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WHAp!-Ap World History--> Foundational Vocabulary All. Flashcards

7586161282	Society!!!!!	Society!!!	0
7586085873	Artisan	someone who is skillful and crafts objects with raw materials (Blacksmith)	1
7586085874	Caste	A particular position in society to every single person. You can improve your position in the caste system in the next life through your good action and Karma.	2
7586085875	Class	the system of ordering a society in which people are divided into sets based on perceived social or economic status.	3
7586090258	Egalitarianism	Characterized by belief in the equality of all people, especially in political and social life.	4
7586090259	Elite	rich and noble people, upper class.	5
7586094053	Ethnicity	Affiliation or identity within a group of people bound by common ancestry and culture..	6
7586096462	Extended Family	a family that includes in one household near relatives in addition to a nuclear family, such as, Aunts and Uncles.	7
7586096463	Family	a group of people all related to each other	8
7586096464	Gender	Male or female.	9
7586100483	Immediate family	the whole family you started of with.	10
7586100484	Kinship	blood relationship	11
7586123864	Labourer	Somone who works	12
7586129219	Merchant	someone who buys and sells thing; somone who trades goods.	13
7586132497	Nationality	Identity with a group of people that share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular place as a result of being born there. ( I'm from Canada so my nationality is Canadian.)	14
7586136056	Nuclear Family	a family consisting of parents and their children and grandparents of a marital partner	15
7586136057	Patriarchy	a form of social organization oin which a male is the families head and title is traced through the male line.	16
7586140143	Polyandry	In which a woman has more than 1 husband.	17
7586140144	Polygamy	The practice of having more than one wife or husband at a time	18
7586144314	Polygyny	The practice of having more than 1 wife at a time.	19
7586146753	Race	A group of human beings distinguished by physical traits, blood types, genetic code patterns or genetically inherited characteristics.	20
7586152938	Social hierarchy/ Stratification	Social stratification means that certain individuals (elites) have more power and influence than other individuals, such as commoners and slaves. In Neolithic times, social stratification emerged when food surpluses allowed some members of society to do things other than farm.	21
7586158917	Social System	the people in a society considered as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships	22
7586158918	Warrior	a fighter or soilder	23
7586172465	Politics!!!	Politics!!!!	24
7586202690	Administration	the process of running an empire or republic	25
7586206083	Authoritarianism	the enforcement or advocacy of strict obedience to authority at the expense of personal freedom.	26
7586206084	Balance of power	the federal and the people have equal power.	27
7586235594	Bureaucracy	a system of government in which most of the important decisions are made by state officials rather than by elected representatives.	28
7586238426	Casualty	a person or thing badly affected or injured by a situation.	29
7586238427	Centralization	the concentration of control of an activity or organization under a single authority.(dictator or monarch)	30
7586241414	City	a conglomeration of people and buildings clustered together to serve as a center of politics, culture, and economics	31
7586241415	City-state	an independent city with its own rules sometimes takes control of surrounding land.	32
7586244321	Consolidation	the action or process of making something stronger or more solid/the action or process of combining a number of things into a single more effective or coherent whole.(making empries or cities together to make them stronger)	33
7586248490	Coup / Coup d'état	a sudden, violent, and illegal seizure of power from a government.	34
7586248491	Decentralization	the transfer of authority from central to local government.	35
7586252951	Diplomacy	the skill of manging international relations of nations or empires.	36
7586252952	Empire	an extensive group of states or countries under a single supreme authority, formerly especially an emperor or empress.	37
7586252953	Eunuch	a male who got his private parts remove to serve the elites or emperor; usually to guard his wife or any other female of power.	38
7586257859	Imperial	The extension of political rule by one people over other, different peoples. First done by Sargon of Akkad to the Sumerian city states.	39
7586262101	Infrastructure	The basic physical and organizational structures and facilities needed for the operation of a society.	40
7586265387	Institution	an establishment consisting of a building or complex of buildings where an organization for the promotion of some cause is situated	41
7586265388	Junta	a small group ruling a country, especially immediately after a coup d'état and before a legally constituted government has been instituted.	42
7586268493	Mobilization	the process of assembling troops and supplies and making them ready for war	43
7586268494	Monarch	A king, [absolute single ruler]	44
7601074168	Monarchy	. a form of government in which supreme authority is vested in a single and usually hereditary figure, such as a king, and whose powers can vary from those of an absolute despot to those of a figurehead.	45
7601181548	Rebellion	an act of violent or open resistance to an established government or ruler.	46
7601181549	Region	an area on Earth's surface marked by a degree of formal, functional, or perceptual homogeneity of some phenomenon	47
7601188220	Revolution	a forcible overthrow of a government or social order in favor of a new system.	48
7601191002	Secession	formal separation from an alliance or federation	49
7601191003	State	A politically organized body of people usually occupying a definite territory	50
7601193861	Suffrage	the right to vote	51
7601196399	Theocracy	A system of government in which priests rule in the name of God or a god.	52
7601199990	Transregional	Any activity that covers a region - which may be within a single country of covering several.	53
7601207270	Tribute / Tributary system.	A system in which, from the time of the Han Empire, countries in East and Southeast Asia not under the direct control of empires based in China nevertheless enrolled as tributary states, acknowledging the superiority of the emperors in China.	54
7586279750	INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMANS & ENVIRONMENT	INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMANS & ENVIRONMENT	55
7586283185	Climate	weather conditions prevailing in an area in general or over a long period.	56
7586283186	Deforestation	the action of clearing a wide area of trees.	57
7586287514	Demography	The study of population dynamics. Demographics is important in the study of world history because population dynamics provide evidence of important historical trends, such as disease pandemics, and migrations. Diffusion. The spread of items from one place to another.	58
7586287515	Desert	a landscape form or region that receives very little precipitation	59
7586290804	Desertification	Degradation of land, especially in semiarid areas, primarily because of human actions like excessive crop planting, animal grazing, and tree cutting	60
7586296655	Disease	an infection, plague, or pathogens	61
7586296656	Diaspora	used to describe the communities of a given ethnic group living outside their homeland. Jews, for example, spread from Israel to western Asia and Mediterranean lands in antiquity and today can be found in other places.	62
7586299424	Emigration	migration from a location	63
7586299425	Epidemic	a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time (Black Plague)	64
7586299426	Erosion	(geology) the mechanical process of wearing or grinding something down (as by particles washing over it)	65
7586303456	Immigration	migration from a location	66
7586303457	Metropolis	the capital, or chief city of a country or empire. (Alexandria or Washington D.C)	67
7586306879	Metropole	the parent state of a colony	68
7586306880	Migration	A permanent move to a new location	69
7586309370	Monsoon	These strong and predictable winds have long been ridden across the open sea by sailors, and the large amounts of rainfall that they deposit on parts of India, Southeast Asia, and China allow for the cultivation of several crops a year.p	70
7586309371	Pandemic	an epidemic that spreads throughout the world,	71
7586312351	Pathogen	bacteria, or virus	72
7586312352	Population	all the inhabitants of a particular town, area, or country.	73
7601241360	Pull factors (as related to migration)	positive conditions and perceptions that induce people to new locations from other areas	74
7601246788	Push factors (as related to migration)	negative conditions and perceptions that induce people to leave their adobe and migrate to a new location	75
7601248785	Savanna / Savannah	a grassy plain in tropical and subtropical regions, with few trees. or Africa	76
7601248786	Technology	The way in which people adapt their knowledge to tools and inventions.	77
7601251643	Tundra	a very vast treeless Arctic region of Europe, Asia, and North America.	78
7601251644	Urban	They are nucleated, with on one or more clear core areas. People who live in them work in non-agricultural jobs. (cities,capitals)	79
7586315215	CULTURE!!!	CULTURE!!!	80
7586317957	Animism	A type of religious belief that focuses on the roles of the various gods and spirits in the natural world and in human events. Animist religions are polytheistic and have been practiced in almost every part of the world.	81
7586321356	Belief system	a set of principles or tenets which together form the basis of a religion, philosophy, or moral code.	82
7586321357	Codify	arrange (law or rules) into a systematic code.	83
7586324056	Culture	the behaviors and belied characteristics of a particular group	84
7586324057	Cultural Diffusion	The expansion and adoption of a cultural element, from its place of origin to a wider area.	85
7586327932	Cultural Synthesis	the blending of two or more cultural influences.	86
7586331543	Ideology	A systematic body of concepts that are characteristic of an individual, group or culture	87
7586331544	Indigenous	Produced, living or occurring naturally in a particular region or environment	88
7586334335	Literacy	the ability to read and write.	89
7586341685	Missionary	People from a certain religion that there job is to spread the word to other places around the world.	90
7601262311	Monotheism	The religious belief in one God. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all represent monotheist religions.	91
7601264776	Philosophy	the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, especially when considered as an academic discipline.	92
7601264777	Polytheism	Religious belief in more than one god. The ancient Greeks, for example, practice polytheism.	93
7601267001	Religion	the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or gods.	94
7601274271	Syncretism	The unification or blending of opposing people, ideas, or practices, frequently in the realm of religion. For example, when Christianity was adopted by people in a new land, they often incorporate it into their existing culture and traditions.	95
7586341686	ECONOMY!!!!	ECONOMY!!!	96
7601283536	Agriculture	The raising of animals or the growing of crops on tended land to obtain food for primary consumption by a farmer's family or for sale off the farm	97
7601283537	Capitalism	an economic system based on open competition in a free market, in which individuals and companies own the means of production and operate for profit	98
7601285842	Commerce	an interchange of goods or commodities, especially on a large scale between different countries (foreign commerce) or between different parts of the same country (domestic commerce) trade; business.	99
7601289104	Commercialization	The transformation of an area of a city into an area attractive to residents and tourists alike in terms of economic activity.	100
7601289105	Commodity	An article of trade or commerce including agricultural or mining products that can be transported	101
7601291492	Communism	a theory or system of social organization based on the holding of all property in common, actual ownership being ascribed to the community as a whole or to the state.	102
7601291493	Consumer	a person who purchases goods and services for personal use.	103
7601291494	Credit	An arrangement to receive cash, goods, or services now and pay for them in the future.	104
7601294094	Cultivation	(agriculture) production of food by preparing the land to grow crops	105
7601294095	Currency	Definition- A system of money in general use Significance- Many early civilizations used trade and other products as currency	106
7601294096	Domesticate	to tame and animals for a purpose, or cultivate for a plant.	107
7601297476	Domesticsated animals	the taming of animals for human use, such as work or as food	108
7601297477	Economy	money resource to buy things and give price to objects.	109
7601299971	Economy Structure	Economic structure is a term that describes the changing balance of output, trade, incomes and employment drawn from different sectors - ranging from primary to secondary to tertiary and Quaternary sectors	110
7601305422	Economy System	Method used by society to produce and distribute goods and services.	111
7601307902	Export	send (goods or services) t another country for sale.	112
7601307903	Fertility	the ability to reproduce	113
7601309790	Forage	To wander in search of food.	114
7601313616	Forced labour system	a system where the workers were forced to work based on threats, pressure, or intimidation.	115
7601316645	Import	bring(goods or services) into a country from aboard for sale	116
7601316646	Industrialization	the process of developing machine production of goods	117
7601319318	Irrigation	is the artificial application of water to the land or soil.	118
7601319319	Monetization	Establishing something(Ex..gold or silver)as the legal tender of a country	119
7601322606	Nomadic	groups of people tending to travel and change settlements frequently	120
7601322607	Pack Animal	an animal to carry heavy loads( bull to hoe the land or a donkey/camel for travel)	121
7601324457	Pastoral	relating to shepherds or herdsmen or devoted to raising sheep or cattle.	122
7601324458	Producer	a person, company, or country, that grows, or supplies good or commodities for sale.	123
7601324459	Raw material	Unfinished goods consumed by a manufacturer in providing finished goods.	124
7601327199	Specialization of labour	Definition- The learned skill of a specific job Significance- With specialized labor people were best at what they worked at	125
7601336580	Surplus	Definition- An amount of something left over when requirements have been met Significance-The civilizations has surpluses of grain	126

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AP Statistics (Set 4) Flashcards

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9391487194	Categorical vs. Quantitative Data	Data are categorical if they fall into groups or categories and data are quantitative if they take on numerical values where it makes sense to find an average. -Use bar graphs, pie graphs, or segmented bar charts for categorical variables such as color or gender. -Use dotplots, stemplots, histograms, or boxplots for quantitative variables such as age or weight.	0
9391487195	Marginal vs. Conditional Distributions	In a two-way table, marginal distributions consider only one variable and use the total row/column of the table only. Conditional distributions describe the distribution of one variable for a specific value of the other (one row/column inside the table).	1
9391487196	SOCS	Shape - Skewed Left, Skewed Right, Symmetric, Uniform, Unimodal, Bimodal Outliers - Discuss them if there are obvious ones Center - Mean or Median Spread - Range, IQR, or Standard Deviation Note: Also be on the lookout for gaps, clusters or other unusual features of the data set.	2
9391487197	Comparing Distributions	Address: Shape, Outliers, Center, Spread in context! YOU MUST USE comparison phrases like "is greater than" or "is less than" for Center & Spread	3
9391487198	Outlier Rule	Upper Cutoff = Q3 + 1.5(IQR) Lower Cutoff = Q1 - 1.5(IQR) IQR = Q3 - Q1	4
9391487199	Interpret Standard Deviation	Standard Deviation measures spread by giving the "typical" distance that the observations (context) are away from the mean (context).	5
9391487200	How does shape affect measures of center?	In general, Skewed Left (Mean < Median) Skewed Right (Mean > Median) Fairly Symmetric (Mean ≈ Median)	6
9391487201	Interpret a z-score	z = (value - mean) / standard deviation A z-score describes how many standard deviations a value falls away from the mean of the distribution and in what direction. The further the z-score is away from zero the more "surprising" the value of the statistic is.	7
9391487202	Percentiles	The kth percentile of a distribution is the point that has k% of the values less than that point. For example, a student who scores at the 90th percentile got a higher score than 90% of the other test takers.	8
9391487203	Linear Transformations	Adding "a" to every member of a data set adds "a" to the measures of position, but does not change the measures of spread or the shape. Multiplying every member of a data set by "b" multiplies the measures of position by "b" and multiplies most measures of spread by \|b\|, but does not change the shape.	9
9391487204	The Standard Normal Distribution	The standard Normal distribution is the Normal distribution with mean μ = 0 and standard deviation σ = 1. The Normal table displays values for the standard Normal distribution.	10
9391487205	Using Normalcdf and InvNorm (Calculator Tips)	Using boundaries to find area: Normalcdf (min, max, mean, SD) Using area to find boundary: Invnorm (area to the left as a decimal, mean, SD) If used on AP® exam, make sure to label each input!	11
9391487206	Describing an association in a scatterplot	Address the following, in context: Direction Outliers Form Strength	12
9391487207	Interpret r	Correlation measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship between x and y. • r is always between -1 and 1 • Close to zero = very weak • Close to 1 or -1 = strong • Exactly 1 or -1 = perfectly straight line • Positive r = positive correlation Negative r = negative correlation	13
9391487208	Interpret LSRL Slope "b"	For every one unit change in the x variable (context) the y variable (context) is predicted to increase/decrease by ____ units (context).	14
9391487209	Interpret LSRL y-intercept "a"	When the x variable (context) is zero, the y variable (context) is predicted to be ______.	15
9391487210	What is a Residual?	Residual = y − ŷ (Actual - Predicted) A residual measures the difference between the actual y value and the y value that is predicted by the LSRL.	16
9391487211	Interpreting a Residual Plot	If there is a leftover pattern in the residual plot, then the model used does not have the same form as the association (the model is not appropriate). If there is no leftover pattern in the residual plot, then the model is appropriate.	17
9391487212	Interpret LSRL "ŷ"	yˆ is the "estimated" or "predicted" y-value (context) for a given x-value (context)	18
9391487213	Extrapolation	Using a LSRL to predict outside the domain of the explanatory variable. (Can lead to ridiculous conclusions if the observed association does not continue)	19
9391487214	Interpret LSRL "s"	s = ___ is the standard deviation of the residuals. It measures the typical distance between the actual y values (context) and their predicted y values (context) in a regression setting	20
9391487215	Interpret r^2	___% of the variation in y (context) is accounted for by the LSRL of y (context) on x (context). Or ___% of the variation in y (context) is accounted for by using the linear regression model with x (context) as the explanatory variable.	21
9391487216	Outliers and Influential Points in Regression	Any point that falls outside the pattern of the association should be considered an outlier. A point is influential if it has a big effect on a calculation, such as the correlation or equation of the least-squares regression line. Points separated in the x-direction are often influential.	22
9391487217	Reading Computer Output for Regression	Using foot length (x) to predict height (y): Y intercept = 103.41 and Slope = 2.7469 s = 7.95126 and 2 r = 0.486	23
9391487218	SRS	An SRS (simple random sample) is a sample taken in such a way that every set of n individuals has an equal chance to be the sample actually selected.	24
9391487219	Using a Random Digit Table to Select a Sample	Step 1: Label. Give each member of the population a numerical label with the same number of digits. Use as few digits as possible. Step 2: Randomize. Read consecutive groups of digits of the appropriate length from left to right across a line in table. Ignore any group of digits that wasn't used as a label or that duplicates a label already in the sample. Stop when you have chosen n different labels. Your sample contains the individuals whose labels you find.	25
9391487220	Sampling Techniques	1. SRS- Names in a hat 2. Stratified - Split the population into homogeneous groups, select an SRS from each group. 3. Cluster - Split the population into groups (often based on location) called clusters, and randomly select whole clusters for the sample. 4. Census - An attempt to reach the entire population 5. Convenience- Selects individuals easiest to reach 6. Voluntary Response - People choose themselves by responding to a general appeal.	26
9391487221	Advantage of using a Stratified Random Sample Over an SRS	Stratified random sampling guarantees that each of the strata will be represented. When strata are chosen properly, a stratified random sample will produce better (less variable/more precise) information than an SRS of the same size.	27
9391487222	Bias	A sampling method is biased if it consistently produces estimates that are too small or consistently produces estimates that are too large.	28
9391487223	Experiment vs. Observational Study	A study is an experiment ONLY if researchers impose a treatment upon the experimental units. In an observational study researchers make no attempt to influence the results and cannot conclude cause- and-effect.	29
9391487224	Confounding	Two variables are confounded if it cannot be determined which variable is causing the change in the response variable. For example, if people who take vitamins on their own have less cancer, we cannot say for sure that the vitamins are causing the reduction in cancer. It could be other characteristics of vitamin takers, such as diet or exercise.	30
9391487225	Why use a control group?	A control group gives the researchers a comparison group to be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment(s). (context) It allows the researchers to measure the effect of the treatment (context) compared to no treatment at all.	31
9391487226	Blinding	When the subjects in an experiment don't know which treatment they are receiving, they are blind. If the people interacting with the subjects and measuring the response variable don't know which subjects received which treatments, they are blind. If both groups are blind, the study is double-blind.	32
9391487227	Experimental Designs	CRD (Completely Randomized Design) - Units are allocated at random among all treatments RBD (Randomized Block Design) -Units are put into homogeneous blocks and randomly assigned to treatments within each block. Matched Pairs - A form of blocking in which each subject receives both treatments in a random order or subjects are matched in pairs with one subject in each pair receiving each treatment, determined at random.	33
9391487228	Benefit of Blocking	Blocking helps account for the variability in the response variable (context) that is caused by the blocking variable (context). If there really is a difference in the effectiveness of the treatments, using an appropriate blocking variable will increase power (probability of finding convincing evidence that the treatments are not equally effective).	34
9391487229	Scope of Inference: Generalizing to a Larger Population	We can generalize the results of a study to a larger population if we used a random sample from that population.	35
9391487230	Scope of Inference: Cause-and-Effect	We can make a cause-and-effect conclusion if we randomly assign treatments to experimental units in an experiment. Otherwise, Association is NOT Causation!	36
9391487231	Interpreting Probability	The probability of an event is the proportion of times the event would occur in a very large number of repetitions. Probability is a long-term relative frequency.	37
9391487232	Law of Large Numbers	The Law of Large Numbers says that if we observe many repetitions of a chance process, the observed proportion of times that an event occurs approaches a single value, called the probability of that event.	38
9391487233	Conducting a simulation	State: Ask a question about some chance process. Plan: Describe how to use a random device to simulate one trial of the process and indicate what will be recorded at the end of each trial. Do: Do many trials. Conclude: Answer the question of interest.	39
9391487234	Complementary Events	Two mutually exclusive events whose union is the sample space. For example: -Rain / No Rain -Draw at least one heart / Draw NO hearts	40
9391487235	Conditional Probability	Probability that one event occurs given that another event is already known to have occurred. (on formula sheet)	41
9391487236	Two Events are Independent If...	Events A and B are independent if knowing that Event A has occurred (or has not occurred) doesn't change the probability that event B occurs.	42
9391487237	Two Events are Mutually Exclusive If...	Events A and B are mutually exclusive if they share no outcomes.	43
9391487238	Interpreting Expected Value/Mean	If we were to repeat the chance process (context) many times, the average value of ____ (context) would be about ____.	44
9391487261	Mean and Standard Deviation of a Discrete Random Variable		45
9391487262	Mean and Standard Deviation of a Sum of Two Random Variables		46
9391487239	Binomial Setting and Random Variable	Binary? Each trial can be classified as success/failure Independent? Trials must be independent. Number? The number of trials (n) must be fixed in advance Success? The probability of success (p) must be the same for each trial. X = number of successes in n trials	47
9391487263	Binomial Distribution (Calculator Usage)		48
9391487264	Mean and Standard Deviation Of a Binomial RV		49
9391487240	Geometric Setting and Random Variable	Arises when we perform independent trials of the same chance process and record the number of trials it takes to get one success. On each trial, the probability p of success must be the same. X = number of trials needed to achieve one success	50
9391487241	Parameter vs. Statistic	A parameter measures a characteristic of a population, such as a population mean μ or population proportion p. A statistic measures a characteristic of a sample, such as a sample mean x̄ or sample proportion p̂. Statistics are used to estimate parameters.	51
9391487242	What is a sampling distribution?	A sampling distribution is the distribution of a sample statistic in all possible samples of the same size. It describes the possible values of a statistic and how likely these values are. Contrast with the distribution of the population and the distribution of a sample.	52
9391487265	What is the sampling distribution of p̂?		53
9391487243	What is the Central Limit Theorem (CLT)?	If the population distribution is not Normal the sampling distribution of the sample mean x will become more and more Normal as n increases.	54
9391487244	Unbiased Estimator	A statistic is an unbiased estimator of a parameter if the mean of its sampling distribution equals the true value of the parameter being estimated. In other words, the sampling distribution of the statistic is centered in the right place.	55
9391487245	4-Step Process Confidence Intervals	STATE: What parameter do you want to estimate, and at what confidence level? PLAN: Choose the appropriate inference method. Check conditions. DO: If the conditions are met, perform calculations. CONCLUDE: Interpret your interval in the context of the problem.	56
9391487246	Interpreting a Confidence Interval	I am ___% confident that the interval from ___ to ___ captures the true ____.	57
9391487247	Interpreting a Confidence Level (The Meaning of 95% Confidence)	If many, many samples are selected and many, many confidence intervals are calculated, about __% of them will capture the true ____.	58
9391487248	Standard Error vs. Margin of Error	The standard error of a statistic estimates how far the value of the statistic typically differs from the true value of the parameter. The margin of error estimates how far we expect the parameter to differ from the statistic, at most.	59
9391487249	What factors affect the Margin of Error?	The margin of error decreases when: -The sample size increases -The confidence level decreases	60
9391487250	Inference for Means (Conditions)	Random: Data from a random sample or randomized experiment 10%: The sample must be ≤ 10% of population Normal/Large Sample: Population distribution is Normal or sample size is large (n ≥ 30). If n < 30, graph sample data and verify no strong skewness or outliers. Include graph!	61
9391487251	Inference for Proportions (Conditions)	Random: Data from a random sample or randomized experiment 10%: The sample must be ≤ 10% of population Large Counts: At least 10 successes and failures: npˆ ≥10 and n p (1 10 − ≥ ˆ ) (1 sample z test for p: 0 np ≥10 and n p (1 10 − ≥ 0 ) )	62
9391487266	Finding the Sample Size (For a given margin of error m)		63
9391487252	4-Step Process Significance Tests	STATE: What hypotheses do you want to test, and at what significance level? Define any parameters you use. PLAN: Choose the appropriate inference method. Check conditions. DO: If the conditions are met, perform calculations. Compute the test statistic and find the P-value. CONCLUDE: Make a decision about the hypotheses in the context of the problem.	64
9391487253	Explain a P-value	Assuming that the null is true (context) there is a ___ probability of observing a statistic (context) as large as or larger than the one actually observed by chance alone.	65
9391487254	Carrying out a Two- Sided Test from a Confidence Interval	α = 1 - confidence level If the null hypothesis value is in the interval, then it is a plausible value that should not be rejected. If the null hypothesis value is not in the interval, then it is not a plausible value and should be rejected.	66
9391487255	Type I Error & Type II Error	Type I Error: Finding convincing evidence that Ha is true when in reality Ha is not true. (Rejecting H0 when H0 is actually true). Type II Error: Not finding convincing evidence that Ha is true when in reality Ha is true. (Failing II reject H0 when Ha is true).	67
9391487256	Power	Power: Probability of avoiding a Type II error = Probability of finding convincing evidence that Ha is true when in reality Ha is true.	68
9391487257	Factors that Affect Power	Sample Size: To increase power, increase sample size. Significance Level α: A larger value of α increases power. Effect Size: The farther the true value is from the hypothesized value, the larger the power. Data Collection: Using blocking rather than a completely randomized design can increase power.	69
9391487267	Paired t-test Identification Hints, H0 and Ha		70
9391487268	Two Sample t-test Identification Hints, H0 and Ha		71
9391487258	Chi-Square Tests (Conditions)	Random: Data from a random sample(s) or randomized experiment 10%: The sample must be ≤ 10% of the population. Large Counts: All expected counts are at least 5.	72
9391487259	Types of Chi-Square Tests	Goodness of Fit: Use to compare the distribution of a categorical variable in one population to a hypothesized distribution. Homogeniety: Use to compare distribution of a categorical variable for 2+ populations or treatments. Independence: Use to test the association between two categorical variables in one population.	73
9391487269	Chi-Square Tests df and Expected Counts		74
9391487260	Inference for Regression (Conditions)	Linear: Association between the variables is linear. Check with residual plot. Independent observations, 10% condition if sampling without replacement Normal: Responses vary normally around the regression line for all x-values. Check with graph of residuals. Equal SD around the regression line for all x-values. Check with residual plot. Random: Data from a random sample or randomized experiment	75
9391487270	Inference for Regression with Computer Output		76

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AP - Poetry Terms Flashcards

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7830230481	Abecedarian	"poems most commonly used as mnemonic devices and word games for children, such as those written by Dr. Seuss and Edward Gorey.."	0
7830230482	Anaphora	A rhetorical figure of repetition in which the same word or phrase is repeated in (and usually at the beginning of) successive lines, clauses, or sentences. "As one of the world's oldest poetic techniques, it is used in much of the world's religious and devotional poetry, including numerous Biblical Psalms."	1
7830230483	Ballad	a poem or song narrating a story in short stanzas. Traditional ballads are typically of unknown authorship, having been passed on orally from one generation to the next as part of the folk culture. "Their subject matter dealt with religious themes, love, tragedy, domestic crimes, propaganda.?	2
7830230487	Cento	"From the Latin word for 'patchwork,' it is a poetic form made up of lines from poems by other poets."	3
7830230489	Cinquain	A five line stanza "Examples can be found in many European languages and the origins of the form dates back to medieval French poetry."	4
7830230490	Dramatic Monologue	a poem in the form of a speech or narrative by an imagined person, in which the speaker inadvertently reveals aspects of their character while describing a particular situation or series of events. "The poet speaks through an assumed voice - a character, a fictional identity, or a persona."	5
7830230491	Ekphrasis	Description is "a composition bringing the subject clearly before the eyes." Like the encomium, the subjects may be persons, actions, times, places, animals, and growing things. "These modern poems have generally shrugged of antiquity's obsession with elaborate descriptions, and instead have tried to interpret, in, inhabit, confront, and speak to their subjects."	6
7830230492	Elegy	A poem of mourning, usually about someone who has died. "The traditional poem mirrors three states of loss. First, there is a lament, then praise for the idealized dead, and finally consolation and solace."	7
7830230493	Epic	A long narrative poem, written in heightened language, which recounts the deeds of a heroic character who embodies the values of a particular society. "Elements that typically distinguish this type of poem include superhuman deeds, fabulous adventures, highly stylized language, and a blending of lyrical and dramatic traditions."	8
7830230494	Epigram	A brief witty poem, often satirical.	9
7830230495	Epistle	A letter or literary composition in letter form. "poems - means 'letter' - are, quite literally, poems that read as letters."	10
7830230496	Found Poem	created by taking words, phrases, and sometimes whole passages from other sources and reframing them as poetry by making changes in spacing and lines, or by adding or deleting text, thus imparting new meaning. "The literary equivalent of a collage, is often made from newspaper articles, street signs, graffiti, speeches, letters, or even other poems."	11
7830230497	Ghazal	(n) (in Middle Eastern and Indian literature and music) a lyric poem with a fixed number of verses and a repeated rhyme, typically on the theme of love, and normally set to music. "Traditionally invoking melancholy, love, longing, and metaphysical questions, these poems are often sung by Iranian, Indian, and Pakistani musicians."	12
7830230498	Haibun	Japanese form, pioneered by the poet Basho, and comprising a section of prose followed by haiku. They are frequently travelogues - as in Basho's The Records of a Travel-Worn Satchel (1688). In the best examples, the prose and haiku should work together to create an organic whole. "A journey composed of a prose poem and ending with a meaningful murmur of sorts: a haiku."	13
7830230499	Haiku	3 unrhymed lines (5, 7, 5) usually focusing on nature. "Often focusing on images from nature, emphasized simplicity, intensity, and directness of expression."	14
7830230500	Limerick	a kind of humorous verse of five lines, in which the first, second, and fifth lines rhyme with each other, and the third and fourth lines, which are shorter, form a rhymed couplet. "A popular from in children's verse, this type of poem is often comical, nonsensical, and sometimes even lewd."	15
7830230501	Ode	a lyric poem in the form of an address to a particular subject, often elevated in style or manner and written in varied or irregular meter "Originally accompanied by music and dance, and later reserved by the Romantic poets to convey their strongest sentiments."	16
7830230504	Prose Poem	a passage that makes such extensive use of poetic language that the line between spoken language and poetry becomes blurred. "Just as black humor straddles the fine line between comedy and tragedy, so this type of poem plants one foot in spoken language, the other in poetry, both heals resting precariously on banana peels."	17
7830230505	Pastoral	Of relating to or being a literary or other artistic work that portrays or evokes rural life usually in an idealized way. "This tradition refers to a lineage of creative works that idealize rural life and landscapes."	18
7830230507	Rondeau	A form of medieval French poetry set to music, usually with a refrain and a verse. "This type of poetry began as lyric form in thirteenth-century France, popular among medieval court poets and musicians."	19
7830230509	Sestina	A poem composed of six six-line stanzas and a three-line conclusion called an envoi. Each line ends with one of six key words. The alternation of these six words in different positions - but always at the ends of lines - the poems six stanzas creates a rhythmic verbal pattern that unifies the poem. "The thirty-nine-line form is attributed to Arnaut Daniel, the Provencal troubadour of the twelfth century."	20
7830230510	Sonnet	A lyric poem of fourteen lines, usually in iambic pentameter, with rhymes arranged according to certain definite patterns. It usually expresses a single, complete idea or thought with a reversal, twist, or change of direction in the concluding lines. "Means a 'little sound or song,' the sonnet is a popular classical form that has compelled poets for centuries."	21
7830230511	Tanka	A Japanese poem of five lines, the first and third composed of five syllables and the rest of seven. "One of the oldest Japanese forms, tanka originated in the seventh century, and quickly became the preferred verse form in the Japanese Imperial Court."	22
7830230512	Terza Rima	An arrangement of triplets, especially in iambs, that rhyme aba bcb cdc, etc., as in Dante's Divine Comedy. "Invented by the Italian poet Dante Allighiere in the late thirteenth century to structure his three-part epic poem, "The Divine Comedy"."	23
7830230513	Triolet	A short poem of fixed form, having a rhyme scheme of ab, aa, abab, and having the first line repeated as the fourth and seventh lines, and the second line repeated as the eighth. The earliest poems were devotionals written by Patrick Carey, a seventeenth-century Benedictine monk."	24
7830230514	Villanelle	A 19 line form using only two rhymes and repeating two of the lines according to a set pattern. "Strange as it may seem for a poem with such a rigid rhyme scheme, this type of poem did not start off as a fixed form.	25
7830230515	Denotation	The dictionary definition of a word	26
7830230516	Connotation	An implied meaning of a word. Opposite of denotation. The implied of suggested meaning connected with a word.	27
7830230517	Literal Meaning	Limited to the simplest, ordinary, most obvious meaning	28
7830230518	Figurative Meaning	Associative or connotative meaning; representational. When writing is meant to be understood at a deeper level. Figures of speech such as simile, metaphor, personification, and other techniques are used to create more vivid, interesting images.	29
7830230519	Meter	A regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry. Measured pattern of rhythmic accents in a line of verse.	30
7830230520	Rhyme	Correspondence of sound between words or the endings of words, especially when these are used at the ends of lines of poetry.	31
7830230521	Apostrophe	A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. A direct address of an inanimate object, abstract qualities, or a person not living or present. Example: "Beware, of Asparagus, you've stalked my last meal."	32
7830230522	Hyberbole	Deliberate exaggeration for effect (the opposite of understatement). Example: "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse."	33
7830230523	Metaphor	A comparison that establishes a figurative identity between objects being compared. A comparison between essentially unlike things without using words or application of a name or description to something to which it is not literary applicable. Example: "[Love] is an ever fixed mark, /that looks on tempests and is never shaken."	34
7830230524	Metonymy	A closely related term substituted for an object or idea. Example: "We have always remained loyal to the crown."	35
7830230525	Oxymoron	A combination of two words that appear to contradict each other. Example: "Bittersweet"	36
7830230526	Paradox	A situation or phrase that appears to be contradictory but which contains a truth worth considering. Example: "In order to preserve peace, we must prepare for war."	37
7830230527	Personification	The endowment of inanimate objects or abstract concepts with animate or living qualities. Example: "Time let me play / and be golden in the mercy of his means."	38
7830230528	Pun	Play on words or a humorous use of a single word or sound with two or more implied meanings; quibble. Example: "They're call lessons...because they lessen from day to day."	39
7830230529	Simile	Comparison between two essentially unlike things using words such as "like," "as," or "as though." Example: "My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun"	40
7830230530	Synecdoche	A part substituted for the whole. Example: "Friends, Romans, countrymen: lend me your ears"	41
7830230531	Irony	A contradiction of expectation between what is said and what is meant (verbal) or what is expected in a particular circumstance or behavior (situational), or when a character speaks in ignorance of a situation known to the audience or other characters (situational) Example: "Time held me green and dying / Though I sang in my chains like the sea"	42
7830230532	Imagery	Word or sequence of words representing a sensory experience (visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, and gustatory) Example: "Bells knelling classes to a close (auditory)	43
7830230533	Synsthesia	An attempt to fuse different senses by describing one in terms of another. Example: "The sound of her voice was sweet"	44
7830230534	Symbol	An object or action that stands for something beyond itself Example: White = innocence, purity, hope.	45
7830230535	Alliteration	The repetition of consonant sounds, particularly at the beginning of words. Example: "like a wanderer white" or "Peter Piper picked a pail of pickles."	46
7830230536	Assonance	The repetition of similar vowel sounds. Example: "I rose and told him of my woe"	47
7830230537	Elision	The omission of an unstressed vowel or syllable to preserve the meter of a line of poetry. Example: "Th' expense of spirit in a waste of shame."	48
7830230538	Onomatopoeia	The use of words to imitate the sounds they describe. Example: "crack" or "whir"	49
7830230539	Allusion	A reference to the person, event, or work outside the poem or literary piece. Example: "Shining, it was Adam and maiden"	50
7830230540	Open Poetry	Poetic form free from regularity and consistency in elements such as rhyme, line, length, and metrical form.	51
7830230541	Closed Poetry	Poetry that follows a particular shape, stanza count, meter, or rhyme scheme. Poetic form subject to a fixed structure and pattern.	52
7830230542	Stanza	Unit of a poem often repeated in the same form throughout a poem; a unit of poetic lines ("verse paragraph")	53
7830230543	Couplet	A pair of lines, usually rhymed	54
7830230544	Heroic Couplet	A pair of rhymed lines in iambic pentameter (tradition of the heroic epic form)	55
7830230545	Quatrain	four-line stanza or grouping of four lines of verse.	56
7830230546	Sonnet	Fourteen line poem in iambic pentameter with a prescribed rhyme scheme; its subject is traditionally that of love.	57
7830230547	English (Shakespearean) Sonnet	A sonnet probably made popular by William Shakespeare with the following rhyme scheme: abab cdcd efef gg	58
7830230548	Sestet	6 line stanza	59
7830230549	Italian (Petrarchan) Sonnet	A form of sonnet made popular by Petrarch with the following rhyme scheme: abbaabba cdecde or cdcdcd Its first octave generally presents a thought, picture, or emotion, while its final sestet presents and explanation, comment or summary.	60
7830230550	Stress	Greater amount of force used to pronounce one syllable over another.	61
7830230551	Pause	(Caesura) A pause for a beat in the rhythm of the verse (often indicated by a line break or a mark of punctuation)	62
7830230552	Rising Meter	Meter containing metrical feet that move from unstressed to stressed syllables.	63
7830230553	Iambic (Iamb)	A metrical foot containing two syllable-- the first is unstressed, while the second is stressed.	64
7830230554	Anapestic (anapest)	A metrical foot containing three syllables--the first two are unstressed, while the last is stressed	65
7830230555	Falling Meter	Meter containing metrical feet that move from stressed to unstressed syllables.	66
7830230556	Trochaic (Trochee)	A metrical foot containing two syllables--the first is stressed, while the second is unstressed.	67
7830230557	Dactylic (dactyl)	A metrical foot containing three syllables--the first is stressed while the last two are unstressed	68
7830230558	Spondee	An untraditional metrical foot in which two consecutive syllables are stressed.	69
7830239191	Masculine Rhyme	a rhyme of final stressed syllables of words	70
7830256121	Feminine Rhyme	a rhyme between stressed syllables followed by one or more unstressed syllables (stocking / shocking)	71
7830270796	Internal Rhyme	a rhyme involving a word in the middle of a line and another at the end of the line or in the middle of the next. "Once upon a midnight dreary while I pondered weak and weary"	72
7830294109	End Rhyme	Rhyme that occurs at the end of two or more lines of poetry	73
7830296136	Slant Rhyme	rhyming in which the words sound the same but do not rhyme perfectly	74
7830312471	Enjambment	(in verse) the continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line, couplet, or stanza.	75
7830371287	Epistrophe	Ending a series of lines, phrases, clauses, or sentences with the same word or words. The opposite of anaphora.	76
7830399939	Polysendeton	Employing many conjunctions between clauses	77
7830403131	Asyndeton	the omission or absence of a conjunction between parts of a sentence	78
7830420366	Chiasmus	a rhetorical or literary figure in which words, grammatical constructions, or concepts are repeated in reverse order, in the same or a modified form	79
7830450931	Epizeuxis	Repetition of words with no others between	80
7830458439	Juxtaposition	the fact of two things being seen or placed close together with contrasting effect.	81
7830469971	Monometer	one metrical foot per line	82
7830486276	Dimeter	two metrical feet per line	83
7830487964	Trimeter	three metrical feet per line	84
7830489988	Tetrameter	four metrical feet per line	85
7830492127	Pentameter	five metrical feet per line	86
7830494533	Hexameter	six metrical feet per line	87
7830497077	Heptameter	seven metrical feet per line	88
7830499628	Octameter	eight metrical feet per line	89
7830504380	Blank Verse	Unrhymed Iambic Pentameter	90

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AP Biology Review Flashcards

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6696622124	Dehydration	connecting monomers together by the removal of water	0
6696622125	Hydrolysis	disassembling polymers by the addition of water	1
6696622126	Disaccharides	glucose + glucose = maltose / glucose + fructose = sucrose / glucose + galactose = lactose	2
6696622127	Polysaccharides	Plants: starch (energy) and cellulose (structure) Animals: glycogen (energy) and chitin (structure)	3
6696622128	*Lipids	hydrophobic (very non-polar), consist of long hydrocarbon chains	4
6696622129	Fats	consist of glycerol and 3 fatty acids, store long term energy, saturated = no double bond in hydrocarbon tails (no kink), unsaturated = double bond (kink)	5
6696622130	Phospholipids	consist of phosphate head, glycerol, and 2 fatty acid tails, tail is hydrophobic, head is hydrophillic	6
6696622131	Protein structure and organization	composed of an amino group, a carboxyl group, hydrogen, and an R group, joined by peptide bonds and folded numerous times; 1) Primary (linear sequence) 2) Secondary (helix or pleat) 3) Tertiary 4) Quaternary (globular)	7
6696622132	Protein functions (8)	1) enzymes 2) antibodies 3) storage proteins 4) transport proteins 5) hormones 6) receptor proteins 7) motor proteins 8) structural proteins	8
6696622133	*Nucleic Acids	DNA (A+T, G+C) carries genetic info, RNA (A+U, G+C) manufactures proteins	9
6696622134	Nuclear Envelope	double membrane enclosing the nucleus (where genetic info is stored) perforated with pores, continuous with ER	10
6696622135	Chromatin	uncondensed DNA that forms chromosomes during cell division	11
6696622136	Nucleolus	nonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes, a nucleus has one or more of these	12
6696622137	Rough ER	covered in ribosomes, secretes and transports proteins produced by ribosomes	13
6696622138	Smooth ER	metabollic processes (synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbs, detoxification of drugs and poisons)	14
6696622139	Golgi	stores, transports, and secretes cell products	15
6696622140	Cytoskeleton	supports cell, maintains its shape, aids in movement of cell products	16
6696622141	Centrosomes (2 centrioles)	only in animal cells, microtubules used for cell division	17
6696622142	Lysosomes	only in animal cells, digestive organelles	18
6696622143	Flagella	only in animal cells, cluster of microtubules for motility	19
6696622144	Extracellular Matrix	only in animal cells, made of proteins that provide support for cells and relay information for communication between the environment and the cell	20
6696622145	Central Vacuole	only in plant cells, stores water and sugar, breaks down waste, and used as a mechanism for plant growth (when it swells)	21
6696622146	Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic	nucleoid / nucleus; only ribosomes / complex membrane-bound organelles; both have same genetic coding, sugars, and amino acids	22
6696622147	Phospholipid Bilayer	tails of phospholipids are loosely packed and are in constant motion; membrane contains integral and peripheral proteins, cholestrol, and glycopreotins and glycolipids; cholesterol makes the membrane less permeable to water and other substances; non-polar and small polar molecules can pass through unadied	23
6696622148	Passive trasport	movement of molecules without requirement of energy: 1) diffusion 2) osmosis (across a membrane) 3) facilitated diffusion (helped by transport proteins)	24
6696622149	Active transport	movement of molecules that requires energy: 1) sodium-potassium pumps 2) exocytosis 3) endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis)	25
6696622150	Membrane Potential	voltage across a membrane due to difference in positive and negative ions, electrons move from high to low concentration (ex. sodium-potassium pumps in neurons)	26
6696622151	Electrochemical Gradient	diffusion gradient resulting in combination of membrane potential and concentration gradient	27
6696622152	Hypertonic	solution with higher concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would become shiveled/plasmolyzed	28
6696622153	Hypotonic	solution with lower concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would lyse/become turgid	29
6696622154	Isotonic	equal levels of solute concentration, plant cell in this solution would become flaccid	30
6696622155	When ΔG is negative...	...the reaction is exergonic (loss of free energy).	31
6696622156	When ΔG is positive...	...the reaction is endergonic (gain of free energy).	32
6696622157	*Enzymes	proteins that are biological catalysts, lower the activation energy required to start a chemical reaction (reactants at unstable transition state) can be used over and over	33
6696622158	Substrate	the substance that an enzyme acts upon	34
6696622159	Active Site	region of enzyme that binds to the substrate	35
6696622160	Induced fit	change in the shape of an enzyme's active site induced by the substrate, helps to break down the substrate	36
6696622161	The higher the substrate concentration...	...the faster the reaction until the enzyme becomes saturated.	37
6696622162	Denaturation	the unraveling of an enzyme due to high temperatures or incompatible pH	38
6696622163	Cofactors	nonprotein molecules that are required for proper enzyme function, cofactors made of organic molecules are called coenzymes	39
6696622164	Enzyme inhibition may be irreversible if...	...the inhibitor attaches by covalent bonds (poisons, toxins)	40
6696622165	Competitive Inhibitors	resemble a substrate and block enzymes' active sites, can be overcome with higher concentration of substrate	41
6696622166	Noncompetitive Inhibitors	bind to a portion of the enzyme and change the shape of the active site so that it cannot match with substrates, used for regulating metabolic reactions	42
6696622167	Feedback Inhibition	the product of a metabolic pathway switches off the enzyme that created it earlier in the process	43
6696622168	Oxidation	loss of electrons (OIL)	44
6696622169	Reduction	gain of electrons (RIG)	45
6696622170	Oxidative Phosphorylation	ATP synthesis powered by redox reactions that transfer electrons to oxygen	46
6696622171	Electron Acceptors	Cellular respiration: NAD+ and FAD (to NADH and FADH2) Photosynthesis: NADP+ (to NADPH)	47
6696622172	Glycolysis	Input: glucose, 2 ATP Output: 2 pyruvic acid, 4 ATP (net 2), 2 NADH	48
6696622173	Conversion Reaction before Kreb's	Input: 2 pyruvate Output: 2 acetyl (w/ CoA), 2 NADH, 2 CO2	49
6696622174	Krebs Cycle	Input: 2 acetyl ➝ citric acid Output: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2 (after 2 turns of the cycle)	50
6696622175	Electron Transport Chain	Input: NADH, FADH2, O2 (to accept e-) Output: 34-38 ATP, H2O	51
6696622176	Alcohol Fermentation	Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 ethanol, 2 CO2, 4 ATP (net 2)	52
6696622177	Lactic Acid Fermentation	Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 lactate, 4 ATP (net 2)	53
6696622178	Photosynthetic Equation		54
6696622179	Chloroplast structure	Exciting chlorophyll: chlorophyll in thylakoids absorb light, which excites electrons to produce potential energy	55
6696622180	Light Reactions	Input: H2O (2 e-), light energy, NADP+ Output: O2, ATP, NADPH	56
6696622181	Calvin Cycle	Input: 6 CO2 (fixed to RuBP by Rubisco), ATP, NADPH Output: 2 G3P = 1 glucose	57
6696622182	Watson and Crick	built the first accurate 3D DNA model	58
6696622183	Leading Strand vs. Lagging Strand	works toward replication fork / works away from replication fork; both always move in the 5' ➝ 3' direction	59
6696622184	Steps of DNA Replication	1) helicase separates the DNA strands 2) SSB proteins prevent DNA from reanneling 3) primase creates RNA primer 4) DNA polymerase extends DNA strand from the primer 5) DNA polymerase I (RNase H) removes the primers 6) ligase joins the okazaki fragments of the lagging strand	60
6696622185	3 types of RNA	1) mRNA messenger 2) tRNA transfer amino acids (20 kinds) 3) rRNA ribosomes	61
6696622186	Transcription	1) Initiation: promoter site (TATA) is recognized 2) Elongation: RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides in the 5' ➝ 3' direction 3) Termination: RNA strand separates, RNA polymerase recognizes termination sequence (AAUAAA)	62
6696622187	RNA processing/splicing	splicesomes remove introns and put together exons, 5' cap and PolyA tail are added	63
6696622188	Codon vs. Anticodon	codon = nucleotide sequence on mRNA anticodon = nucleotide sequence on tRNA	64
6696622189	Translation	1) Initiation: 5' cap attaches to ribosome which accepts an initiator tRNA at the P site (*AUG will always be 1st codon) 2) Elongation: codon/anticodon recognition and formation of peptide bond between A site amino acid and P site amino acid chain 3) translocation of the ribosome down the mRNA strand 4) Termination: ribosome will recognize stop codon and release the protein	65
6696622190	DNA mutations	base-pair substitution; insertion/deletion; frameshift: 1) missense = different protein 2) nonsense = codes for a stop signal prematurely 3) silent = no harmful change	66
6696622191	Prokaryotic cell division	binary fission: splits in 2, exact copies, quick and efficient with few mutations, but reduces amount of genetic variation	67
6696622192	Somatic cell vs. Gamete	any body cell except gametes / reproductive cells (sperm, egg)	68
6696622193	Interphase	(90% of cell's life) G1: 1st growth, normal metabolic activity (goes into G0 phase if it is not ready for next phase); S: synthesis, DNA replication; G2: 2nd growth, prepares for mitosis	69
6696622194	Mitosis	1) Prophase: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nucleus disappears 2) Metaphase: chromosomes line up at equator, kinetechore microtubules attach 3) Anaphase: sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell 4) Telophase and Cytokinesis: daughter cells separate, nucleus reforms, chromosomes decondense	70
6696622195	Cyclin-dependent Kinases (Cdks)	a regulatory protein that depends upon the presence of cyclin to complete its function, MPF is a Cdk that triggers a cell's passage into the M phase	71
6696622196	Meiosis I	1) Prophase I: homologous chromosomes pair up and synapsis occurs, crossing over segments of the chromosomes (chiasma) to create more genetic variation 2) Metaphase I: homologous chromosomes line up at the equator 3) Anaphase: homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell. 4) Telophase I...	72
6696622197	Meiosis II	Prophase II - Telophase II act exactly like mitosis except that the resultant number of daughter cells is 4 instead of 2, each with their own unique combination of genetic information	73
6696622198	4 mechanisms that contribute to genetic variation	1) Mutation 2) Independent Assortment: homologous chromosomes align randomly on one side of the equator or another 3) Crossing Over 4) Random Fertilization: a zygote can be any combination of a sperm and egg (64 trillion different combinations in humans)	74
6696622199	Testcross	breed a homozygous recessive individual with an individual with a dominant phenotype but an unknown genotype to determine whether or not the individual is homozygous or heterozygous	75
6696622200	Dyhybrid heterozygous cross ratio	9:3:3:1	76
6696622201	Incomplete Dominance	heterozygous offspring have an intermediate phenotype of the parents, 1:2:1 ratio (ex. pink flower from red and white flowers)	77
6696622202	Codominance	both alleles manifest themselves separately in an organism's phenotype (ex. roan cattle)	78
6696622203	Multiple alleles	a trait controlled by two or more alleles (ex. blood type, eye color)	79
6696622204	Blood Types	A: A antigen, B antibody B: B antigen, A antibody AB: A and B antigen, no antibodies (universal recipient) O: no antigens, A and B antibodies (universal donor)	80
6696622205	Polygenic Inheritance	the additive effect of 2 or more independently assorted genes on phenotype (ex. human skin pigment)	81
6696622206	Linked genes phenotypic ratio	two large numbers (wild and mutant) and two much smaller numbers (recombinant phenotypes)	82
6696622207	Genetic Map (Linkage/Cytological Map)	ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome, recombinant frequencies can be used to construct it (smaller the percentage = closer together)	83
6696622208	X Inactivation	in females during embryonic development, one of the two X chromosomes in a cell becomes inactive (Barr body) (ex. calico cats)	84
6696622209	Nondisjucntion	homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis I or II	85
6696622210	Aneuploidy	one or more chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number; Trisomic = 3 copies instead of 2, Monosomic = 1 copy instead of 2	86
6696622211	Polyploidy	when there is a whole extra set of chromosomes (ex. oversized fruits); Triploidy = 3 sets, Tetraploidy = 4 sets	87
6696622212	4 alterations to gene structure	1) Deletion: removal of chromosomal segment 2) Duplication: repetition of a segment 3) Inversion: reversal of a segment within a chromosome 4) Translocation: movement of a segment from one chromosome to another, non-homologous one	88
6696622213	3 stages in cell cummunication	1) Reception: cell detects a signal via connection of a ligand to a receptor protein 2) Transduction: the receptor protein converts the signal to a form that can cause a chemical response 3) Response: transduced signal triggers a specific cellular response	89
6696622214	Types of cell signaling (4)	synaptic, paracrine, hormonal	90
6696622215	Examples of cell signaling	G-protein coupled receptor, ligand-gated ion channels, steroid hormones (dissolved across plasma membrane, intracellular receptor)	91
6696622216	Second Messengers and Phosphorylation cascade	second messengers and kinases spread throughout a cell that help amplify a cellular signal by a series of phosphorylation reactions (addition of phosphate)	92
6696622217	Virus structure	nonliving, can't rproduce on their own; Capsid: protein coat that encloses the viral genome; Envelope: membrane that surrounds some viral capsids; Phage: protein encapsulated virus that attacks bacteria	93
6696622218	Lytic Cycle	1) virus attaches to host cell 2) phage DNA enters cell and the cell's DNA degrades (*restriction enzymes in bacteria could destroy them) 3) synthesis of viral genomes and proteins 4) assembly of phages within cell 5) release of viruses, destroys cell	94
6696622219	Lysogenic Cycle	the virus inserts its DNA into a host cell, and its DNA integrates with the DNA of the host, allows it to be replicated without being attacked for long periods of time before entering the lytic cycle	95
6696622220	Retrovirus	RNA virus that transcribes its RNA into DNA to insert into host cells (ex. HIV)	96
6696622221	Provirus	a viral genome that is permanently inserted into a host genome	97
6696622222	Viral Transduction	contributes to bacterial genetic variation	98
6696622223	Repressible Operon	trp operon - usually on, can be repressed. Repressor protein produced in inactive shape	99
6696622224	Inducible Operon	lac operon - usually off, can be turned on. Repressor protein produced in active shape.	100
6696622225	cAMP and CAP regulated Operon	when CAP is inactive, transcription continues at a much less efficient rate even in the presence of lactose	101
6696622226	Histone Acetylation	the loosening of chromatin structure (euchromatin), promotes transcription	102
6696622227	Histone Methylation	the condensing of chromatin structure (heterochromatin), prevents transcription	103
6696622228	Transcription Factors and Enhancers	RNA polymerase requires the assistance of transcription factor proteins and enhancers or activators to successfully transcribe RNA	104
6696622229	Epigenetic Inheritance	inheritance of traits not directly related to nucleotide sequence (ex. fat, sickly, yellow rats were fed a methylated diet, resulted in offspring that were normal-sized, healthy, and brown)	105
6696622230	5 Evidences for Evolution	1) Biogeography 2) Fossil Record 3) Comparative Anatomy 4) Comparative Embryology 5) Molecular Biology	106
6696622231	4 conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (not evolving)	1) very large population 2) isolation from other populations 3) no mutations 4) no natural selection	107
6696622232	Microevolution vs. Macroevolution	change in the gene pool of a population over several generations / large scale changes in a population that leads to the evolution of a new species	108
6696622233	4 causes of Microevolution	1) genetic drift 2) gene flow 4) natural selection	109
6696622234	Genetic Drift	random change in gene frequency of a small breeding population: 1) Founder Effect = small population of organisms colonizes a new area, 2) Bottleneck Effect = sudden decrease in population size due to disaster	110
6696622235	Gene Flow	loss/addition of alleles from a population due to imigration/emigration	111
6696622236	Nonrandom Mating	selection of mates for specific phenotypes: 1) Assortative Mating = when individuals select partners with simple phenotypic characters, 2) Inbreeding = more recessive traits likely to come together	112
6696622237	3 Modes of Natural Selection	1) Stabilizing: favors intermediate, 2) Directional: favors one extreme phenotype, 3) Diversifying: favors both extremes	113
6696622238	Heterozygote Advantage	heterozygotes for a trait are more likely to survive (ex. carriers of sickle cell anemia are immune to malaria)	114
6696622239	Biological Species Concept	population whose members can create viable, fertile offspring (Problems: doesn't apply to extinct animals or asexually reproducing organisms)	115
6696622240	Prezygotic Reproductive Barriers	1) Habitat Isolation 2) Behavioral Isolation (differing behaviors for attracting mates) 3) Temporal Isolation (mate at different times) 4) Mechanical Isolation 5) Gametic Isolation (unable to fertilize egg)	116
6696622241	Postzygotic Reproductive Barriers	1) Reduced Hybrid Viability (disruption in embryonic stage) 2) Reduced Hybrid Fertility 3) Hybrid Breakdown (F1 is fertile, F2 is sterile or weak)	117
6696622242	Allopatric Speciation	when populations become geographically isolated from the rest of the species and has the potential to develop a new species (ex. Adaptive Radiation: many diversely adapted species from common ancestor, Darwin's finches)	118
6696622243	Sympatric Speciation	members of a population develop gametic differences that prevent them from reproducing with the parental type (polyploidy, not as common)	119
6696622244	Punctuated Equilibrium vs. Gradualism	evolution occurs in short spurts of rapid change / each new species will evolve gradually over long spans of time	120
6696622245	Convergent Evolution	different organisms that occupy similar environments come to resemble one another (ex. dolphins and sharks)	121
6696622246	Endosymbiosis	Origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts. Evidence: They have their own DNA and ribosomes, double membrane structure, grow and reproduce on their own within the cell	122
6696622247	Phylogeny	evolutionary history of a species or group of related species	123
6696622248	Taxonomic groups from broad to narrow (8)	Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species	124
6696622249	3 mechanisms in which bacteria transfer genetic materials	1) Transformation: prokaryote takes up DNA from its environment 2) Transduction: viruses transfer genes between prokaryotes 3) Conjugation: genes are directly transferred from one prokaryote to another over a temporary "mating bridge"	125
6696622250	Types of Symbiotic Relationships	Mutualism (+, +), Commensalism (+, 0), Parasitism, (+, -)	126
6696622251	Factors that influence Transpiration Rate	Temperature: higher temperature, faster rate; Humidity: higher humidity, slower rate; Sunlight: more sun, faster rate; Wind: more wind, faster rate	127
6696622252	Lines of Immune Defense	1st Line) skin oil and sweat, mucous; 2nd Line) nonspecific phagocytes and cytotoxic immune cells; 3rd Line) specific immune system	128
6696622253	Primary and Secondary Immune Response		129
6696622254	Active vs. Passive Immunity	depends on the response of a person's own immune system (artificial = vaccines) / immunity passed from one organism to another	130
6696622255	B cells vs. T cells (maturation)	mature in bone marrow / mature in thymus	131
6696622256	Humoral vs. Cell-Mediated Immune Responses		132
6696622257	Non-steroid hormone vs. Steroid hormone	travels in bloodstream, binds to receptor on cell surface / travels in bloodstream, binds to receptor inside the cell	133
6696622258	Endotherms vs. Ectotherms	warmed by heat generated by metabolism (mammals, birds) / generate little metabolic heat, warmed by environment	134
6696622259	Niche	a position/role taken by a kind of organism within its community	135
6696622260	Resource Partitioning	division of environmental resources by coexisting species	136
6696622261	Per capita Growth Rate	birth - death / total population	137
6696622262	Exponential vs. Logistic Growth	in logistic growth, carrying capacity will limit the population's size	138
6696622263	Density-dependent Regulation	Density-independent: natural disasters, human impact, etc.	139
6696622264	Keystone Species	species that exerts strong control on community structure not by numerical might but by their pivotal ecological roles or niches	140
6696622265	Energy Pyramid	each energy level receives only 10% of the pervious level's energy	141
6696622266	Gross Primary Production vs. Net Primary Production	total amount of energy from light converted to chemical energy to organic molecules / GPP - energy used by primary producers for "autotrophic respiration"	142
6696622267	Carbon Cycle	Connect photosynthesis (fixation) to cellular respiration (CO2 release)	143
6696622268	Plasmids	a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome	144
6696622269	Recombinant DNA	a DNA vector made in vitro with segments from different sources	145
6696622270	Restriction Enzyme	an enzyme that recognizes and cuts DNA molecules at specific nucleotide sequences (restriction sites), can then be used to create recombinant DNA	146
6696622271	Gel Electrophoresis	analyzing fragments of DNA (RFLPs) by their length and charge to determine genetic fingerprints and other genetic information	147

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AP Biology Cells Review Flashcards

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9891601588	endergonic reaction	reaction where energy is stored in chemical bonds	0
9891601589	exergonic reaction	reaction where energy is released from chemical bonds	1
9891601590	Prokaryotic Cells	Bacteria; no nucleus or organelles	2
9891601591	Eukaryotic cells	complex; have organelles	3
9891601592	Ribosome	2 subunits of rRNA; responsible for protein synthesis	4
9891601593	Golgi Body	Part of the endomembrane system; cis face receives materials, so that they can be modified and packaged; trans face releases vesicles	5
9891601594	Rough ER	aids in protein synthesis by altering the structure of proteins; contains ribosomes	6
9891601595	Smooth ER	site of lipid synthesis; involved in detoxification of cells	7
9891601596	Vacuoles	storage vesicles found within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells	8
9891601597	Central Vacuole	When filled with water it maintains turgor pressure of plant cells; not found in animal cells	9
9891601598	Chloroplast	site of photosynthesis; only in plant cells; appear green due to the pigment chlorophyll which reflects green light	10
9891601599	mitochondria	found in BOTH plant and animal cells; site of cellular respiration whereby ATP is made	11
9891601600	lysosome	a vesicle that contains digestive enzymes to break down cellular food and/or waste	12
9891601601	nucleus	home of the genetic information (DNA)	13
9891601602	nucleolus	site of ribosome synthesis; found in the center of the nucleus	14
9891601603	chromatin	the form in which DNA is found within the nucleus during the majority of the cell cycle	15
9891601604	nuclear envelope	surrounds the nucleus and contains pores to allow for communication with the rest of the cell, as well as, allowing for ribosomes to exit the nucleolus	16
9891601605	animals, plants, fungi, protista	eukaryotic	17
9891601606	bacteria	prokaryotic	18
9891601607	bacillus (plural: bacilli)	rod shaped bacteria	19
9891601608	coccus (plural: cocci)	round shaped bacteria	20
9891601609	spirillum (spirilla)	spiral shaped bacteria	21
9891601610	cell membrane	found in ALL cell types surrounding the cytoplasm and maintaining selective permeability	22
9891601611	cell wall	Found in plant, fungal, bacterial, and some prostist cells; rigid wall for protection and shape; regulates the cell's volume	23
9891601612	turgor pressure	exerted onto the cell wall in order to maintain rigid, upright, and erect plant cells and leaves (maximizing photosynthesis)	24
9891601613	photosynthesis	uses sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen (which is given off as a byproduct)	25
9891601614	cellular respiration	conversion of glucose into ATP, water, and CO2; occurs in the mitochondria	26
9891601615	cytoskeleton	composed of protein filaments and microtubules that extend throughout the cytoplasm and allow for cellular movement and structure	27
9891601616	centrioles	small structures composed of microtubules that organize the cytoskeleton during cell division	28
9891601617	flagella	long whip-like tails that allow for cell movement; found in sperm cells	29
9891601618	cilia	short hair-like extensions of the cell membrane that wave back and forth allowing for cell movement; found within cells of the respiratory system	30
9891601619	pseudopodia	"false-feet;" extensions of the cytoplasm that move the cell membrane allowing for slow movement of cells; found in amoeba (protists)	31
9891601620	catabolic reactions	chemical reaction whereby large molecules are broken down (ex: glycogen converted into many glucose monosaccharides)	32
9891601621	anabolic reactions	chemical reaction whereby small molecules come together (as water is removed) to build large molecules (ex: amino acids coming together to create a protein)	33
9891601622	Gibbs Free Energy	Available energy to use for chemical reactions	34
9891601623	enthalpy	the total energy within a system	35
9891601624	entropy	a measure of the disorder within a system	36
9891601625	high entropy	A great amount of disorder; low available energy as it has been released from chemical bonds	37
9891601626	low entropy	a large amount of stored energy; an anabolic reaction has occurred	38
9891601627	osmosis	movement of water from high to low concentration through aquaporins	39
9891601628	diffusion	movement of solutes from high to low concentration across the phospholipid bilayer	40
9891601629	facilitated diffusion	movement of large and/or polar solutes from high to low concentration through a channel or carrier protein within the cell membrane	41
9891601630	carrier protein	allow for specific molecules to bind and cross the cell membrane	42
9891601631	channel protein	a ligand attaches to its binding site, modifying its shape allowing for the diffusion of molecules across the cell membrane	43
9891601632	ligand	chemical signals that begin the process of signal transduction	44
9891601633	amphipathic	molecules containing a polar and non-polar region; example: phospholipids	45
9891601634	phospholipid tails	the non-polar region of the cell membrane	46
9891601635	phospholipid heads	the polar regions of the cell membrane (facing the extracellular and intracellular areas)	47
9891601636	hydrophilic	polar	48
9891601637	hydrophobic	nonpolar	49
9891601638	cytoplasm	gel-like matrix in which organelles are suspended	50
9891601639	organelles	contain their own phospholipid bilayers within the cell	51
9891601640	passive transport	movement of molecules along or with the concentration gradient (high to low)	52
9891601641	active transport	movement of molecules against the concentration gradient (low to high)	53
9891601642	endocytosis	a vesicle forms along the cell membrane and pinches off within the cell - allowing for substances to enter	54
9891601643	phagocytosis	large, solid molecules brought into the cell via cell membrane pockets (called vesicles)	55
9891601644	pinocytosis	small, liquid molecules brought into the cell via cell membrane pockets (called vesicles)	56
9891601645	receptor-mediated endocytosis	receptors along the surface of the cell membrane allow for the binding of specific molecules, then causing a vesicle to form around them, bringing them into the cell	57
9891601646	protein kinase receptors	ligand binding causes a change in shape of the receptor protein, causing its catalytic domain to hydrolyze ATP, and then phosphorylate a target molecule. The target molecule then triggers other molecules within the cell to respond	58
9891601647	Cell signaling pathway	ligand binding(Reception) - stimulation of receptor(Transduction) - cellular response	59
9891601648	Ion channels	allow movement of charged molecules to diffuse across the cell membrane following the binding of a ligand	60
9891601649	ATP	Adenosine triphosphate	61
9891601650	isotonic environment	solute concentrations inside and out of the cell are equal	62
9891601651	hypertonic environment	solute concentration outside of the cell is higher than inside the cell	63
9891601652	hypotonic environment	solute concentration outside of the cell is lower than inside the cell	64
9891601653	result of a hypotonic environment	cytolysis (splitting of a cell)	65
9891601654	result of a hypertonic environment	plasmolysis (release of cytoplasm; cell shrinking)	66
9891601655	equilibrium	concentrations of water inside and outside of cell are equal	67
9891601656	effect of a cell being in equilibrium	water flows into and out of the cell in equal amounts	68
9891601657	peripheral proteins involved in cellular recognition	glycoproteins	69
9891601658	cholesterol	a lipid that helps to maintain the fluidity of the cell membrane	70
9891601668	hypertonic		71
9891601669	hypotonic		72
9891601670	isotonic		73
9891601659	responsible for turgor pressure	hypotonic environment	74
9891601660	#2 in the picture	gap junctions; tunnels that allow for the transport of molecules between adjacent cells	75
9891601661	tight junctions	allow for NO transport of molecules between adjacent cells	76
9891601662	#3 in the picture	desmosomes; anchor adjacent cells together in order to create tissue	77
9891601663	plasmodesmata	cytoplasmic channels that allow for movement of molecules between adjacent PLANT cells	78
9891601664	autocrine signals	signals that only affect the cell from which it was released	79
9891601665	juxtacrine signals	affect cells in direct contact with one another; occurring only over short distances; important during embryonic development	80
9891601666	paracrine signals	affect cells nearby; involved in the inflammatory response (ex. when you cut or smash your finger it gets red, due to increased blood flow to the area)	81

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AP Statistics (Chapter 17) Flashcards

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9391455897	Conditions for Bernoulli Trials	1. There are two possible outcomes (success and failure). 2. the probability of success, p, is constant. 3. the trials are independent. Ex. Flipping a coin; rolling a die and noting whether or not it came up as a six.	0
9391455898	Geometric probability model	- Tells us the probability for a random variable that counts the number of Bernoulli trials UNTIL THE FIRST SUCCESS - Denoted by: Geom(p)	1
9391455904	Mean & Standard Deviation of Geometic model	Mean = 1/p SD = sqrt(q)/p	2
9391455899	Binomial probability model	- Tells us the probabilty for a random variable that counts the NUMBER OF SUCCESSES in a fixed number of Bernoulli trials. - Denoted by: Binom(n,p)	3
9391455905	Mean & Standard Deviation of Binomal model	Mean = np SD = sqrt(npq)	4
9391455900	10% Condition	Bernoulli trials must be independent. It is only okay to proceed if the sample is smaller than 10% of the population.	5
9391455901	Success/Failure condition	- A binomal model is approximately Normal if we expect at least 10 successes and 10 failures: np > or equal to 10 and nq > or equal to 10	6
9391455902	Difference between Geometric and Binomial models	- Both involve Bernoulli trials, but the issues are different. - Geometric probability = trials until first success - Binomial probability = number of successes in a specified number of trials	7
9391455903	Difference between Normal and Binomial models	- Binomial gives probabilities for a specific count - Normal gives continous random variable that can take place on any value	8

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AP Human Geography Language Families Flashcards

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6760208865	Indo- European	Most widely used language family; predominant in Europe, South Asia, North America, and Latin America	0
6760208866	Sino- Tibetan	Spoken in South East Asia; Mandarin is most widely used language; written with logograms (symbols)	1
6760208867	Austronesian	Spoken in lower South East Asia (islands), mostly Indonesia; main language is Javanese	2
6760208868	Austro-Asiatic	Spoken in a small portion of South East Asia; most spoken language is Vietnamese (written with Roman alphabet)	3
6760208869	Tai Kadai	Spoken in Thailand and neighboring portions of China	4
6760208870	Japanese	Spoken in Japan; written with Chinese logograms and phonetic logograms	5
6760208871	Korean	Spoken in Korea; written with hankul; derived from Chinese words	6
6760208872	Afro-Asiatic	Spoken in North Africa and Southwest Asia; Arabic and Hebrew are major languages	7
6760208873	Altaic	Spoken in South West Africa; Turkish is a major language	8
6760208874	Uralic	Spoken by Estonia, Finland, Hungary	9
6760208875	Niger- Congo	Spoken in North Central Africa; Spoke by more than 95% of Sub-Saharan Africa; major language is Swahili	10
6760208876	Khoisan	Spoken in low South West Africa; the use of clicking sounds	11

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