| 9562777236 | The Homeland of Islam | 1. Tribal feuds and trading centers of the Arabian Peninsula: Prior to the Islamic
revelations, the Arab world was characterized by the tribal organization of Bedouin
groups. They fought a series of bitter feuds amongst themselves, clashing over
access to trade centers and oases. As the peninsula was home to some of the trade
routes between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean, the region saw
economic growth thanks to the increase in long-distance trade.
2. Mecca: home of the Kaaba and the Quraysh: One of the cities was Mecca. While
somewhat removed from the trade routes, it served as an important pilgrimage site
as the Kaaba, a shrine, housed idols of hundreds of tribal gods from the region. The
Quraysh dominated the city and grew wealthy from taxing the pilgrims that came to
worship at the Kaaba.
3. Contact with Byzantine and Sassanid Empires: As the peninsula was adjacent to
two powerful empires, there was knowledge of the wider world. A variety of people
from the Christian and Persian worlds lived in the cities of the peninsula.
4. Gods, idols, and "children of Abraham": While the Arab tribes were polytheistic,
contact with Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians living among them spread the idea
of monotheism. Thus, some Arabs came to view the god Allah as the preeminent
god of the pantheon, and some linked Allah to the Jewish Yaweh, exploring the idea
that Allah was the one true god and the rest of the gods were merely idols. These
Arabs came to see themselves as, like the Jews, descendants of Abraham. Thus, in
600 it seemed as if the Arabs were moving towards Judaism or Christianity. | | 0 |
| 9562782966 | The Messenger and the Message | 1. Muhammad Ibn Abdullah (570-632): This historical figure was orphaned as a child and raised by an
uncle. He was a shepherd as a boy and became a merchant as a young man. He would marry a widow, also a
wealthy merchant, and have six children with her. Deeply spiritual and greatly troubled by the social
injustices in Mecca, he frequently retreated to the hills around Mecca to meditate.
2. Series of revelations (610-632) become the Quran: Starting in 610, he had a series of revelations for over
two decades. He reluctantly accepted that he was a messenger of God. He recited these revelations, and they
were later recorded as the Quran, Islam's sacred text. They are believed to be the direct word of God and are
extremely beautiful verses in the original Arabic.
3. Revolutionary message of monotheism: In one sense, the revelations were a revolution against the
polytheism and idol worship of the Arabian Peninsula.
4. A return to the religion of Abraham: In another sense, the revelations were actually a call to return to the
pure faith of Abraham. They were a call to purge the faith of corruptions and errors: Jews wrongly saw
themselves as a chosen people, Christians had wrongly turned their prophet into a god, and Arabs had fallen
into idol worship and polytheism. Thus, the message was a universal call for all to engage in a purer faith.
5. "Seal of the prophets": Islam sees Muhammad as the final prophet in a series of Judeo-Christian prophets.
As his message is the final and most complete revelation, he is the seal of the line of prophecy. This is
important because it stresses the lineage of prophets, the errors of previous revelations, and the finality of
Muhammad's message.
6. Revolutionary message of social justice: The Umma. The message was not only spiritual. Muhammad,
deeply troubled by the social injustices, violence, and feuds of tribal Arabia, wanted to created a new
community of the faithful where the poor and vulnerable would be protected. This new community of the
faithful and the just would be known as the Umma.
7. Five Pillars of Islam: The revelations required five actions from pious Muslims: Acceptance of Allah as
the one true god and Muhammad as his prophet, daily prayer five times a day, giving to charity, fasting
during the month of Ramadan, and a pilgrimage to Mecca. These requirements show the linkage of the
spiritual and the social.
8. "Greater" and "Lesser" Jihad: Muhammad spoke of the need to struggle. The greater struggle of Jihad is
within one's self, overcoming greed or sinful desires. The lesser struggle, the struggle of the sword, is the
fight to protect the community from external threats. | | 1 |
| 9562787023 | The Transformation of Arabia | 1. Tension in Mecca and the Hijra, 622: While a community of believers formed around
Muhammad, the prophet's revelations angered the status quo in Mecca, and he was accused of
betraying his tribe. They were soon forced out of Mecca and emigrated to nearby Yathrib, a city that
would become known as Medina or "city of the prophet." This departure from Mecca and the
founding of the Umma in Medina is known as the Hijra and marks the starting year of the Islamic
calendar.
2. Building the Umma in Medina: In the new city, Muhammad revealed new laws to create a more
just and peaceful society. Importantly, membership was not based on family lineage but upon
acceptance of the faith. In Medina, the Muslims began to pray towards Mecca.
3. War, alliances, and entry into Mecca, 630: The Umma found itself in a series of conflicts with its
neighbors. When one Jewish group allied against the Umma, Muhammad made a clearer break
between Islam and Judaism. Importantly, this was a conflict with one specific tribe in the context of
a war, and he did not condemn all Jews. Muhammad won a series of wars and encouraged marriage
alliances. In 630, he triumphantly entered Mecca and purged the Kaaba of the tribal idols.
4. Most of the Peninsula under a unified Islamic state: By the time of his death, Muhammad had
united the once chaotic peninsula under his leadership.
5. Fusion of religious and political authority: Unlike other world religions, the prophet fused
spiritual and political authority. There was no church outside the state and thus no church/state
conflict as in Europe.
6. Sharia: The law system that developed saw no distinction between religious and civil law; they
were one and the same. | | 2 |
| 9562800532 | War, Conquest, and Tolerance | 1. From the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus River: Muslim armies spread
rapidly out of the Arabian Peninsula, conquering Spain and invading France
in the west and reaching the Indus River in the east. Arabs invaded and
conquered wealthy Egypt. The Persian Sassanid Empire quickly fell and the
Arabs picked off much Byzantine territory.
2. Battle of Talas, 751: In 751, the Islamic forces defeated the Chinese in
central Asia at the Battle of Talas. This allowed the Turkic people to become
a widespread Islamic culture and checked the westward spread of China.
3. Economic drive and spreading the faith: While the Muslims were eager to
spread their faith, there were also very worldly economic interests in
building the empire. Rich trade routes and productive farmlands increased
the wealth of the new and expanding empire.
4. Dhimmis and the Jizya: If conversion was encouraged, the empire
respected Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians as fellow "people of the book."
These groups were granted the special status of Dhimmi and were required
to pay a tax, the Jizya, in lieu of military service (yet many Dhimmi did
serve in the military). This tolerance allowed these faiths to continue to be
practiced. | | 3 |
| 9562805959 | Conversion | 1. Spiritual versus social conversion: While there were obviously many people drawn to
Islam for spiritual or psychological reasons, there were also large numbers that went
through a social conversion, meaning that they shifted from one community to another.
2. Slaves, prisoners of war, and merchants: Many early converts came from the ranks of
prisoners of war or slave who may have been coerced. There were also economic
reasons for converting, such as avoiding the Jizya or the connections merchants could
make being part of the Islamic community.
3. Conversion without Arabization: Persia, Turks, and Pakistan: While in North Africa
and much of Mesopotamia, people converted and adopted the Arabic language and
culture, areas east of the Tigris-Euphrates did not. The Persians, Turks, and people of the
Indus Valley held on to their traditional language even though they were Islamicized.
4. Persian influences on Islamic world: Persia, as a centuries-old empire and civilization,
not only held on to its traditions, but many of them spread into the wider Muslim world.
Persian architecture, administration, and art influenced the culture of the eastern reaches
of Islam. | | 4 |
| 9562811053 | Divisions and Controversies | 1. First Four Caliphs (632-661) and civil war: After the death of the prophet, disputes arose over who
should lead the community. The first leaders were all companions of the prophet. The first caliph had to put
down political revolts and new prophets and the third and fourth caliphs were assassinated. Thus, within
decades of Muhammad's death, civil war threatened to destroy the unity he built.
2. Sunni versus Shia: Initially a political dispute over who should rule the Umma, the Sunni-Shia
controversy still divides the Islamic world. Shia argue that the leader should come from a direct descendent
of Muhammad, while the Sunnis hold that a learned member of the community should lead. As there was
much persecution of the Shia and several of their leaders were killed, they developed the ideology of an
oppressed minority and came to hold mystical ideas such as the belief that an assassinated leader had gone
into hiding and would return to save the community some day. Such messianic beliefs and other rituals
developed into a distinct Shia culture.
3. Umayyad (661-750): Damascus: This dynasty, with its capital not in Medina but in the old Roman and
Byzantine city of Damascus, provided unity but soon faced a series of revolts.
4. Abbasid (750-1258): Baghdad: The Abbasids with their capital in the ancient Mesopotamian city of
Baghdad, overthrew the Ummayyads but soon faced many revolts themselves before finally falling to the
Mongols in 1258.
5. Post-ninth-century sultantes: A number of smaller states run by sultans broke away from Baghdad's
central authority after the mid-ninth century.
6. Interpreting and practicing Sharia: In deciding how Muslims should live, there was a movement to use
Sharia law to structure all aspects of society. Thus a number of schools developed to interpret and
administer the law.
7. Sufi: These mystics did not believe that it was necessary to follow the letter of the law. Rather through
meditation or ritual, one could have a close spiritual contact with the Divine. Sufis often described their
relationship with the Divine as a form of intoxication or overwhelming love. | | 5 |
| 9562816404 | Women and Men in Early Islam | 1. Women in the Quran, Hadith, and Sharia: During the time of the
revelations, Muhammad created rules that protected women and gave them
some control over their property and right to divorce. The famous passage
that allowed Muslim men to have up to four wives also states that they must
all be cared for equally. Spiritually, women who were devout and had good
morals would receive Allah's blessing just as men would. The revelations
also contained some restrictions.
2. Restrictions for elite women in the golden age: When the Arab empires
were established after the prophet's death, there were increased restrictions
on elite women. Many of these restrictions, such as veiling and sequestering,
were in keeping with earlier pre-Islamic practices in this part of the world,
and most were difficult and impractical to apply to lower class women. | | 6 |
| 9562824292 | The Case of India | 1. Turkic invaders: After the conversion of the Turkic peoples of Central Asia, the
Turks became the third group to spread Islam after the Arabs and Persians. A series
of invasions of Northern India led to the creation of small sultanates. With the
establishment of the Sultan of Delhi in 1206, their rule was more systematic but still
relatively limited in its reach.
2. Disillusioned Buddhists and lower-caste Hindus: Many converts came from
Buddhists who had left their faith, lower-caste Hindus, and untouchables. There
were also those who converted to avoid the jizya tax.
3. Appeal of Sufi mystics: As South Asia had a long tradition of mystics, Sufism
had a great appeal to the common people. Sufi veneration of saints and various
festivals gave Islam a popular practice. Sometimes Sufism was very similar to
Hindu traditions.
4. Punjab, Sind, and Bengal: Islam's base was in the Northwest and East of India.
Only 20- 25 percent of the population converted, and the central and southern
reaches saw little if any conversion. There was a very sharp cultural divide between
Hindu and Muslim communities. Monotheistic Islam forbade images of the divine
and preached against overt sexuality while Hindu art was full of representations of
thousands of gods and sometimes depicted very sensual and even erotic scenes.
Muslims generally lived separately from the larger population as a distinct minority.
5. Sikhism: Founded by Guru Nanak (1469-1539), this faith blended Islam and
Hinduism in a monotheistic faith that recognized reincarnation and karma. | | 7 |
| 9562829699 | The Case of Anatolia | 1. Turkic invaders: The Anatolian Peninsula suffered a brutal Turkish
invasion that destroyed Greek Christian rule and subjected many
communities to massacres. When the existing state system and social order
were shattered, large numbers of Turks emigrated into the area and an
increasing number of Christians converted. As both were monotheistic
faiths, this made conversion much easier than in polytheistic India.
2. 90 percent by 1500: By 1500, the region had a distinctly Turkish Muslim
character in terms of language and culture.
3. Ottoman Empire: By 1500, this state became the most powerful empire in
the Islamic world. | | 8 |
| 9562836149 | The Case of West Africa | 1. Muslim merchants and scholars: Islam came to West Africa by peaceful
means. Muslim merchants traveled south across the Sahara and spread the
faith to the urban trading centers of West Africa. Rulers found Muslim
scholars to be useful administrators. Islam had an appeal as a connection to a
wider world.
2. Urban centers: Islam was really an urban phenomenon in West Africa
until the nineteenth century. While rulers sponsored the building of mosques,
libraries, and schools, there was little effort converting the larger rural
world. Nonetheless, the communities in the cities saw themselves as part of
a larger Islamic world.
3. Little penetration of rural world and popular culture: Remaining the
culture of the urban elite, the villages of West Africa continued to practice
their traditions and rituals. Sometimes, elements of Islam were combined
with existing faiths and practices but there was no Islamicization of the
region. There was no large-scale Arab migration to West Africa. | | 9 |
| 9562841097 | The Case of Spain | 1. Arab and Berber invasion of Al-Andalus: In 711, Muslim Arab and Berber forces
invaded Spain, called Al-Andalus in Arabic. They quickly conquered the peninsula and
established a Caliphate; Islam spread widely in the south.
2. Cordoba's golden age: At its height, Muslim Spain was prosperous, culturally
dynamic, and cosmopolitan. It was also a time of tolerance with special taxes for Jews
and Christians but general acceptance of them in society. The city of Cordoba was the
center of this golden age. In this time, Al-Andalus was a major center of learning. A
number of Greek and Arabic books were collected and translated in the libraries.
3. Increased intolerance: In the late 900s as Christian kingdoms in the north began a
series of wars, the Muslims rulers became increasingly intolerant of Christians, and
social conflicts developed between the communities.
4. Christian reconquest and expulsion: In series of wars, the Christians gradually
conquered all of the peninsula, with Granada falling in 1492. The new Spanish
monarchy forced many Muslims and some 200,000 Jews to emigrate. Converts, while
initially tolerated, were later forced out of Spain. | | 10 |
| 9562845361 | Networks of Faith | 1. Ulamas and Madrassas: While Islam has no priesthood, as no mortal can stand between
an individual and God, a class of learned scholars and experts developed. Known as
Ulama, they made up an international elite of scholars, students, judges, and administrators
from West Africa to Southeast Asia. Islamic schools, known as Madarassas, spread
throughout the Islamic world. These schools were generally conservative and focused on
the memorization and recitation of the Quran.
2. Sufi shaykhs and poets: Sufism was responsible for much of the spreading of Islam into
new areas as Sufi mystics were willing to engage with local spiritual traditions and rituals,
thus forming a bridge between pre-Islamic and Islamic ideas and practices. Often Sufis
were willing to recognize local saints and other figures, winning over the community. Sufi
shaykhs were teachers who attracted loyal students that followed their specific devotional
practices and teachings. Sufi poets, such as Rumi, produced works of literature that had an
appeal within and outside of the Islamic world.
3. The hadj: The annual pilgrimage to Mecca did much to forge an international
community of Muslims and a wider sense of the umma. | | 11 |
| 9562850228 | Networks of Exchange | 1. Vast hemispheric trading zone: The Islamic world tied together Afro-Eurasia by
linking the Mediterranean, the trans-Saharan trade, the Silk Roads, the Indian Ocean
basin, and Chinese ports. Arab and Persian merchants played the leading role in this
vital trading system.
2. Merchants and urban elites: As the prophet Muhammad was himself a merchant
and as the elites of the Islamic world were very urban, the greater Islamic world
brought together a culture friendly to commerce with cities eager to consume. Thus,
the greater Islamic economy benefited from the linkage of long-range trade and
dynamic cities.
3. Technological exchange and an Islamic "Green Revolution": The trade routes also
served to transport technological innovations, ideas, and crops. New weapons such
as rockets and useful administrative tools such as paper spread west from China.
Texts from Greece, the Hellenistic world, and India were translated into Arabic and
inspired Muslim scholars to build upon these earlier works. Crops, especially citrus,
cotton, and sugar cane, moved through the Islamic world, as did new irrigation
techniques, leading to a dramatic increase in food production and population growth.
4. Mathematics and medicine: Using a numeric system from India, Muslim scholars
made important advances in mathematics and astronomy. Using Greek and Indian
medical knowledge, they developed early hospitals, diagnosed diseases, developed
chemical-based treatments, and performed operations for things such as cataracts
and hernias. This medical knowledge entered Europe via Spain and was the state of the art for
medical knowledge for many centuries. | | 12 |
