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APES Chapters 5 + 18 Flashcards

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4890058469CHAPTER 5CHAPTER SLIDE0
48900584703 types of Diversity1
4890058471Ecosystem diversitythe variety of ecosystems within a given region2
4890058472Species diversitythe variety of species in a given ecosystem3
4890058473Genetic Diversitythe variety of genes within a given species4
4890058474Biodiversity picture5
4890058475Biodiversity picture6
4890058476Species Richnessthe number of species in a given area7
4890058477Species Evennessthe measure of whether a particular ecosystem is numerically dominated by one species or are all represented by similar numbers of individuals8
4890058478Phylogenetic Tree9
4890058479biodiversity as an effect of Evolution10
4890058480Evolutiona change in the genetic composition of a population over time11
4890058481Microevolutionevolution below the species level12
4890058482Macroevolutionevolution which gives rise to a new species or new genera, family, class, or phyla13
4890058483Genesphysical locations on chromosomes within each cell of an organism14
4890058484Genotypethe complete set of genes in an individual15
4890058485Phenotypethe actual set of traits expressed in an individual16
4890058486Mutationa random change in the genetic code (DNA); can add to genetic diversity17
4890058487Evolution by Artificial Selectionwhen humans determine which individuals breed18
4890058488Evolution by Natural Selectionthe environment determines which individuals are most likely to survive and reproduce19
4890058489Darwin's theory of Natural Selection20
4890058490Genetic Driftchange in the genetic composition of a population over time as a result of random mating21
4890058491Bottleneck Effecta reduction in the genetic diversity of a population caused by a reduction in its size22
4890058492Founder Effecta change in a population descended from a small number of colonizing individuals23
4890058493Geographic Isolation24
4890058494Reproductive isolation25
4890058495Allopatric Speciationwhen new species are created by geographic or reproductive isolation26
4890058496Sympatric Speciationthe evolution of one species into two species in the absence of geographic isolation, usually through the process of polyploidy (an increase in the number of sets of chromosomes)27
4890058497Rate of Environmental Change28
4890058498Genetic variation29
4890058499Population Size30
4890058500Generation Time31
4890058501Range of Toleranceall species have an optimal environment in which they perform well (i.e. the limit to the abiotic conditions they can tolerate)32
4890058502Fundamental Nichethe ideal conditions for a species33
4890058503Realized Nichethe range of abiotic and biotic conditions under which a species lives -This determines the species distribution (areas of the world where it lives)34
4890058504Niche Generalistspecies that live under a wide rangde of conditions35
4890058505Niche Specialistspecies that live only in specific habitats36
4890058506Mass Extinctionwhen large numbers of species went extinct over a relatively short period of time37
4890058507The 6th Mass Extinction38

CNS SnowAP Flashcards

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5329698167neurologyWhat is the study of the nervous system?0
5329698168neurosurgeryWhat is surgery involving the nervous system?1
5329698169neurophysiologyWhat is the study of the biological function of the nervous system?2
5329698170neuroanatomyWhat is the study of the structure of the nervous system?3
5329698171central nervous system (CNS)Based on anatomical components, what division of the nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord?4
5329698172peripheral nervous systemBased on anatomical components, what division of the nervous system is made up of cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and ganglia?5
5329698173cranial nervesWhat are nerves that extend from the brain?6
5329698174spinal nervesWhat are nerves that extend from the spinal cord?7
5329698175gangliaWhat are clusters of neuron cell bodies outside of the CNS?8
5329698176Collecting information. Processing and evaluating information. Responding to information.What are the three general functions of the CNS and PNS?9
5329698177sensory divisionWhat division of the nervous system is responsible for receiving sensory information and transmitting it to the CNS?10
5329698178somatic sensoryWhat subdivision of the sensory division of the nervous system deals with general senses of the body wall?11
5329698179somatic sensoryWhat subdivision of the sensory division of the nervous system deals with general somatic senses (touch, pain, pressure, vibration, temperature, and proprioception)?12
5329698180visceral sensoryWhat subdivision of the sensory division of the nervous system deals with stretch and temperature from blood vessels and internal organs?13
5329698181motor divisionWhat functional division of the nervous system transmits impulses from the CNS to muscles and glands?14
5329698182Somatic motor system. Visceral motor system (autonomic nervous system).List the two subdivisions of the motor division.15
5329698183somatic motor systemWhat subdivision of the motor division of the nervous system controls skeletal muscles?16
5329698184visceral motor system (autonomic nervous system)What subdivision of the motor division of the nervous system is involuntary and controls cardiac and smooth muscle and glands?17
5329698186"neurons — initiate and transmit impulses glial cells — support and protect the neurons"List and define the two cell types of the nervous system.18
5329698187neuronWhat type of cell initiates and transmits impulses within the nervous system?19
5329698188glial cellsWhat type of cells support and protect neurons?20
5329698189cell bodyWhat part of a neuron holds the nucleus and is the control center of the cell?21
5329698190dendritesWhat part of a neuron conducts impulses toward the cell body?22
5329698191axonWhat part of a neuron conducts impulses away from the cell body?23
5329698192a nerveWhat is a cablelike bundle of parallel axons?24
5329698193synapseWhat is a functional connection for the transmission of impulses from a neuron to a second cell?25
53296981943rd weekWhen does the nervous system begin to develop?26
5329698195ectodermFrom which germ layer does the nervous system develop?27
5329698196neural plateWhat is the thickened portion of tissue over the notochord called?28
5329698197neuralationWhat is the process in which structures of the nervous system are formed?29
5329698198neural grooveDuring the development of the nervous system, what longitudinal indentation forms from the neural plate?30
5329698199neural tubeDuring the development of the nervous system, what hollow structure is formed as the neural folds meet?31
53296982001.35-1.4 kg (~3 lbs)What is the average range of weight of the human brain?32
53296982011200 - 1500 ccWhat is the average volume of the human brain?33
5329698202100 billionHow many neurons make up the CNS?34
5329698203gray matterWhat type of tissue within the CNS houses motor neuron and interneuron cell bodies, dendrites, telodendria, and unmyelinated axons?35
5329698204white matterWhat type of tissue within the CNS houses myelinated axons?36
5329698205cerebral cortexWhat is the superficial sheet of gray matter covering most of the adult brain?37
5329698206cerebral nucleiWithin the interior of the brain what are clusters of gray matter?38
5329698207meningesCollectively what are the three connective tissue layers that separate the soft tissue of the brain from the bones of the cranium, enclose and protect blood vessels that supply the brain, and contain and circulate cerebrospinal fluid?39
5329698208dura materSurrounding the CNS, what is the external, tough, dense irregular connective tissue layer composed of two fibrous layers?40
5329698210"periosteal layer menigeal layer"What are the two layers of the dura mater?41
5329698211dural venous sinusesWhat spaces are formed when the two layers of the dura mater separate?42
5329698212epidural spaceWhat potential space lies between the dura and the cranium?43
5329698213subdural spaceWhat potential space lies between the dura and the arachnoid?44
5329698214arachnoid (arachnoid mater or arachnoid membrane)Which meninx is deep to and in contact with the dura?45
5329698215subarachnoid spaceWhat real space lies just deep to the arachnoid?46
5329698216pia materWhat meninx is the deepest and, unlike that others, follows the contours of the brain?47
5329698217cranial dural septaCollectively what are the four extensions of the dura mater that extend as flat partitions into the cranial cavity to provide additional stabilization and support for the brain?48
5329698218ventriclesWhat are the cavities within the brain?49
5329698219cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)What is the clear, colorless liquid that circulates in the ventricles and subarachnoid space of the brain?50
5329698220buoyancy, protection, environmental stabilityList the functions of cerebrospinal fluid.51
5329698221choroid plexusesWithin the ventricles of the brain what structures form CSF?52
5329698222500 mlAbout how much CSF is formed every day?53
5329698223100-160 mlAbout how much CSF is within and around the CNS at any one time?54
5329698224arachnoid granulations (villi)What structures reabsorb CSF?55
5329698225Choroid plexus makes it in each ventricle (V). Lateral ventricles through interventricular foramina to the 3rd V. To the cerebral aqueduct to the 4th V. Into the subarachnoid space from the 4th V or into the spinal cord's central canal. Subarachnoid space. Reabsorbed into the blood through arachnoid granulations in the venous sinuses.Outline the flow of CSF.56
5329698226Regulates what substances enter the interstitial fluid of the brain.What is the function of the blood-brain barrier?57
5329698227Conscious thought processes. Origin of all complex intellectual functionsWhat are the functions of the cerebrum?58
5329698228cerebral cortexWhat is the outer layer of gray matter of the cerebrum?59
5329698229gyri (singular = gyrus)What are the elevated ridges on the surface of the cerebrum?60
5329698230sulci (singular = sulcus)What are the shallow depressions on the surface of the cerebrum?61
5329698231fissuresWhat are the deep grooves of the cerebrum?62
5329698232cerebral hemispheresWhat are the two halves of the cerebrum?63
5329698233longitudinal fissureWhat deep groove separates the two halves of the cerebrum?64
5329698234corpus callosumWhat large tract of white matter connects the two halves of the cerebrum and is the main method of communication between them?65
53296982351) It is usually difficult to assign a precise function to a specific region. 2) Usually the hemispheres receive information from and send motor commands to the opposite side of the body. 3) The hemispheres display functional differences (lateralization).What are three important points with respect to the cerebral hemispheres?66
53296982365How many lobes lie within cerebral hemisphere?67
5329698237frontalWhat is the most anterior of the cerebral lobes?68
5329698238central sulcus, lateral sulcusWhat are the anatomical borders of the most anterior of the cerebral lobes?69
5329698239precentral gyrusWhat important anatomical feature of the frontal lobe lies immediately anterior to the central sulcus and is responsible for primary motor function?70
5329698240control voluntary skeletal muscle activityWhat is the function of the primary motor cortex?71
5329698241motor speech area (Broca's area)What portion of the frontal lobe is involved with control of muscles involved with speech, is located on the inferolateral portion of the lobe, and is usually on the left side?72
5329698242inferolateral portion of the left frontal lobeThe motor speech area is located within what region of the brain?73
5329698243Regulating patterns of breathing and controlling the muscular movements necessary for vocalization.What is the function of the motor speech area?74
5329698244"Voluntary motor functions. Concentration. Verbal communication. Decision making. Planning. Personality.List the primary functions of the frontal lobe of the cerebrum.75
5329698246parietal lobeWhat lobe of the cerebrum forms the superoposterior part of each cerebral hemisphere?76
5329698247postcentral gyrusWhat important anatomical feature lies immediately posterior to the central sulcus?77
5329698248parietal lobeWhat lobe of the cerebrum deals with general sensory functions such as evaluating the shape and texture of objects being touched?78
5329698249postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobesWhere does the primary somatosensory cortex lie?79
5329698250Receiving information on touch, pressure, pain, and temperature.What is the function of the primary somatosensory cortex?80
5329698251temporal lobeWhat lobe of the cerebrum lies inferior to the lateral sulcus?81
5329698252temporal lobeWhat cerebral lobe functions in smell, hearing, interpreting speech and language?82
5329698253"temporal lobeWhere does the primary auditory cortex occur?83
5329698255Receive and process auditory inforamationWhat is the function of the primary auditory cortex?84
5329698256temporal lobeWhere does the olfactory cortex occur?85
5329698257Provide conscious awareness of smell.What is the function of the olfactory cortex?86
5329698258occipital lobeWhat lobe of the cerebrum forms the most posterior region of each cerebral hemisphere?87
5329698259occipital lobeWhere does the primary visual cortex occur?88
5329698260visual processing & visual memoriesWhat are the functions of the occipital lobe of the cerebrum?89
5329698261primary visual cortex of the occipital lobeWhere is vision perceived?90
5329698262Receive and process visual information.What is the function of the primary visual cortex?91
5329698263insulaWhat small, deep lobe of each cerebral hemisphere lies deep to the lateral sulcus?92
5329698264memory and interpretation of tasteWhat are the apparent functions of the small, deep lobe of each cerebral hemisphere that lies deep to the lateral sulcus?93
5329698265insulaWhere does the gustatory cortex occur?94
5329698266Processing of taste information.What is the function of the gustatory cortex?95
5329698267Process and interpret incoming data or coordinate a motor response.What is the function of association areas within the cerebrum?96
5329698268tractsWhat are bundles of myelinated axons that lie deep to the cerebral cortex?97
5329698269cerebral nucleiWhat are paired, irregular masses of gray matter buried deep within the central white matter in the basal region of the cerebral hemispheres inferior to the floor of the lateral ventricle?98
5329698270"diencephalonWhat part of the brain is composed of the epithalamus, right and left thalami, and the hypothalamus?99
5329698272epithalamusWhat structure partially forms the posterior roof of the diencephalons and covers the third ventricle?100
5329698273thalamusWhat are the paired structures on either side of the third ventricle?101
5329698274thalamus"What region of the brain has the following functions? -To act as the principal and final relay point for sensory information that will be processed and projected to the primary sensory cortex. -To filter sensory information so that only a small portion of it goes to the cerebrum. -To inform the cerebrum as to where sensory information is coming from."102
5329698276hypothalamusWhat part of the brain lies inferior to the thalamus?103
5329698277infundibulumWhat structure attaches the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland?104
5329698278hypothalamus"What region of the brain has the following funtions? Master control of the ANS Master control of the endocrine system Regulation of body temperature Control of emotional behavior Control of food intake Control of water intake Regulation of sleep-wake (circadian) rhythms"105
5329698285brainstemThe midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata together form what part of the brain?106
5329698286midbrainWhat is a synonym for mesencephalon?107
5329698287cerebral pedunclesWithin the midbrain what are the motor tracts located on the anterolateral surfaces?108
5329698288corpora quadrigeminaWithin the midbrain what is the "body of four twins"?109
5329698289superior colliculiWhat are the "visual reflex centers" of the midbrain?110
5329698290inferior colliculiWhat are the "auditory reflex centers" of the midbrain?111
5329698291ponsWhat is the bulging region on the anterior part of the brainstem?112
5329698292medulla oblongataWhat is the most inferior part of the brainstem?113
5329698293cerebellumWhat is the second largest part of the brain?114
5329698294"cerebellar hemispheresWhat are the right and left halves of the cerebellum?115
5329698296vermisWhat wormlike structure of the cerebellum lies between the two cerebellar hemispheres?116
5329698297CerebellumWhat part of the brain coordinates and "fine-tunes" skeletal muscle movement and maintains equilibrium and posture?117
5329698298cerebellar pedunclesWhat thick tracts connect the cerebellum to the brainstem?118

AP WORLD Flashcards

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6031163234The Protestant Reformationa widespread theological revolt in Europe against the abuses and totalitarian control of the Roman Catholic church. *It triggered wars, persecutions, and the counter reformation, which was the churches answers to the issues.0
6031190536The Enlightenmentreferred to as "Age of Reason" but was a time period where information was derived from ones understanding and logic with out an-others guidance. *new religions came to existence like deism and pantheism.1
6031225570Sikhisma religion mixed with islam and hinduism views. *in present day it is the 5th largest religion in the world with over 30 million followers.2
6031244330The First Industrial Revolutiona period between the 18th and 19th centuries that involved rural societies in Europe and America becoming urban and industrial. *It resulted in grim employment and living conditions for the poor working class.3
6031269661The Second Industrial Revolutionthe incredible economic and industrial growth of the United states after the civil war. *New innovations in steel production, petroleum and electricity led to the introduction of automobiles and aircrafts.4
6031298006Thirty Years Wara catholic-protestand struggle that began the Holy Roman Empire but eventually engulfed most of Europe. *A series of conflict fought between Roman Catholic and Protestant states.5
6031332658Karl Marxradical socialist who thought industrial capitalism was an unstable system. *he advocated a "scientific socialism" that included laws of historical change such as revolution is a certainty.6
6031360674Adam Smitha Scottish professor who formulated laws that accounted for the operation of the economy. *wrote "The Wealth of Nations" which was the bible for capitalism, he also achieved the firm comprehensive system of political economy.7
6031399470Steam Enginean engine that uses the expansion or rapid condensation of steam to generate power. *the steam engine was one of the most powerful technologies during the industrial revolution.8
6031420033Working classa social group consisting of people who are employed for wages, especially manual or industrial work. *they allowed for the significant revenue Europe had during the industrial revolution.9
6031439119John Lockea 17th century English philosopher who believed we acquire our ideas through our experiences in the world. *The French Enlightenment drew heavily on his ideas, as did the founding fathers of America.10
6031469183The Deceleration of Independencea document written by Thomas Jefferson declaring freedom of the 13 American colonies from Great Britain. *It was one of the most important documents in American history and it led Americas independence from King George III.11
6031497060The Deceleration of the Rights of Man and Citizena document that was approved by the National Assembly of France, which proclaims the unalienable rights of men and citizens. *one of the most important documents of the French Revolution and pushed Enlightenment ideas.12
6031527192Simon Bolivara liberatorian military leader who fought for South Americans independence. *led revolutions against Spanish rule in South America .13
6031551573Abolitionisma movement to end slavery or an idea that slavery should be abolished. *causes for slavery to be abolished in much of the world.14
6031571567Nationalismpatriotic feeling; if you share characteristic you belong to a Nation. *helped drive completion between European states.15
6031584675Feminismthe advocacy of womens rights on basis on the equality of the sexes. *paved the way for women to have rights today that they wouldn't of have with out feminism.16
6031601504Mary Wollstonecrafta English writer, philosopher, feminist, and advocate of women rights who believed women should be educated. *wrote the "Vindication of the Rights of Women" which encouraged women to go get an education.17
6031625376Haitian Revolutionwas a slave revolt in the French colony of Saint-Domingue. *Haiti is the first and only country to have a successful slave revolt in history.18
6031641825Factory Systemthe system of manufacturing that began in the 28th century. *encouraged the development if the power loom and steam engine.19
6031651513Trade UnionA labor union of workers related in the same field. *played a huge role in the industrial revolution because these were the people who worked in the factories.20
6031665041Telegrapha system of transmitting messages from distance along a wire. *was the first form of long distance communication via electricity and it was very quick.21
6031684589Railroadsnetwork of from rails on which steam, engines and other locomotives pulled trains on at high speeds. *veery successful way of transportation and encouraged the flow of the industrial revolution.22
6031703500Middle class of the 19th centuryconsisted of less than 20% of population and had more privileges than the working class. (the more wealthier class) *played a huge role in the industrial revolution by buying the factories and etc.23
6031758884Utopian Socialismestablished by the peaceful surrender by the means of production. *label used the define the first currents of modern socialism.24

AP Psychology Motivation and Emotion Flashcards

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4806556435emotiona four part process that involves psychological arousal, subjective feelings, cognitive interpretation, and behavioral expression0
4806556436display rulesthe permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular society1
4806556438james lange theorythe proposal that an emotion provoking stimulus produces a physcial response that, in turn, produces and emotion2
4806556439cannon bard theorythe counter proposal than an emotional feeling and an internal physiological response occur at the same time3
4806556440two factor theory (schacter-singer)the proposal claiming that emotion resluts from the cognitive appraisal of both physical arousal and an emotion provoking stimulus4
4806556441cognitive appraisal theorytheory of emotion which theorizes that individuals deicde on an appropriate emotions following the event5
4806556444motivationall the processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities6
4806556445drivebiologically instigated motivation7
4806556446motivean internal mechanism that selects and directs behavior8
4806556447intrinsic motivationthe desire to engage in an activity for its own sake, rather than for some external consequence, such as reward9
4806556448extrinsic motivationthe desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence, such as a reward10
4806556449conscious motivationhaving the desire to engage in an activity and being aware to the desire11
4806556450unconscious motivationhaving a desire to engage in an activity but being consciously unaware of the desire12
4806556452needin drive theory, it is a biological imbalance that threatens survival if it is left unmet. They produce drives13
4806556453homeostasisthe body's tendencey to maintain a biologically balanced condition, especially with regard to nutrients, water, and temperature14
4806556454locus of controlan individuals's sense of where his or her life influences originate internally or externally15
4806556455hierarchy of needsin Maslow's theory, the notion that needs occur in priority order, with the biological needs as the most basic16
4806556456overjustificationthe process by which entrinisic rewards can sometimes displace internal motivation, as when a child recieves money for playing video games17
4806556458approach approach conflicta conflict in which one must choose between two equally attractive options18
4806556459approach avoidance conflicta conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects the the decision to be made19
4806556460avoidance avoidance conflicta conflict in which one has to choose between two equally unattractive options20
4806556462stressa physical and mental response to a challenging or threatening situation21
4806556463stressora stressful stimulus, a condition demanding adaptation22
4806556464traumatic stressora situation that threatens one's physical activity, arousing feelings of fear, horror, or helplessness23
4806556465acute stressa temporary pattern of stressor activated arousal with distinct onset and limited duration24
4806556466chronic stresscontinuous stressful arousal persisting over time25
4806556467fight or flight responsesequence of internal processes preparing an organism for struggle or escape26
4806556468general adaptation syndromepattern of general physical responses that take essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stress27
4806556469alarm reactionfirst stage of the GAS during which the body mobilizes its resources to cope with a stressor28
4806556470stage of resistancesecond stage of the GAS during which the body adapts to and uses resources to cope with a stressor29
4806556471stage of exhaustionthird stage of the GAS during which the body depleates its resources in responding to an ongoing stressor30
4806556472type abehavior patternt characterized by intense, angry, competitive, or perfectionalistic responses to challenging situations31
4806556473type bbehavior pattern characterized by relaxed, unstressed approach to life32
4806556474learned helplessnesspattern of failure to respond to noxious stimuli after an organism learns its responses are ineffective33
4806556475bulimiaeating disorder in which a person eats and then purges34
4806556476anorexiaeating disorder in which a person does not eat enough35

AP Microeconomics Flashcards

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6699051363positive statementdescribes the way things are; factual0
6699060240normative statementdescribes the way things should be; opinion; not economics1
6699064468scarcitythe inability to satisfy all wants, limited by time, income and price2
6699073082economicsthe study of how to allocate scarce resources among competing ends3
6699076207resourcesinputs or factors of production4
6699091167factors of productionland, labor, capital and entrepreneurship5
6699080775goods and servicesobjects and actions that satisfy wants6
6699099242opportunity costthe best opportunity alternative you give up to do something else7
6699108239benefitgain measured by what you are willing to give up8
6699116226production-possibilities frontier (PPF)the boundary between the combinations of goods and services that can be produced and those that cannot given fixed factors of production9
6699134127production efficiencywhen the economy is using all of its resources productively; any point on the PPF10
6699147438division of laborpermits people to develop expertise in the task(s) that they concentrate on11
6699170194absolute advantagewhen a country can produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than any other country12
6699175668comparative advantagewhen a country can produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than another country13
6699183665economic questionswhat, how, and for whom to produce14
6699187082allocative efficiency (efficiency in output)when the national output reflects the needs and wants of consumers (MV=MC)15
6699202843marginal cost (MC)the additional cost of producing one more unit16
6699205018marginal value (MV)the value of one more unit17
6699215005P=MCthe point at which allocative efficiency is reached18
6699220732efficiency in production (technical efficiency)when the output of one good could not be increased without decreasing the output of another good19
6699238618wage (W)the price of labor20
6699238619rental rate (R)the price of capital21
6699246255marginal product of labor (MPL)the additional output produced by one more unit of labor22
6699272620marginal product of capital (MPK)the additional output produced by one more unit of capital23
6699281459marginal physical productcan refer to either MPL or MPK24
6699353145distributive efficiency (efficiency in exchange)when consumers make purchases that maximize their satisfaction given their budgetary constraints; found when the ratio of MU to P of one good equals that of the other25
6699356501marginal utility (MU)the additional utility from consuming one more unit of a good26
6699438639communisma system designed to minimize imbalance in wealth via the collective ownership of property; lacks incentives and is vulnerable to corruption27
6699448132socialisma system designed to achieve fair distribution via wages set by negotiations between trade unions and managers; lacks incentives28
6699466120capitalisma system where private individuals control the factors of production and operate them in the pursuit of profit29
6699470306demand curvea curve that displays the relationship between price and quantity demanded within a given period; also can be represented in a demand schedule30
6699481031law of diminishing marginal utilityas additional units of a good are consumed in a given time period, each additional unit's utility decreases31
6699488896law of demandas the price of a good rises, the quantity demanded decreases, and as the price of a good falls, the quantity demanded increases32
6699524380market demand curvethe sum of all individual demand curves in a market33
6699496703supply curvea curve that displays the relationship between price and quantity supplied within a given period; also can be represented in a supply schedule34
6699510103law of supplyas the price of a good rises, the quantity supplied increases, and as the price of a good falls, the quantity supplied decreases35
6699524381market supply curvethe sum of all individual supply curves in a market36
6699531116equilibriumthe point of intersection between the demand curve and the supply curve; optimal point of production37
6699535807surpluswhen price exceeds equilibrium38
6699542748shortagewhen price falls below equilibrium39
6699545222change in the quantity demandeda MOVEMENT ALONG the demand curve, caused by change in price40
6699547479change in demanda SHIFT of the demand curve, caused by: Tastes and preferences of consumers Related good prices (substitutes + complements) Income of buyers Buyer pool size Expectations for future income, prices + shortages41
6699636921normal gooda good that consumers buy more of when income increases42
6699640099inferior gooda good that consumers buy more of when income decreases43
6699585149change in the quantity supplieda MOVEMENT ALONG the supply curve, caused by change in price44
6699588305change in supplya SHIFT of the supply curve, caused by: Resource costs Other goods' prices (production substitutes and joint products) Taxes and subsidies Technology changes Expectations of suppliers Number of suppliers45
6699613875price ceilingan artificial cap on the price of a good; causes deadweight loss, shortages, and a black market if below equilibrium46
6699619537queuing costthe time lost waiting in line47
6699625490price flooran artificially imposed minimum price; causes deadweight loss and surpluses if above equilibrium48
6699630326minimum wagea price floor for labor49
6699652910total utilitythe sum of marginal utility values gained from each of the units consumed; the integral of MU50
6699667592consumer surplusthe value received from the purchase of a good in excess of what is paid for51
6699679090producer surplusthe difference between the price a seller receives for a good and the minimum price for which she would be willing to supply a quantity of the good52
6699686061elasticitythe responsiveness of something to various changes; equal to the inverse of the slope multiplied by price over quantity53
6699688151price elasticity of demandthe responsiveness of the quantity demanded to price changes54
6699691041determinants of price elasticity of demandProportion of income spent on the good Availability of close substitutes Importance of the good (luxury vs. necessity) Delaying the purchase of a good (how easy is it)55
6699712636elasticpercentage change in quantity demanded is greater than percentage change in price (elasticity is greater than one)56
6699735823luxurieselastic goods57
6699721787unit elasticpercentage change in quantity demanded equals percentage change in price (elasticity is one)58
6699735824inelasticpercentage change in quantity demanded is less than the percentage change in price (elasticity is less than one)59
6699741733necessitiesinelastic goods60
6699765117elasticity of supplythe responsiveness of the quantity supplied to price changes61
6699777011income elasticity of demandmeasures the responsiveness of the quantity demanded to changes in income; if positive, the good is normal; if negative, the good is inferior62
6699787482cross-price elasticity of demandthe responsiveness of the quantity-demanded of Good A to the price of Good B63
6699795392complementstwo goods with a negative cross-price elasticity of demand (change in the opposite direction)64
6699805675substitutestwo goods with a positive cross-price elasticity of demand (change in the same direction)65
6699810182deadweight loss (excess burden)the loss to former consumer and producer surplus in excess of the total revenue of the tax66
6699814269marginal productthe additional output produced per period when one more unit of an input is added, holding the quantities of other inputs constant; the derivative of TP67
6699821132law of diminishing marginal returnsas the amount of one input is increased, holding the amounts of all other inputs constant, the incremental gains in output ("marginal returns") will eventually decrease68
6699840947diminishing marginal returnswhen an additional unit of input contributes less to total output that the unit before it69
6699847079average producttotal product divided by the quantity of input70
6699854237total product curvethe relationship between the total amount of output produced and the number of units of an input used, holding the amounts of other inputs constant; the integral of MP71
6699866552fixed costscosts that do not change when more output is produced72
6699868349variable costscosts that do change as more output is produced73
6699870117marginal costthe amount by which cost increases when one more unit of output is produced74
6699878114LRAClong-run average cost75
6699887190SRACshort-run average cost76
6699890173economies of scalethe interval over the range of output where the LRAC is decreasing, meaning that the cost per unit is falling77
6699895490diseconomies of scalethe interval over the range of output where LRAC is increasing78
6699901229increasing returns (to scale)when output increases (proportionally) more than increases in ALL inputs79
6699916105decreasing returns (to scale)when output increases (proportionally) less than increases in ALL inputs80
6699923453constant returns (to scale)when output increases in proportion to increases in all units81
6699926365diminishing (marginal) returnswhen an additional unit of an input increases total output by less than the previous unit of the input, holding all other inputs constant82
6699941870increasing cost firma firm facing decreasing returns to scale, meaning that output increases less than in proportion to all inputs83
6699944310decreasing cost firma firm facing increasing returns to scale, meaning that output increases more than in proportion to all inputs84
6699946660increasing cost industryan industry that increases in average production costs as industry output increases; positively sloped long-run supply curve85
6699951399constant cost industryan industry that does not experience increased production costs as output grows; horizontal long-run supply curve86
6699960106decreasing cost industryan industry that decreases in average production costs as industry output increases; negative long-run supply curve87
6699964199productive efficiencyoccurs when a firm produces at the lowest unit cost, where marginal cost (MC) equals average cost (AC)88
6699969523economies of scopewhen a firm's average production costs decrease because multiple products are being produced89
6699974286perfect competitionan industry in which there are very many firms, free entry and exit, no market power ("price takers"), a homogenous product, and zero long run economic profit; MR=P90
6699980902price takera seller who cannot manipulate the price of their good and must sell at the set market price91
6699991410economic profittotal revenue minus total cost (including opportunity cost)92
6699994683normal profitthe opportunity cost of capital; zero economic profit93
6700016989accounting profittotal revenue minus total cost (excluding opportunity cost)94
6700020230total revenue (TR)the amount of money taken in from the sale of a good; the integral of MR95
6700025998marginal revenue (MR)the addition to revenue gained when one more unit is sold; the derivative of TR96
6700032230average revenue (AR)total revenue divided by quantity97
6700034850profitthe difference between total revenue (TR) and total cost (TC); profit-maximizing firms want to produce where TR > TC and where TR-TC is greatest98
6700046230shut down decisionwhen the price of a good equals or is smaller than the minimum of average variable cost (AVC)99
6700070707monopolistic competitionan industry in which there are many firms, few entry and exit barriers, small market power, a differentiated product, and zero long run economic profit100
6700097905oligopolyan industry in which there are few firms, high entry and exit barriers, substantial market power, either homogenous or differentiated products, and positive or zero long run economic profit101
6700144417market powerthe ability of an individual firm to influence price102
6700107020monopolyan industry in which there is a single firm, prohibitive entry and exit barriers, complete market power, a unique product, and positive or zero long run economic profit; MR is lower than P103
6700124640price discriminationcharging different customers different prices that do not reflect differences in production costs104
6700128114perfect price discriminationresults in a marginal revenue curve that coincides with the demand curve105
6700146004game theorythe strategic decisions of "players" in anticipation of their rivals' reactions106
6700149127payoff matrixan illustration of the game theory107
6700159543Nash equilibriumwhenever two circles appear in the same square of a payoff matrix; neither party has an incentive to deviate from his strategy given the strategy of the other side108
6700168544prisoner's dilemmaa payoff matrix that explains arms races, the failure of cartels, and excessive spending on advertising expenditures109
6700176472natural monopoliesindustries that have such high fixed costs that it would be impossible for a particular service area to support more than one firm, such as power generation and rail service110
6700182575The Sherman Act (1890)an act that declared attempts to monopolize commerce or restrain trade among the states illegal111
6700185854The Clayton Act (1914)an act that strengthened the Sherman Act by specifying that monopolistic behavior such as price discrimination, tying contracts and unlimited mergers are illegal112
6700190362The Robinson-Patman Act (1936)an act that prohibits price discrimination except when it is based on differences in cost, difference in marketability of product, or a good faith effort to meet competition113
6700195699The Celler-Kefauver Act (1950)an act that authorized the government to ban vertical mergers, conglomerate mergers and horizontal mergers114
6700200434vertical mergersmergers of firms at various steps in the production process from raw materials to finished products115
6700202997conglomerate mergerscombinations of firms from unrelated industries116
6700205734horizontal mergersmergers of direct competitors117
6700209071Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI)a measure of market power that takes the market share of each firm in an industry as a percentage, squares each percentage, and adds them all up118
6700219049"n"-firm concentration ratiothe sum of the market shares of the largest "n" firms in an industry, where "n" can represent any number119
6700225701marginal revenue product of labor (MRPL)the product of the marginal product of labor and price; shifts the demand for labor120
6700248613monopsonyan industry in which one firm is the sole purchaser of labor services in a market, pushing MFC above the supply curve121
6700252608marginal factor cost (MFC)the additional cost of hiring one more worker122
6700261564unionsa group of workers that lobby to increase wages for its members by increasing the demand for labor, decreasing the supply of labor, or negotiating higher wages123
6700266647bilateral monopolyan industry in which there is just one seller and one buyer124
6700269693market failureoccurs when resources are not allocated optimally, resulting from imperfect competition, externalities, public goods, or imperfect information125
6700273918imperfect informationbuyers and/or sellers do not have full knowledge about available markets, prices, products, customers, suppliers, and so forth126
6700277483externalitiescost or benefits felt beyond or "external to" those causing the effects; also known as spillover effects127
6700281082negative externalitya harmful external effect of production; leads to overconsumption128
6700290399positive externalitya beneficial external effect of production; leads to underconsumption129
6700294435marginal private cost (MPC)the additional cost per unit of a good130
6700300413marginal external cost (MEC)the additional cost per unit of a good imposed on people who are not the consumer131
6700309183marginal external benefit (MEB)the additional benefit per unit of a good enjoyed by people who are not the consumer132
6700311397public gooda good that is nonrival in consumption and nonexcludable133
6700314191nonrivalone person's consumption of a good does not affect its consumption by others134
6700316348nonexcludablea good that cannot be held back from those who desire access135
6700323927free ridersomeone who attempts to benefit from a public good without paying for it136
6700326044Lorenz curvea graph that measures income distribution137
6700332861Gini coefficientthe area between the line of perfect equality (45°) and the Lorenz curve divided by the area between the line of perfect equality and the corners of the box; quantifies income distribution138
6700359535poverty linethe official benchmark of poverty; for a family of four, it is $24,000139
6700362427progressive taxa tax that increases in percentage relative to an increase in income140
6700364418regressive taxa tax that decreases in percentage relative to an increase in income141
6700367807proportional taxa tax that collects the same percentage regardless of income142
6700370492Social Securitya program that provides cash benefits and health insurance (Medicare) to retired and disabled workers and their families143
6700375739Public Assistancealso known as welfare; typically provides temporary assistance to the very poor144
6700379207Supplemental Security Income (SSI)a program that assists very poor elderly individuals who have virtually no assets and little or no SS entitlement145
6700385881unemployment compensationa program that provides temporary assistance to unemployed workers146
6700387259Medicaida program that provides health and hospitalization benefits to the poor147
6700388966Food Stamp Programa program that provides food for the poor148
6700390898Public Housing Programa program that provides shelter for the poor149

AP Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images
7311530995CivilizationThe process by which a society or a place reaches an advanced stage of social development and organization0
7311530996BureaucracyA system of government decisions made by state officials rather than elected representatives1
7311530997EgalitarianBelieving all people are equal2
7311530998MatriarchalFemale head of family or tribe3
7311530999PatriarchalMale head of family or tribe4
7311531000Empirean extensive group of states or countries under a single, supreme authority5
7311531001SuccessionA series of predictable and orderly changes within an ecosystem over time.6
7311531002AristocratA member of a rich and powerful family7
7311531003Importto bring a product into a country to be sold8
7311531004Eradicateto wipe out; to destroy9
7311531005Demographicrelated to population balance10
7311531006Nuclear familyMother, father and children living as a unit11
7311531007Repressionkeeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious12
7311531008Abdicaterenounce one's throne13
7311531009SurplusA situation in which quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded14
7311531010ConsensusGeneral agreement15
7311531011ParliamentaryRelating to the parliament16
7311531012Coerciverelating to or using force or threats.17
7311531013Emancipationthe act of setting free18
7311531014Sedentarysitting19

APES Environmental Laws Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images
6541920513Basel ConventionPrevents shipment of hazardous waste from developed to developing countries unless developing country gives full permission to accept the hazardous waste (International)0
6541920514Clean Air ActRequires EPA to establish limits of pollutants that are harmful to "human health and welfare" (USA)1
6541920515Clean Water ActSupports the protection and propagation of wildlife and recreation in and on the water by maintaining and restoring the chemical, physical or biological properties of natural waters; issued water quality standards limiting certain pollutants (USA)2
6541920516Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensations & Liability ActSuperfund; forces or implements cleanup of hazardous waste sites; prioritizes sites to be cleaned; taxes industry to create fund to clean up "orphaned" sites. (USA)3
6541920517Convention on International Trade in Endangered SpeciesControls and regulates international trade of threatened plants and animals (International)4
6541920518Endangered Species ActAuthorizes US Fish & Wildlife Service to determine which species are endangered or threatened; prohibits harming of such species; authorizes government to purchase habitat (USA)5
6541920519Federal Insecticide, Fungicide & Rodenticide ActRegulates effectiveness of pesticides; requires testing and registration of active ingredients of pesticides; requires re-registration and testing of older pesticides (USA)6
6541920520Food Drug & Cosmetics ActEstablishes acceptable levels of pesticides in food; bans cancer-causing substances in processed food (USA)7
6541920521Food Quality Protection Actestablished pesticide residue levels for raw produce and processed foods; requires testing for all health risks including endocrine disruptors; requires consideration of increased risk to infants and children (USA)8
6541920522Food Security Act (Farm Bill)Requires farmers with highly erodible land to develop a conservation plan that includes erosion-control measures; created Conservation Reserve Program to pay farmers to stop producing crops on erodible farmland (USA)9
6541920523Kyoto ProtocolNations committed to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases (International)10
6541920524Low Level Radiation Waste Policy ActRequires all states to have facilities to handle low-level radioactive wastes (USA)11
6541920525Madrid ProtocolCreated 50-year ban on mineral exploration and development in Antarctica (International)12
6541920526MagnusonStevens Fishery Conservation & Management ActRegulates marine fisheries; protects essential fish habitats; sets fishing quotas and seasons, limits on types of fishing gear and number of boats (USA)13
6541920527Montreal ProtocolNations committed to cut CFC production and phase out use of CFCs (International)14
6541920528National Environmental Policy ActMandates environmental assessment of all projects involving federal money or federal permits; requires environmental impact statement before project begins (USA)15
6541920529Oil Pollution ActEstablishes liability for damage to natural resources resulting from oil spills; creates fun to pay for cleanup; requires double hulls on oil tankers (USA)16
6541920530Resource Conservation & Recovery ActGoverns tracking and disposal of solid and hazardous waste; controls hazardous waste with cradle-to-grave system requirements (USA)17
6541920531Safe Drinking Water ActEPA is responsible for setting maximum contaminant levels for substances in both surface water and groundwater (USA)18
6541920532Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic PollutantsProduced a list of the "dirty dozen" chemicals (including endocrine disruptors) to be banned, phased out, or reduced; another 9 chemicals were added to the list in 2009 (International)19
6541920533Surface Mining Control & Reclamation ActMandates that land be minimally disturbed during the mining process and reclaimed after mining is completed. (USA)20
6541920534UN Convention on the Law of the SeaRestricts seabed mining in international waters (International)21

Ap Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images
7313264086Basic researchPure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base0
7313264494Applied researchScientific study that aims to solve practical problems1
7313265775Industrial/ Organizational PsychologyThe application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces2
7313266872Human Factors PsychologyThe study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environment3
7313268069Counseling PsychologistsA branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (related to school, work, or marriage) &a in achieving greater well-being4
7313269758Clinical PsychologistsA branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders5
7313270906PsychiatryA branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy6
7313272681Hindsight BiasThe tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have to foreseen it7
7313275577OverconfidenceThe tendency to be more confident that correct- to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments8
7313277512Critical ThinkingThinking that does not blindly accept arguments &conclusions9
7313279099HypothesisA testable prediction, often implied by a theory10

AP MAPS Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images
8824333640Pacific Ocean0
8824336573Atlantic Ocean1
8824339367Indian Ocean2
8824343612Artic Ocean3
8824347947Southern Ocean4
8824356488South Pacific Ocean5
8824361264Artic Circle6
8824363823Antarctic Circle7
8824367165Tropic of Cancer8
8824371313Prime Meridian9
8824375395Equator10
8824381605International Date Line11
8824386418Tropic of Capricorn12
8824394389North America13
8824396528South America14
8824400043Asia15
8824401997Africa16
8824409403Europe17
8824415248Australia18
8824423293Antarctica19
8824434503Rockies Mountains20
8824437896Himalayas Mountains21
8824443373Gobi Mountains22
8824502465Appalachian Mountains23
8824507675Caucasus Mountains24
8824520527Andes Mountains25
8824523800Sahara Mountains26
8824526832Alps27
8824530421Atacama Mountains28
8824555410Urals Mountains29
8824567675Rub Al Khali Mountains30
8824580922Patagonia Mountains31
8824586838Kalahari Mountains32
8824590994Namib Mountains33
8824613482Brahmaputra River34
8824617002Tigris River35
8824638308Euphrates River36
8824642039Yangtze River37
8824644844Nile River38
8824650091Mississippi River39
8824653048Indus River40
8824658954Mekong River41
8824671894Amazon River42
8824676453Lake Victoria43
8824679895Ganges River44
8824692920Congo River45
8824698867Volga River46
8824703840Lake Winnipeg47
8824710205Rhine River48
8824712783Lake Michigan49
8824719547Lake Eerie50
8824720471Lake Ontario51
8824723270Lake Huron52
8824727984Lake SuperiorTop left lake of 5 great lakes53
8824737793Rio Grande River54
8824741097Lake Baikal55
8824745634St.Lawrence River56
8824769216Caspian Sea57
8824773792Mediterranean Sea58
8824779001Red Sea59
8824781321Aral Sea60
8824791521South China Sea61
8824796821Caribbean Sea62
8824798257Gulf of Mexico63
8824801595Persian Gulf64
8824805869Gulf of Aden65
8824810115Strait of Hormuz66
8824814735Dardanelles Strait67
8824857767Bosporus Strait68
8824861844Strait of Malacca69
8824867083Mandeb Strait70
8824904700Strait of Gibraltar71
8824909907Panama Canal72
8824918679English Channel73
8842678051Bahamas74
8842681172Trinidad and Tobago75
8842716121Honduras76
8842718080United States77
8842720343Managua78
8842721620Cuba79
8842725917Belize80
8843715830Mexico81
8843725079Greenland82
8843732979Mexico City83
8843758959Dominican Republic84
8843771083Costa Rica85
8843772687Nicaragua86
8843774510Chicago87
8843782684New York City88
8843791255Haiti89
8843793308El Salvador90
8843795017Panama91
8843804727Havana92
8843820242Ottawa93
8843823145Jamaica94
8843825139Guatemala95
8843829529Canada96
8843833148Los Angeles97
8843844948Washington DC98
8843859839Argentina99
8843864559Ecuador100
8843872558Peru101
8843878580Caracas102
8843880302Santiago103
8843882704Columbia104
8843887127Paraguay105
8843890883Venezuela106
8843894323Rio de Janeiro107
8843902856Guyana108
8843906826Uruguay109
8843954537Chile110
8843958315Sao Paulo111
8843961744Suriname112
8843964522Brazil113
8843970455French Guiana114
8843974891Buenos Aires115
8843977207Bolivia116
8843982297Falkland Island117
8843989266Bogota118
8843993036Lima119
8844000174Brasilia120

AP Biology Molecular Genetics Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images
9280501729nucleotidesa nitrogenous base, a sugar, and a phosphate group0
9280501730PurineA/G, 2 organic rings, 2X the size, 2 hydrogen bonds1
9280501731PyrimidineC/T, single ring, X size, 3 hydrogen bonds2
9280501732origins of replicationThe site where replication occurs where the two DNA strands are separated, opening up a replication "bubble".3
9280501733DNA polymeraseadds nucleotides to the 3' end of the growing DNA sequence. It needs a primer. It can only go in one direction and extend on an existing DNA molecule4
9280501734RNA PrimaseIn DNA replication, this enzyme adds temporary RNA nucleotides for DNA polymerase to work from and add nucleotides to5
9280501735replication forka Y-shaped region where new DNA strands are elongating that is located at the end of the replication bubble.6
9280501736Helicaseenzyme that untwist the double helix at the replication forks.7
9280501737Topoisomeraseenzyme that corrects "overwinding" ahead of replication forks by breaking, swiveling, and rejoining DNA strands8
9280501738leading strandthe template strand of DNA where replication happens continuously toward the replication fork because it is aligned properly9
9280501739lagging strandthe template strand of DNA where DNA polymerase must work in the direction away from the replication fork. New DNA is created in fragments10
9280501740Okazaki fragmentsThe fragments that compose the lagging strand. (The spaces between the fragments are later filled via DNA ligase to make a continuous DNA strand.)11
9280501741Chromatina complex of DNA and protein, is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. DNA is spread out (not coiled)12
9280501742Transcriptionthe synthesis of RNA using information in DNA13
9280501743Translationthe synthesis of a polypeptide, using information in the mRNA14
9280501744Codona group of three nucleotides that code for an amino acid15
9280501745Ribosomesthe sites of translation16
9280501746primary transcriptinitial RNA transcript from any gene prior to processing17
9280501747central dogmathe concept that cells are governed by a cellular chain of command: DNA to RNA to protein18
9280501748promoterThe DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches to start transcription.19
9280501749The three stages of transcriptionInitiation, Elongation, Termination20
9280501750transcription initiation complexThe completed assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase II bound to a promoter21
9280501751Transcription factorsMolecules that mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription22
9280501752intronsThe noncoding regions of mRNA that get removed during RNA processing23
9280501753RNA splicingremoves introns and joins exons, creating an mRNA molecule with a continuous coding sequence24
9280501754tRNAstransfer amino acids to the growing polypeptide in a ribosome25
9280501755anticodonthree nucleotides in the tRNA that pairs with a complementary codon on mRNA26
9280501756P siteholds the tRNA that carries the growing polypeptide chain27
9280501757alternative RNA splicingdifferent mRNA molecules are produced from the same primary transcript, depending on which RNA segments are treated as exons and which as introns28
9280501758exonspart of the pre-mRNA that is not removed - they are joined together to make the mRNA29

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