| 9436842626 | adaptability | our capacity to learn new behaviors that enable us to cope with changing circumstances | | 0 |
| 9436842627 | learning | a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience | | 1 |
| 9436842628 | associative learning | learning that certain events occur together; the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning) | | 2 |
| 9436842629 | classical conditioning | also called respondent conditioning; a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli; a neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus | | 3 |
| 9436842630 | behaviorism | the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes; most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2) | | 4 |
| 9436842631 | unconditioned response | in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth | | 5 |
| 9436842632 | unconditioned stimulus | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers a response | | 6 |
| 9436842633 | conditioned response | in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus | | 7 |
| 9436842634 | conditioned stimulus | in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response | | 8 |
| 9436842635 | acquisition | the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response; in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response | | 9 |
| 9436842636 | extinction | the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced | | 10 |
| 9436842637 | spontaneous recovery | the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response | | 11 |
| 9436842638 | generalization | the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses | | 12 |
| 9436842639 | discrimination | in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus | | 13 |
| 9436842640 | operant conditioning | a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher | | 14 |
| 9436842641 | respondent behavior | behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned thorough classical conditioning | | 15 |
| 9436842642 | operant behavior | behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences | | 16 |
| 9436842643 | law of effect | Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely | | 17 |
| 9436842644 | operant chamber | a chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking; used in operant conditioning research | | 18 |
| 9436842645 | shaping | an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior | | 19 |
| 9436842646 | successive approximations | method of operant conditioning in which you reward responses that are ever-closer to the final desired behavior and ignore all other responses | | 20 |
| 9436842647 | reinforcement | any event in operant conditioning that strengthens, or increases the frequency of, the behavior it follows | | 21 |
| 9436842648 | positive reinforcement | increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food; any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response | | 22 |
| 9436842649 | negative reinforcement | increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock; any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens a response
(Note: this is NOT punishment.) | | 23 |
| 9436842650 | primary reinforcer | an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
Ex. food | | 24 |
| 9436842651 | conditioned reinforcer | also called a secondary reinforcer; a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
Ex. money to buy food | | 25 |
| 9436842652 | continuous reinforcement | reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs | | 26 |
| 9436842653 | partial reinforcement | reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement | | 27 |
| 9436842654 | fixed ratio schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses | | 28 |
| 9436842655 | variable ratio schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses | | 29 |
| 9436842656 | fixed interval schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed | | 30 |
| 9436842657 | variable interval schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals | | 31 |
| 9436842658 | punishment | an event that decreases the behavior that it follows | | 32 |
| 9436842659 | cognitive map | a mental representation of the layout of one's environment; for example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a mental map of it | | 33 |
| 9436842660 | latent learning | learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it | | 34 |
| 9436842661 | intrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake | | 35 |
| 9436842662 | extrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment | | 36 |
| 9436842663 | observational learning | learning by observing others | | 37 |
| 9436842664 | modeling | the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior | | 38 |
| 9436842665 | mirror neurons | frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy | | 39 |
| 9436842666 | prosocial behavior | positive, constructive, helpful behavior; the opposite of antisocial behavior | | 40 |
| 9436842667 | Ivan Pavlov | This psychologist developed the concept of *classical conditioning*; he trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell. |  | 41 |
| 9436842668 | John B. Watson | This psychologist was a proponent of *behaviorism*; he is famous for a study in which a baby, Little Albert, was taught to fear a white rat. |  | 42 |
| 9436842669 | B.F. Skinner | This psychologist developed the concept of *operant conditioning*; he conditioned pigeons and rats in his operant chamber box to peck buttons and push levers respectively through schedules of reinforcement. |  | 43 |
| 9436842670 | Albert Bandura | This psychologist developed the concept of *observational learning*; he is known for his experiment in which children observed an adult beating up a Bobo doll, and when the children were later angry/upset, they mimicked the adults' previous behavior by also beating up the Bobo doll. |  | 44 |
| 9436842671 | John Garcia | This psychologist researched *taste aversion*; he showed that when rats ate a new substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance. | | 45 |
| 9436842672 | Robert Rescorla | This psychologist claimed that learning is *subjective* to how *surprising* the unconditioned stimulus (US) is. The surprise (US) that follows the conditioned stimulus (CS) in the initial trial was learned because it is unexpected, or very surprising. However, in the following trials, the subject *learns less* because the US is predictable, or *less surprising*. | | 46 |
| 9436842673 | Edward Thorndike | This psychologist is known for his principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. This is known as the *law of effect*. | | 47 |
| 9436842674 | Edward Tolman | This psychologist promoted *latent learning*, which is learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. | | 48 |
| 9436842675 | cognition | the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating | | 49 |
| 9436842676 | concept | a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people | | 50 |
| 9436842677 | prototype | a mental image or best example of a category; matching new items to it provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin) | | 51 |
| 9436842678 | algorithm | a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem; contrasts with the usually speedier but also more error-prone use of heuristics | | 52 |
| 9436842679 | heuristics | simple thinking strategies that often allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but more error-prone than algorithms | | 53 |
| 9436842680 | insight | a sudden and often new realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions | | 54 |
| 9436842681 | confirmation bias | a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions | | 55 |
| 9436842682 | fixation | the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving | | 56 |
| 9436842683 | mental set | a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past | | 57 |
| 9436842684 | functional fixedness | the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving | | 58 |
| 9436842685 | representativeness heuristic | judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information | | 59 |
| 9436842686 | availability heuristic | estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common | | 60 |
| 9436842687 | overconfidence | the tendency to be more confident than correct- to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments | | 61 |
| 9436842688 | framing | the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments | | 62 |
| 9436842689 | belief bias | the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seems valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid | | 63 |
| 9436842690 | belief perseverance | clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited | | 64 |
| 9436842691 | language | our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning | | 65 |
| 9436842692 | phoneme | in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit | | 66 |
| 9436842693 | morpheme | in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word (such as a prefix) | | 67 |
| 9436842694 | grammar | in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others | | 68 |
| 9436842695 | semantics | the set of rules by which we prices meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning | | 69 |
| 9436842696 | syntax | the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language | | 70 |
| 9436842697 | babbling stage | beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language | | 71 |
| 9436842698 | one word stage | the stage in speech development, from age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words | | 72 |
| 9436842699 | two word stage | beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two word statements | | 73 |
| 9436842700 | telegraphic stage | early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram- "go car"- using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words | | 74 |
| 9436842701 | linguistic determinism | Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think | | 75 |
| 9436842702 | Noam Chomsky | This linguist believed that humans have an inborn native ability to develop language. He created the concept of "universal grammar", and he pointed out how children overgeneralize language rules and the concepts of *surface vs. deep* structures in language. | | 76 |
