651922	What is the protein that is made by the Lac Operon	Lactase	47
16134635110	What makes cells different?	Which genes are turned off or on (how genes are expressed)	48
16134680544	Steps to repair after a lesion is found	Enzyme (1) separates the 2 strands of DNA Enzyme (2) removes misplaced or damaged nucleotide Enzyme (3) DNA polymerase fills the gap with the correct nucleotide using the template from the other strand	49
16134638669	How do we know if a gene is expressed?	It makes a protein and can make RNA	50
16134687977	What does spliceosome do?	Splices intron from mRNA	51
16134652526	Variant	Change in DNA	52
16134698631	Can the 2 alleles be the same? Can they be different? What are the names of the allele pairings?	Yes, homozygous and heterozygous	53
16134588804	Where did the information to make tRNA come from?	mRNA	54
16134528093	Why are the rungs (steps of the ladder) held together with weak hydrogen bonds?	Easier to split side-to-side instead of halves	55
16134667995	SNPs (snips)	Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms Change at one nucleotide position, can be a single nucleotide mutation if it changes the amino acid coded by the gene	56
16134629075	If the hydrogen bonds break in a protein, what will happen?	It will denature (fall apart)	57
16134554648	What is the difference between DNA and RNA	DNA: Double stranded Missing one oxygen (uses deoxyribose as sugar) Has Thymine Found in nucleus (location) RNA: Single stranded Has all oxygen (uses ribose as sugar) Has Uracil Found in nucleus and cytoplasm (location)	58
16134608396	What are the names of the proteins called?	Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulfur (sometimes)	59
16134600017	Who won the Nobel Prize for RNAi	Andrew Z. Fire Craig C. Mello	60
16134566761	Is an enzyme a folded amino acid chain?	Yes	61
16134713647	(Rr) The dominant trait is expressed but the protein level is less, why?	Due to one of the genes are making the proteins	62
16134666674	Transposons	Jumping genes	63
16134586309	Where did the information to make ribosomal RNA come from?	DNA	64
16134630859	What are the 2 most common causes of denaturing (breaking of hydrogen bonds) in a protein?	Increase temperature Change in pH	65
16134649100	Why is Lac Operon important?	First experiment to show genes can be turned off and on	66
16134644387	Can genes be switched on and off?	Yes	67
16134532356	Which DNA nucleotide always pair up in the the middle of the ladder?	A-T C-G	68
16134609974	What are proteins used for?	Muscles, hormones and enzymes	69
16134578849	How many genes are in humans?	20,000	70
16134694603	One allele for each gene is inherited from each parent, what does that mean?	You inherit a version of a gene	71
16134580118	How many chromosome pairs do humans have?	23 (46 chromosomes)	72
16134691968	Allele	Particular sequence of DNA	73
16134650523	Quiescent gene	Quiet gene	74
16134583891	Where do amino acids come from?	Food & floats around the cytoplasm	75
16134578380	How many base pairs are in humans?	3 billion	76
16134597131	Gene therapy can be used for...	Huntington disease	77
16134708278	How is heterozygous be shown in basic Mendelian genetics?	Aa	78
16134582986	Who won the Nobel Prize for DNA transcription?	Roger Kornberg	79
16134627480	What's the function of hemoglobin?	Carries oxygen in red blood cells	80
16134686518	What the function of DNA ligase?	Links the sugar-phosphate backbone together	81
16134677522	Neutral Mutation	Mutation with no known function	82
16134645058	Operon	Combination of protein-coding DNA sequence and the regulatory sequence	83
16134607841	T/F: Proteins are very complex	True	84
16134656138	What are examples of mutation?	Whole Chromosomes Transposons SNPs Neutral Mutation	85
16134542001	What are the DNA properties?	DNA encodes information Controls synthesis of protein and RNA, function of the cell Stores instructions to be passed onto the next generation DNA changes by mutation DNA makes copies of itself	86
16134549520	Helicase	An enzyme that unzips DNA	87
16134563615	Protein	A folded amino acid chain	88
16134632622	What are examples of denaturing?	Bacteria and viral death by sterilization and disinfectants Tenderizing meat Change in color and texture of fried egg whites	89
16134696681	How many alleles for a gene does one individual have? Why?	2 sets of chromosomes, come from each parent	90
16134587034	Where did the information to make mRNA come from?	DNA	91
16134636883	All cells in one individual have the same DNA, how did this happen?	Started from one cell, mitosis	92
16134657669	Whole Chromosomes	Failure in an egg or sperm that results an abnormal increase or decrease of chromosomes	93
16134620284	Prions	Part of the nervous system, once they come in contact with a misfolded prion protein they change their folding	94
16134707011	How is homozygous be shown in basic Mendelian genetics?	aa or AA	95
16134627062	How many chains are in the hemoglobin?	4	96
16134652527	Polymorphism	Common variation	97
16134643769	How could Gene Expression happen?	Different cells and different genes are turned on	98
16134664514	Karotype	A picture of chromosomes lined up in order (biggest to smallest) Spots extra or missing chromosomes	99
16134617428	What is removed when a peptide bond is formed?	Water	100
16134723268	Protein Synthesis is also called...	Central Dogma	101
16134724687	T/F: Protein synthesis does require DNA replication	False	102
16134551552	DNA polymerase	An enzyme that makes DNA	103
16134589930	Where did the information to make any RNA come from?	eRNA	104
16141804614	Steps for DNA replication	DNA unzips and rebuilds other side one nucleotide at a time (creating a new strand) Starts at the 5' (carbon) end of the template strand Enzyme unzips (helicase) Rebuilds DNA (DNA polymerase)	105
16141967724	Introns	Sequence of DNA that is not involved in coding for a protein ("intruders")	106
16141961548	The disorder "Muscular Dystrophy" is a result of...?	An intron splicing error (wrong protein or no protein is made)	107
16141965491	Exons	Expressed sequence of DNA; codes for a protein ("extra special")	108
16142570922	Diploid	2 sets of chromosomes	109
16142598012	What is an example of a DNA mutation that effects Transcription?	Methylation	110
16142570290	Haploid	single set of unpaired chromosomes	111
16142678762	Our cells contain an _____ that cuts up double stranded RNA.	Enzyme Dicer	112
16141951552	When splicing an Intron, what can it result?	Exome	113
16142670821	What does RNAi do?	Blocks translation by attaching to mRNA and destroying the mRNA	114
16141911169	What are the steps of "Transcription"?	RNA polymerase binds to the promoter, signals DNA to unzips, separates strands for a template RNA polymerase reads unzipped DNA strand & builds mRNA to make a RNA chain growing 5' to 3', RNA is formed & leaves DNA Transcript is finished (terminated)	115
16141930956	RNA Editing	Removing introns and putting exons together in mRNA after leaving the DNA	116
16141797528	What is DNA replication used for?	Mitosis or Meiosis, not for protein synthesis	117
16142664043	What was DNA methylation used for?	Estimating age, forming an accurate biological clock in humans & chimpanzees	118
16142025005	Steps of Translation	After transcription, mRNA carries instructions in codons for building polypeptides The edited mRNA moves to a ribosome to meet the tRNA tRNA binds to matching codon	119
16141940974	How are Introns removed?	By a spliceosome (splicing)	120
16141848572	What is DNA transcribed into?	mRNA by RNA polymerase	121
16141841020	Transcription	Collecting information to make one protein out of the nucleus (making DNA into RNA - 1st step of protein synthesis)	122
16142684102	Amino acids are joined together by...?	Dehydration synthesis (by removing the water, the amino acids are able to stick together	123
16142637605	What does DNA methylation do?	Physically prevent the binding of the proteins to the gene	124
16142601657	What is Methylation? What is happening throughout the mutation?	When C (Cytosine) is next to G (Guanine) can mutate and become a T (Thymine) which changes the code A cluster of Cs next to Gs is often in the promoter region of the genes and when the Cs are altered, the RNA polymerase cannot attach and the gene can't be transcribed	125
16142667787	What are ribosomes made of?	RNA	126
16142941847	DNA	deoxyribonucleic acid	127
16142941848	RNA	ribonucleic acid	128
16143342949	Polypeptide	chain of amino acids	129
16148724156	What are the structures in "Amino Acid"? Where are the structures located?	Animo group (left side) Hydrogen (located on top) Carbon (center) R - R group variant (bottom) Carboxyl (right side)	130
16148481804	Primary structure	Sequence of amino acids (stretched)	131
16148617459	What happens during "Dehydration Synthesis"?	Amino acids are joined together with peptide bonds that are always connecting the amino group of one to the carboxyl group of the next in a chain (polypeptide) & water is removed. Once the water is removed, the chain folds up and creates a protein	132
16148385165	Who won the Nobel Prize for DNA structure	Watson, Crick, and Wilkins	133
16148433149	Punnet Squares	Diagram showing the gene combinations that might result from a genetic cross EX: DDxdd, DdxDd, DDxDD, ddxdd	134
16148493444	Secondary structure	The second level of protein structure; the regular local patterns of coils or folds of a polypeptide chain. (twisted)	135
16148526362	Teritary structure	The complex 3-dimensional structure of a single peptide chain; the structure at which polypeptide chains become functional (bundled chains)	136
16148506108	What are the levels of Protein structures?	Primary structure Secondary structure Tertiary structure Quaternary structure	137
16148558222	Quaternary structure	The fourth level of protein structure; the shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits.	138

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Population Ecology Flashcards

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16280102984	Ecology	The study of the relationships between organisms and their environment.	0
16280102985	Habitat	The place an organism lives.	1
16280102986	Biotic factor	A living part of the environment.	2
16280102987	Abiotic factor	A non-living part of the environment.	3
16280102988	Population	All the organism of one species living in a specific area.	4
16280102989	Death rate	The number of deaths in a population in a certain amount of time.	5
16280102990	Birth rate	The number of births in a population in a certain amount of time.	6
16280102991	Limiting factors	The resources that organisms need to survive. When unavailable these factors limit a populations' ability to grow/increase. Example: resources such as food, water or space become limited	7
16280102997	Parasitism	A relationship between two organisms of different species where one benefits and the other is harmed	8
16280103000	Mutualism	A close relationship between two organisms in which they both benefit/help each other	9
16280103001	Competition	Organisms will compete with each other for resources such as food, water, living space, shelter, mates.	10
16280103002	Clumped dispersion	Individuals may live close together in groups in order to facilitate mating, gain protection, or access food resources	11
16280103003	Density-dependent factors	factor that limits a population more as population density increases (competition, disease, predation)	12
16280103004	Density-independent factors	factor unrelated to population density that limits a population (natural disasters: fire, flood, mudslides)	13
16280103005	Emigration	Movement of individuals out of an area	14
16280103006	Exponential growth	Population increases by a fixed percentage every year. (J-shaped curve)	15
16280103007	Immigration	Moving into a population	16
16280103008	Limiting factor	An environmental factor (biotic or abiotic) that prevents a population from increasing - determines carrying capacity	17
16280103009	Logisitic growth	Growth of a population which may be rapid at first, but then levels off at carrying capacity due to limited resources (S-curve)	18
16280103010	Population density	Number of individuals per unit area	19
16280103011	Population growth rate	explains how fast a given population grows	20
16280103012	Random dispersion	Random spacing of individuals of the same species within an area.	21
16280103013	Uniform dispersion	The pattern in which individuals are equally spaced throughout a habitat.	22
16280103014	Zero population growth	when the birth rate equals the death rate	23
16280103018	Mark-Recapture	Estimating a species by capturing some, marking them, releasing them and then recapturing in order to find the fraction of marked individuals to the whole.	24
16280103019	The 5 important characteristics of a population	1) Geographic distribution 2) Density 3) Dispersion 4) Growth Rate 5) Age Structure	25
16280103021	Distribution	The spatial distribution of individuals within a population.	26
16280103022	3 Types of Distribution	Clumped, Random, Even (uniform)	27
16280103023	Reasons for clumped distribution	1) Resources such as food, water, or living spaces are clumped together. 2) A certain social behavior, such as herding animals, flocks of birds, schools of fish or hives of bees.	28
16280103024	Reasons for random distribution	Random dispersal may result from seed dispersal by the wind or animals. (Ex. A forest or a field of wildflowers results from the random dispersal of seeds.)	29
16280103026	Birth Rate	the number of births occurring in a given period of time.	30
16280103027	Death Rate	the number of deaths in a given period of time.	31
16280103028	Survivorship curves	These curves show patterns of mortality by showing the likelihood of survival at different ages throughout the lifetime of the organism.	32
16280103029	Type I survivorship curve	Likelihood of dying increases with age. An example is humans	33
16280103030	Type II survivorship curve	equal mortality at all ages, example is some bird species	34
16280103031	Type III survivorship Curve	Death is less likely at an older age, an example is some amphibians	35
16280103033	How will resources be limited during population growth?	1) Food will become more and more scarce. 2)There may be water shortages. 3) A predator might be introduced into the population. 4)The population will run out of space. 5) Additional predators may be attracted to the rising prey population. 6) There will be increased competition between the members of the group. 7) The accumulation of wastes could lead to an increase in diseases and poor health.	36
16280103034	Eventually a growing population will reach this:	The carrying capacity of the environment.	37
16280103035	Carrying Capacity	The number of individuals the environment can support over a long period of time.	38
16280103037	The two types of limiting factors	Density-Dependent Factors and Density-Independent Factors	39
16280103043	At any given time a population may experience these two things:	Growth or decline	40
16280103044	Three factors that can greatly increase or decrease the size of a population.	1. The number of births. 2. The number of deaths. 3. The number of individuals that enter or leave the population (immigration or emigration)	41
16280103045	Growth Rate	The amount by which a population's size changes in a given time	42
16280103046	Two processes increase the size of the population:	Increased birth rate and immigration	43
16280103047	Two processes decrease the size of the population:	Increased death rate and emigration	44
16280103048	The two types of population growth models	Logistic and Exponential	45
16280103049	If all factors for reproduction and growth are ideal, the population might grow in this way:	Exponentially	46
16280103050	This type of growth occurs when the members of the population are reproducing at a constant rate.	Exponential Growth	47
16280103054	As the population reaches the carrying capacity, the growth rate does this:	Slows	48
16280103055	Density independent Limiting factor - human activity	Due to humans putting increasing amount of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and cutting down trees that would normally take up some of those gases, the Earth slowly gets warmer and changes climates around the globe	49
16280662211	monogamous	One male mating with one female.	50
16280672193	age structure diagram	a chart that shows the age distribution of a population; can help predict future population growth	51
16280690583	Species	a group of organisms that are genetically similar	52
16280731113	biotic potential	An organism's maximum ability to produce offspring in ideal conditions	53
16280752806	gestation time	the amount of time it takes for an embryo/fetus to develop	54
16280818138	generation time	the span from an organism's birth to the time it has it's own offspring	55