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Unit 1 European Colonization Test Study Guide Flashcards

The American Pageant 13th Edition

Chapter 1 Founding the Nation(pg. 8-24)
Chapter 2 The Planting of English America(pg. 25-42)
Chapter 3 Settling the Northern Colonies(pg. 43-65)
Chapter 4 America Life in The 17th Century(pg. 66-83)
Chapter 5 Colonial Society on the Eve of the Revolution (pg. 84-105)
Chapter 6 The Duel for North America (pg. 106-121)

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2843218465	When did King Henry VIII break away from the Roman Catholic Church and what was its after affects?	King Henry VIII broke away from the RCC in the 1530s causing the English Protestant Reformation, and intensifying the rivalry with Catholic Spain.	0
2843322618	How did the victory over the Spanish Armada affect England?	1. The victory caused England to have a stronger government/popular monarch, more religious unity, and sense of nationalism. 2. The beginning of British dominance at sea	1
2843342840	What is known as Jamestown Gold?	Tobacco	2
2843349600	Who were the Squatters?	The squatters were people who owned no land, usually came from virginia to the Carolinas.	3
2843353806	What caused North Carolinians strong resiliency to authority?	Geographic isolationism	4
2843358414	What were the two flavors of Carolinians?	1. North Carolina: Strong-willed and independent-minded up north on small tobacco farms. 2. South Carolina: Aristocratic and wealthier down south around Charleston and rice & indigo plantations.	5
2843368465	What was the colony of Georgia intending to be?	Georgia was intended to be a buffer between the British colonies and the hostile Spanish settlements in Florida and the enemy French in Louisiana.	6
2843218466	What was the English Protestant Reformation?	The EPR was when King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church and made a larger rivalry with Catholic Spain.	7
2843218467	Who circumnavigated the globe in 1580 and returned with a ship full of gold for spain?	Francis Drake	8
2843218468	What are 2 aftermaths from the Spanish Armada?	Spain's empirical dreams and fighting spirit was weakened which helped to ensure the English's naval dominance over the North Atlantic.	9
2843218469	What was the Virginia Company of London?	The Virginia Company was a joint stock company in 1606 that received a charter from King James I to start settling the New World.	10
2843218470	When did The Virginia Company land in Jamestown?	They landed in Jamestown on May 24, 1607	11
2843218471	Who was Captain John Smith?	Captain John Smith was an English soldier who led the first successful English colony in North America, which was Jamestown.	12
2843218472	What was the Starving Winter?	The Starving Winter diminished the inhabitants of Jamestown from 400 to 60 people. (1609-1610).	13
2843218473	Who was Lord de La Warr?	He was the second Governor of Jamestown who arrived in 1610 to resupply the colony. He started the First Anglo-Powhatan War that raided and burned Indian Villages.	14
2843218474	What was the biggest killer of Indians and Indian culture?	disease	15
2843218475	What ended the first Anglo Powhatan War?	Pocahontas marrying John Rolfe in 1614.	16
2843218476	What was the House of Burgesses?	The first democratically elected legislative body in the colonies.	17
2843218477	When was Maryland formed?	Maryland was formed in 1634 by Lord Baltimore	18
2843218478	Why was Maryland formed?	Maryland was formed as a refuge for Catholics to escape the wrath of the Protestant English Government.	19
2843218479	What was the Act of Toleration?	The Act of Toleration was passed in 1649 by the local representative group in Maryland, which granted toleration to all christians.	20
2843218480	What did England secure by the mid 17th century?	England secured claims to several West Indian Islands	21
2843218481	What was the major crop on the Indian Islands and what had to happen in order to support these crops?	Sugar and the importation of millions of African Slaves to the West Indies.	22
2843218482	By 1700, What was the ratio of black slaves to white settlers in the English West Indies?	4:1	23
2843218483	What did the Barbados Slave Code of 1661 state?	The BSC of 1661 denied even the most basic rights for slaves	24
2843218484	What happened in 1707 between the Quakers and the Savannah Indians?	In 1707, the Savannah Indians decided to end their alliance with the Carolinians and migrate to Maryland and Pennsylvania, where a new colony founded by Quakers under William Penn promised better relations.	25
2843218485	What crop became the primary export of the carolinas?	Rice	26
2843218486	Why did the English found Georgia?	The English founded Georgia to primarily serve as a buffer to protect the Carolinas from the Spanish in Florida and the French in Louisiana.	27
2843218487	When was the colony of Georgia founded?	Georgia was founded in 1733	28
2843218488	What was the male to female ratio in the Chesapeake region?	6 males: 1 Female	29
2843218489	Why did half the people in early Virginia and Maryland not survive past the age of 20?	People did not survive due to a widespread of diseases. (malaria, dysentery, and typhoid)	30
2843218490	How many people lived in the virginia colony?	59,000 people	31
2843218491	By the 1630s, how many pounds of tobacco was being shipped out of the Chesapeake Bay every year?	1.5 million pounds of tobacco	32
2843218492	What are indentured servants?	Poor English men who agree to work for a number of years in return for a trip to the new world.	33
2843218493	What are Freedom dues?	It was the money paid to indentured servants at the end of their contract.	34
2843218494	Where was the Headright sytem established and what was the Headright System?	In Virginia and Maryland they established the "headright" system to encourage the importation of servant workers. Under its terms, whoever paid the passage of a laborer received the right to acquire 50 acres of land.	35
2843218495	How many indentured servants did the chesapeake farmers recruit by 1700?	100,000 indentured servants	36
2843218496	White slaves represented what percentage of european immigrants to Virginia and Maryland in the 17th century?	75%	37
2843218497	Who was Nathaniel Bacon?	In 1676, Nathaniel Bacon and 1,000 Virginians revolted against Virginia's Governor William Berkeley for his friendly policies towards the Indians. - Nathaniel Bacon revolted because Berkeley refused to retaliate for a series of savage Indian attacks on frontier settlements (due to his monopolization of the fur trading with them). - Nathaniel Bacon's "Army" attacked Indians and chased Berkeley out of Jamestown, Virginia. They torched the capitol.	38
2843218498	What did Nathaniel Bacon die from and how did that affect the civil war?	Bacon died from disease and Berkeley took advantage of this and crushed the uprising, hanging more than 20 rebels.	39
2843218499	when were africans brought to jamestown, virginia?	Africans had been brought to Jamestown as early as 1619, but as late as 1670.	40
2843610978	How did Blacks contribute to music?	The blacks created instruments like the banjo and the bongo drum.	41
2843617526	Describe the Social Scale in Southern Society?	1. Planters: They owned gangs of slaves and vast domains of land; ruled the region's economy and monopolized political power. 2. Small Farmers: They were the largest social groups and may have owned one or two slaves. 3. Landless Whites: They were former indentured servants. 4. Black Slaves	42
2843638396	How was life in New England organized?	- New towns were legally chartered by colonial authorities. - A town usually had a meetinghouse surrounded by houses and a village green. - Towns of more than 50 families had to provide primary education. - Towns of more than 100 had to provide secondary education.	43
2843647471	Who were the Jeremiads?	New type of Puritan sermons in the 1600s. Focused on the teachings of a Biblical prophet who warned of doom. Created in response to a lack of religious devotion in second-generation settlers.	44
2843652846	What was the Halfway Covenant?	In the Half-Way Covenant, all people could come and participate in the church, even if they fell short of the "visible-saint" status and were somehow only half converted (with the exception of a few extremely hated groups).	45
2843218500	What caused the decrease in the number of indentured servants coming to America?	In the 1680s, the wages in England rose causing less people to move to america to become indentured servants.	46
2843218502	What was Gullah?	Gullah was a language made by the blacks off South Carolinas coast that was a mixture of English with several African languages, including Yoruba, Ibo, and Hausa.	47
2843227691	What happened 225 million years ago?	Pangea started to break apart	48
2843229621	What happened 10 million years ago?	North America was shaped by nature.	49
2843231105	What happened 2 million years ago?	The Great Ice Age	50
2843232143	What happened 35,000 years ago?	The oceans were glaciers and the sea level dropped, leaving the isthmus connecting Asia and North America.	51
2843218501	Starting in 1662 what did Virginia establish and what were they?	The slave codes made blacks and their children the property of the white masters for life. They also made teaching slaves to read a crime.	52
2843235564	What happened 10,000 years ago?	Ice started to retreat and melt, raising the sea levels and covering the Bering Isthmus.	53
2843246916	Who were the first american corn growers?	The Pueblo Indians	54
2843251246	Who were the first Europeans to come to america?	The Vikings and the Norways	55
2843256346	What is a caravel?	A caravel is a triangular sailed ship that was easier to sail in order to return to europe from the African Coast.	56
2843260715	What is an astrolabe?	A sextant gizmo that could tell a ship's latitude	57
2843263209	Where was the first slave trade?	In the Sahara desert	58
2843265556	What was christopher Columbus's goal?	His goal was to reach the East Indies by sailing west, thus bypassing the around Africa route that Portugal monopolized.	59
2843275058	What was the columbian exchange?	The columbian exchange was an exchange of plants, foods, animals, and germs between the New World and Old World.	60
2843282417	What was the treaty line of Tordesillas in 1494?	Portugal and Spain feuded over who got what land. The Pope drew this line as he was respected by both. The line ran North-South -Portugal got everything east of the line (Brazil and land around/under Africa) - Spain got everything west of the line (which turned out to be much more, though they didn't know it at the time)	61
2843292619	Who was Vasco Balboa?	"Discovered" the Pacific Ocean across the Isthmus of Panama.	62
2843294381	Who was Ferdinand Magellan?	He was the first to circumnavigate the globe.	63
2843296491	Who was Ponce de Leon?	He touches and names Florida looking for legendary Fountain of Youth.	64
2843301926	Who was Hernando Cortes?	He enters Florida, travels up into present day Southeastern U.S, dies and is "buried" in the Mississippi River.	65
2843303640	Who was Francisco Pizarro?	He conquers the Incan Empire of Peru and begins shipping tons of gold/silver back to Spain.	66
2843306020	Who was Francisco Coronado?	He ventured into current Southwest U.S. looking for legendary El Dorado, city of gold. He found the Pueblo Indians.	67
2843413981	What did Martin Luther do in 1517?	Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses to the door of the Wittenburg Cathedral.	68
2843421650	What was two ideas that Martin Luther believed in?	The bible alone was the source of God's words and that people are saved simply by faith and not christ alone.	69
2843424981	What did Martin Luther's actions ignite?	The protestant reformation	70
2843427278	What is predestination and who preached this ideology?	John Calvin preached predestination which was the idea that those going to heaven or hell has already been determined by god.	71
2843436156	Who were the Puritans?	The Puritans, like the Pilgrims, had disagreements with the Church of England. The Puritans wanted to reform it. King Charles I didn't like this and persecuted the Puritans. In 1630, 900 Puritans left for Massachusetts and New Hampshire and were led by John Winthrop. These settlers formed the Massachusetts Bay Company.	72
2843448780	What did the pilgrims want?	The pilgrims wanted a place where they were free to worship their own religion and could live and die as good Pilgrims.	73
2843455377	What was the Mayflower Compact?	It was the first document in which American colonists claimed a right to govern themselves. Written by the Pilgrims before they landed in Massachusetts at Plymouth Rock.	74
2843456921	Who was William Bradford?	He was the chosen governor of Plymouth 30 times in the annual elections, he was a great leader, and helped Plymouth to survive and trade fur, fish, and lumber.	75
2843464201	Who was John Winthrop?	First governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, also a Puritan leader	76
2843472680	Who was Anne Hutchinson?	A Puritan who believed that you could go to heaven by being a good person rather that living by the bible word for word. She was brought to trial in 1638 and said her beliefs were spoken by god too her.	77
2843504996	What was King Philip's War?	King Phillips united many tribes in southern New England against the English settlers, who were constantly encroaching on the American Indians' lands. In a vicious war (1675-1676) thousands on both sides were killed and dozens of towns and villages were burned. However eventually the colonial forces prevailed, killing King Phillip and ending most American Indian resistance in New England.	78
2843528228	What was New Amsterdam?	New Amsterdam was a company town ran by and for the Dutch company and in the interests of stockholders.	79
2843552709	What were patroonships?	Patroonships are large areas of land given by the dutch to promoters who agreed to settle at least 50 people on them.	80
2843580829	Who was William Penn?	William Penn was a well-born Englishman who embraced the Quaker faith. In 1681, he managed to secure an immense grant of fertile land from the King James II. - It was called Pennsylvania, in honor of Penn, who, being the modest person that he was, had insisted that it be called Sylvania. -It was the best advertised of all the colonies.	81
2843482704	Who was Roger Williams?	Roger Williams was an extreme Separatist who was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony, He then fled to the Rhode Island area in 1636. There, he established religious freedom for all kinds of people.	82
2843565850	What were some of the Quakers characteristics?	1. They "quaked" under deep religious emotion. 2.They were offensive to religious and civil rule. 3. Though stubborn and unreasonable, they were simple, devoted, democratic people against war and violence.	83
2843570673	Why was it a problem for quakers that they couldn't swear oaths?	They didn't swear oaths because Jesus had said "Swear not at all,". That was a problem, because you had to swear a test oath to prove that you weren't Roman Catholic.	84
2851240334	What event sparked the change in Spanish dominance of the colonial world and seas, and prompted England to become the dominant naval force in the world?	The Spanish Armada	85
2851242327	What 5 factors contributed to the growing movement for English colonization?	1. Peace with Spain 2. Population growth 3. Unemployment 4. Joint-stock companies 5. Adventure, markets, religious freedom	86
2851248197	What is the significance of the Virginia Company Charter?	The charter of the Virginia Company guaranteed settlers the same rights as Englishmen in Britain.	87
2851276657	By 1775, how many colonies did Great Britain rule in North America?	32 Colonies	88
2851327566	How did De La Warr relate to the Native Americans? What kinds of tactics did he use?	Lord De La Warr related to the native americans in an unpeaceful way. He used Irish Tactics against the Indians. His troops raided Indian villages, burned houses, confiscated provinces, and torched cornfields.	89
2851376800	How was North Carolina different than its neighbors?	North Carolina was less Aristocratic and more democratic. They were much poor and irreligious people than South Carolina.	90

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APUSH Chapters 1, 2, and 3- American Pageant 13th edition (to do well) Flashcards

New World Beginnings
33,000 B.C.-A.D. 1769
The Planting of English America
1500-1733
Settling the Northern Colonies
1619-1700

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1463835442	The Great Ice Age accounted for the origins of north America's human history because	it exposed a land bridge connecting Eurasia with north America	0
1463835443	Some of the more advanced native American cultures did the following:	established large, bustling cities, made strikingly accurate astronomical observations, studied mathematics, and carried on commerce	1
1463835444	True statements of the Inca, Maya, and Aztecs include	they had advanced agricultural practices based mainly on maize, they lacked technology of the wheel, they built elaborate cities and carried on far-flung commerce, and they had talented mathematicians who helped them make accurate astronomical observations	2
1463835445	A factor that enabled Europeans to conquer native north Americans with relative ease was	the absence of dense concentrations of population or complex nation-states in north America	3
1463835446	The Iroquois confederacy was able to menace its native American and European neighbors because of	its military alliance, sustained by political and organizational skills	4
1463835447	The early voyages of Scandinavian seafarers did not result in permanent settling in north America because	no nation-state yearning to expand supported these ventures	5
1463835448	Groups responsible for slave trading in Africa long before the Europeans had arrived were	the Arabs and Africans	6
1463835449	Factors contributing to the emergence of a new global economic system included	Europe providing market and capital, Africa providing labor, the New World providing raw materials, and technological improvement	7
1463835450	European contact with native Americans led to	the deaths of millions of native Americans, who had little resistance to European diseases	8
1463835451	A disease that European explorers introduced into the New World was	smallpox	9
1463835452	The institution of encomienda allowed the	European gov'ts to give Indians to colonists if they promised to Christianize them.	10
1463835453	Match each explorer with the area he explored: a. Pizarro b. Ponce de Leon c. Columbus d. Coronado e. Cortes	a. Peru b. Florida c. Caribbean Islands d. New Mexico and Arizona e. Mexico	11
1463835454	As a result of Pope's Rebellion in 1680,	the Pueblo Indians destroyed every Catholic church in the province of new Mexico	12
1463835455	The ___________ provided the financial support for England's first permanent American colony	joint-stock company	13
1463835456	Motives for English colonization included	unemployment, thirst for adventure, desire for markets, and desire for religious freedom	14
1463835457	The early years at Jamestown were characterized by	starvation, disease, and Indian raids	15
1463835458	Despite an abundance of fish and game, early Jamestown settlers still starved because	they were unaccustomed to fend for themselves, and wasted time looking for gold	16
1463835459	Captain John Smith's role at Jamestown can be described as	saving the colony from collapse	17
1463835460	Chief Powhatan had John Smith kidnapped in order to	impress Smith with his power and show the Indians' desire for peace	18
1463835461	The Second Anglo-Powhatan war in 1644 ended	any chance of assimilating native peoples into Virginia society	19
1463835462	The biggest disrupter of native American life was	disease	20
1463835463	After purchases of slaves in 1619 by Jamestown settlers, additional purchases of Africans were few because	they were too costly	21
1463835464	The cultivation of tobacco in Jamestown resulted in the following	destruction of soil, demand for controlled labor, soaring prosperity in the colony, and the plantation system	22
1463835465	The summoning of Virginia's House of Burgesses marked an important precedent because	it was the first of many miniature parliaments to convene in America	23
1463835466	In 1649, Maryland's Act of Toleration	granted religious toleration to all Christians	24
1463835467	Tobacco was considered a poor man's crop because	it could be produced quickly and easily	25
1463835468	Reasons sugar was considered a rich man's crop include	it had to be planted extensively, it required clearing of much land, it had to go through an elaborate refining process, and was a capital-intense business	26
1463835469	Under the Barbados Slave Code of 1661, slaves	were denied the most fundamental rights	27
1463835470	Two major exports of the Carolinas were	rice and Indian slaves	28
1463835471	Some Africans became very valuable in the Carolinas because they	had experience working in rice cultivation	29
1463835472	North Carolina and Rhode Island were similar in that they	were the 2 most democratic colonies	30
1463835473	Georgia was founded	as a defense buffer for the valuable Carolinas	31
1463835474	Georgia's founders were determined to	create a haven for people imprisoned for debt	32
1463835475	Arrange the colonies in order by the date they were founded: a. Georgia b. Virginia c. the Carolinas d. Maryland	BDCA	33
1463835476	Define each term: a. antinomianism b. predestination c. conversion	a. belief that those who were "marked" by God for salvation did not need to obey secular laws b. belief that from the moment of creation some souls were "saved" and others "damned" c. the sign that one has received God's gift of saving grace	34
1463835477	The Puritans referred to the "elect" as	"visible saints"	35
1463835478	Match each item with the colony it was associated with: a. Mayflower Compact b. Fundamental Orders c. General Court d. Patroonships	a. Plymouth b. Connecticut c. Massachusetts Bay d. New Netherlands	36
1463835479	The Mayflower Compact was a	promising step toward genuine self-gov't	37
1463835480	The leader who helped the Pilgrims survive was	William Bradford	38
1463835481	Unlike Separatists, Puritans remained	members of the Church of England	39
1463835482	In the Massachusetts "Bible Commonwealth," clergymen were	barred from holding formal political office	40
1463835483	Behaviors that Puritan religious beliefs allowed included	drinking alcohol, eating plentifully, making love discreetly, and singing songs	41
1463835484	According to Anne Hutchinson, a dissenter from Massachusetts Bay,	the truly saved need not bother to obey the laws of God or man	42
1463835485	Roger Williams' beliefs included	breaking away from the church of England, condemning the taking of Indian land without fair compensation, challenging the authority of civil gov't to regulate religious matters, and challenging the legality of the Massachusetts Bay Charter	43
1463835486	Settlers of the Connecticut river valley developed the Fundamental Orders, which	set up a democratic regime controlled by "substantial citizens"	44
1463835487	Unlike other English settlers in the New World, Puritans	transported entire communities	45
1463835488	The New England Indians' only hope in resisting English expansion was	intertribal unity against the English	46
1463835489	King Philip's War resulted in	the New England Indians' lasting defeat	47
1463835490	The Dominion of New England was	created by the English gov't to streamline administration of its colonies, designed to bolster colonial defense, eventually included NY and NJ, and included all of the New England colonies	48
1463835491	As head of the Dominion of New England, Sir Edmund Andros was	an able military man, conscientious, tactless, and he restricted the press	49
1463835492	The Dutch colony of New Netherland (later NY)	was established for its quick profit of fur trading	50
1463835493	A trait that made Quakers unpopular in England was their	refusal to do military service	51
1463835494	The physical growth of English NY was slowed because	of the monopolistic land policies of the aristocrats	52
1463835495	Of the colonies, Pennsylvania was the best	advertised	53
1463835496	Indian policy in early PA was	benevolent	54
1463835497	Economically, the colony of PA	became profitable very quickly	55
1463897142	An economic asset that all of the middle colonies had was	fertile soil	56
1463897143	Politically, the middle colonies were notable for their	unusual degree of democratic control	57
1463897144	Arrange these events in order: a. great Puritan migration b. founding of Plymouth colony c. Protestant Reformation d. Founding of Rhode Island	CBAD	58
1463897145	Arrange these colonies in order by the date they were founded: a. NY b. Massachusetts Bay c. PA d. Plymouth	DBAC	59
1463897146	as a whole, the puritans believed in	predetermination	60
1463897147	the treaty of tordessillas was	the papacy's plan to prevent conflict between portugakl and spain as a result of their competition to ascire colonies	61
1463897148	which of the following doesn't express the attitudes of beliefs of the massachusettts bay founders	the church of England was so corrupt that the true Christians were obligated to separate from it	62
1463897149	puritan ministers kept church benches filled without abandinong their ideal of a reformed church, where only visible sainst could be full members this was known as	the half way covenant	63
1463897150	shortly after Columbus s discovery of the new world, the treaty of tordesillas	divided newly disvovered lands between spain and portughal	64
1463897151	in the founding of the georgiacolony, james Oglethorpe's primary purpose was to	provide a refuge for English debtors	65
1463897152	which of these statements is true about religious toleration during colonial times	marylands act of toleration decreed the death penalyy for jews and athiests	66
1463897153	at the time of columbuss voiyages, the native societies of the Americas generally	made a sharp division of labor between mans and womens work	67
1463897154	during the 14th century, europeands were fascinated by vivid descriptions of asia in the travels of	marco polo	68
1463897155	all of the 13 original colonie were founded in the 17th century excpet	georgia	69

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APUSH Chapter 1 New World Beginnings Flashcards

BHS Ramsey 2012

Terms : Hide Images

198190511	Canadian Shield	a zone undergirded by ancient rock, probably the first part of what became the North American land mass to have emerged above sea level	0
198192778	Incas	A Native American people who built a notable civilization in western South America in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The center of their empire was in present-day Peru. Francisco Pizarro of Spain conquered the empire.	1
198190512	Aztecs	settled in the valley of Mexico, grew corn, practiced human sacrifices and those sacrificed were captured warriors from other tribes and those who volunteered for the honor	2
198192779	Cahokia	an ancient settlement of southern Indians, located near present day St. Louis, it served as a trading center for 40,000 at its peak in A.D. 1200.	3
198190521	Treaty of Tordesillas	agreement in which Spain secured its claim to Columbus's discovery, dividing the New World with Portugal	4
198190540	Battle of Acoma	siege of Pueblo peoples; the Spanish severed one foot of each survivor and claimed the area to be New Mexico	5
198190541	Popé's Rebellion	uprising where Pueblo rebels destroyed every Catholic Church in the province and killed a priests and Spanish settlers	6
198190519	Columbus	Italian navigator who discovered the New World in the service of Spain while looking for a route to China; the "greatest failure in history"	7
198190526	Coronado	Spanish conquistador; was in quest for fabled golden cities; explored Arizona and New Mexico; discovered the Grand Canyon and buffalo	8
198190529	Pizarro	Spanish conquistador; crushed the Incas in Peru	9
198190530	encomienda	allowed the government to "commend" Indians to certain colonists in return for the promise to try to Christianize them	10
198190531	Cortés	sailed from Cuba with eleven ships; picked up Indian slave Malinche who served as an interpretor; learned of Aztec gold; marched in Tenochtitlan; initially treated well, but he laid siege on Aztecs	11
198190533	Montezuma	Aztec chieftain; believed Cortes was the god Quetzalcoatl; treated Cortes hospitably	12
198190543	de La Salle	Frenchman who sailed down the Mississippi River	13

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APUSH Chapter 1 New World Beginnings Flashcards

BHS Ramsey 2012

Terms : Hide Images

198190511	Canadian Shield	a zone undergirded by ancient rock, probably the first part of what became the North American land mass to have emerged above sea level	0
198192778	Incas	A Native American people who built a notable civilization in western South America in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The center of their empire was in present-day Peru. Francisco Pizarro of Spain conquered the empire.	1
198190512	Aztecs	settled in the valley of Mexico, grew corn, practiced human sacrifices and those sacrificed were captured warriors from other tribes and those who volunteered for the honor	2
198192779	Cahokia	an ancient settlement of southern Indians, located near present day St. Louis, it served as a trading center for 40,000 at its peak in A.D. 1200.	3
198190521	Treaty of Tordesillas	agreement in which Spain secured its claim to Columbus's discovery, dividing the New World with Portugal	4
198190540	Battle of Acoma	siege of Pueblo peoples; the Spanish severed one foot of each survivor and claimed the area to be New Mexico	5
198190541	Popé's Rebellion	uprising where Pueblo rebels destroyed every Catholic Church in the province and killed a priests and Spanish settlers	6
198190519	Columbus	Italian navigator who discovered the New World in the service of Spain while looking for a route to China; the "greatest failure in history"	7
198190526	Coronado	Spanish conquistador; was in quest for fabled golden cities; explored Arizona and New Mexico; discovered the Grand Canyon and buffalo	8
198190529	Pizarro	Spanish conquistador; crushed the Incas in Peru	9
198190530	encomienda	allowed the government to "commend" Indians to certain colonists in return for the promise to try to Christianize them	10
198190531	Cortés	sailed from Cuba with eleven ships; picked up Indian slave Malinche who served as an interpretor; learned of Aztec gold; marched in Tenochtitlan; initially treated well, but he laid siege on Aztecs	11
198190533	Montezuma	Aztec chieftain; believed Cortes was the god Quetzalcoatl; treated Cortes hospitably	12
198190543	de La Salle	Frenchman who sailed down the Mississippi River	13

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Bio 12: The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance Flashcards

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2350174420	The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance	All genes have specific loci along chromosomes, and these chromosomes are what undergo segregation and independent assortment; a specific gene is carried on a specific chromosome	0
2350174421	Wild Type	The phenotype for a character most commonly observed in natural populations (e.g. for fruit flies, red eyes is the wild type, represented by w+)	1
2365147240	Mutant Type	The phenotypes that are alternative to the wild type (e.g. for fruit flies, white eyes is a mutant type, represented by w)	2
2365157923	Thomas Hunt Morgan	An experimental embryologist at Columbia University who bred fruit flies over many generations to research the placement of genes on chromosomes	3
2365161518	Morgan's Fruit Fly Experiment	-Mated male mutants with female wild types -F1 generation all had red eyes (wild type) -F2 generation was 3:1 red:white, but only males had the white eyes -Showed that the mutant white eye allele is only located on the x chromosome, so only males had it because they would have one recessive white eye allele on their x chromosome and none on their y chromosome -Females couldn't have white eyes because they would have to homozygous recessive, but there were only red-eyed fathers in the F1 generation -Supports the chromosome theory of inheritance	4
2367736583	Sex-Linked Gene	A gene that is located on either sex chromosome; those on the Y chromosome are called Y-linked genes, those located on the X chromosome are called X-linked genes	5
2367753227	How is sex determined in an organism?	-All eggs in a female have one X chromosome -Half of the sperm in a male have one X chromosome, while the other half have one Y -50/50 chance, because half the time a Y sperm combines with an egg to get an XY male and half the time an X sperm combines with an egg to get an XX female	6
2367766605	SRY Gene	"Sex-determining region of Y"; a gene on the Y chromosome that is required for the development of testes, so without this gene, the gonads of an embryo develop into ovaries	7
2367774762	Y-Linked Genes	The Y chromosome is passed on basically intact from father to son, but there are very few Y-linked genes so not many disorders are transferred from the Y chromosome	8
2367785820	X-Linked Genes	-Human X chromosome has over 1,000 genes -Fathers can only pass x-linked alleles to their daughters, but mothers can pass them to both sons and daughters, so most disorders are inherited from the mother -X-linked recessive traits can only be expressed in females if both of the mother's X chromosomes have it (homozygous recessive)	9
2367809901	Hemizygous	A term used to describe male sex chromosomes; because very few X-linked genes have a Y-linked counterpart, males only need one recessive X-linked allele from the mother to express that trait in their phenotype; this is why X-linked recessive disorders are much more common in males than females	10
2367834064	Color-Blindedness	An X-linked recessive disorder that, like all X-linked recessive disorders, is much more common in males than females	11
2367836775	Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy	An X-linked recessive disorder that causes a progressive weakening of the muscle and loss of coordination; affected individuals rarely live past their early 20s	12
2367841139	Hemophilia	An X-linked recessive disorder that causes the absence of one or more of the proteins needed for blood clotting; when an afflicted person is injured, the bleeding is prolonged because the clot forms too slowly, which can lead to pain	13
2367851319	X-Chromosome Inactivation	Because females have twice as many X-linked genes as males, one of them must be inactivated so that the genes will only code for half as many proteins to be made; females with heterozygous X-linked genes will have half of their cells expressing the gene from the father and half expressing the gene from the mother	14
2367857095	Barr body	The inactive, condensed X chromosome in a female that lies along the inside of the nuclear envelope; the genes in the Barr body X chromosome are not expressed; one of the two X chromosomes in a female is randomly inactivated during early embryonic development	15
2367880477	How does an X-chromosome become a Barr body?	-There is a special region on every X chromosome that contains several genes involved in the inactivation process -During early embryonic development, the two regions from each X chromosome associate briefly -DNA and histone proteins are modified by the attachment of a methyl group (-CH3) to one of the nitrogenous bases of the DNA nucleotides -The XIST gene then becomes active only on the chromosome that will become the Barr body	16
2367893470	XIST Gene	"X-inactive specific transcript"; the gene that is active on the X chromosome that will eventually become the Barr body because multiple copies of the protein that it codes for attach to the future Barr body and almost cover it; interaction of these proteins with the chromosome initiate the X inactivation	17
2367902078	Linked Genes	Two or more genes on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together; the presence of linked chromosomes decreases variation because these traits tend to be inherited together in the parental combination, so the offspring usually resemble the parental phenotypes	18
2367919346	Parental Types	Phenotypes that resemble the parents (e.g. the parental types of fruit flies are gray body/normal wings and black body/vestigial wings)	19
2367923899	Recombinant Types	Phenotypes that do not resemble the parents (e.g. the recombinant types of fruit flies are gray body/vestigial wings and black body/normal wings)	20
2367928974	Genetic Recombination	The production of recombinant type offspring; when 50% of all offspring are recombinant types, then there is a 50% frequency of recombination; genes that are at loci farther away from each other are more likely to cross over so therefore have higher recombination frequencies	21
2367962078	Crossing Over	The process that physically breaks apart linked genes and recombines them to different chromosomes; replicated homogenous chromosomes are paired during prophase of meiosis I, and the corresponding segments of one maternal and one paternal chromatid and exchanged, so the end portions of two nonsister chromatids trade places and the once-linkde genes are split up	22
2367981876	Chapter Summary: what processes increase variation in species?	1. Sexual reproduction (two parents) 2. Random mating--more traits for gene pool 3. Meiosis--random assortment in metaphase I and crossing over recombines genes into different types 4. Mutation	23
2367985840	Chapter Summary: what processes decrease variation in species?	1. Asexual reproduction (one parent) 2. Nonrandom mating--same traits available for gene pool 3. Linked genes--same traits in offspring	24
2367989337	Genetic Map	An ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome; the farther apart two genes are on a chromosome, the more likely that crossover will occur and there will be a higher recombination frequency	25
2367999888	Linkage Map	A genetic map of chromosomes based on recombination frequencies	26
2368007112	Map Units	Used to express distance between genes in a linkage map; one map unit is equal to a 1% recombination frequency	27
2368012029	Genetically Unlinked Genes	Though they are physically linked on the same chromosome, they are not genetically linked because they have the maximum recombination frequency (50%), which is the same as that of two genes on different chromosomes	28
2368018398	Cytogenetic Map	Maps of chromosomes that locate genes with respect to chromosomal features, such as stained bands, that can be seen in the microscope; these are different from linkage maps because they express the physical distance between genes, rather than the difference in recombination frequencies	29
2368026099	Nondisjunction	An error in meiosis that causes one daughter gamete to have two of the same chromosome and one to not have that chromosome at all (aneuploidy); occurs either in meiosis I when the pair of homologous chromosomes do not separate properly or in meiosis II when the sister chromatids fail to separate; more common in the eggs of elder women	30
2373624876	Aneuploidy	When a zygote has an abnormal number of a particular chromosome because it was created by the fertilization of a normal gamete with one that has gone through nondisjunction; large-scale chromosomal number alterations can lead to developmental disorders or miscarriage	31
2373632834	Monosomy	When a zygote is aneuploid by having 2n-1 chromosomes, because it involved the fertilization of a normal gamete with one that was missing a chromosome; this usually results in miscarriage	32
2373638509	Trisomy	When a zygote is aneuploid by having 2n+1 chromosomes, as a result of either nondisjunction (normal gamete + gamete with extra chromosome) or translocation; trisomy is the cause of Down syndrome along with other disorders	33
2373647792	Polyploidy	When an organism has more than two complete chromosome sets in all of its somatic cells; this is true for many plants and has been key in the evolution of plants including bananas (3n), wheat (6n), and strawberries (8n)	34
2373660611	Triploidy	When an organism has three complete chromosome sets in all of its somatic cells (3n); could result by the fertilization of an abnormal diploid gamete (2n because all of its chromosomes underwent nondisjunction)	35
2373661648	Tetraploidy	When an organism has four complete chromosome sets in all of its somatic cells (4n)	36
2373683355	What are the four possible chromosomal mutations?	1. Deletion 2. Duplication 3. Inversion 4. Translocation All of the above are caused by either errors in meiosis (usually during synapsis) or damage from agents such as radiation that leads to chromosomal breakage	37
2373684970	Deletion	A lethal chromosomal mutation that occurs when a fragment of a chromosome is lost, so this chromosome is missing several genes	38
2373692656	Duplication	A harmful chromosomal mutation that occurs when an extra chromosome fragment broken off from deletion attaches itself to a sister/homologous nonsister chromatid, so there are now two identical copies of certain genes in that chromosome	39
2373699527	Inversion	A phenotype-altering chromosomal mutation that occurs when an extra chromosome fragment broken off from deletion reattaches itself to that chromosome but in reverse orientation	40
2373703812	Translocation	A harmful (or phenotype-altering) chromosomal mutation that occurs when an extra chromosome fragment broken off from deletion attaches itself to a nonsister, nonhomologous chromatid	41
2373719949	How do deletions and duplications occur during synapsis/meiosis?	When the different chromatids are crossed, they often exchange unequal lengths of gene fragments, so one has deletion and one has duplication for those certain genes	42
2373728088	Syndrome	A specific set of traits characteristic of the type of aneuploidy that a cell has	43
2373730514	Down Syndrome	AKA trisomy 21; a type of aneuploid disorder in which there is an extra chromosome 21, so each somatic cell has a total of 47, rather than 46, chromosomes	44
2373747037	Klinefelter Syndrome	A disorder in males in which there is an extra X chromosome (XXY); those affected are usually sterile and can show signs of female body characteristics	45
2373757512	Turner Syndrome	AKA monosomy X; a disorder in females in which there is only only X chromosome (X0); those affected are still phenotypically female yet they are sterile because their sex organs do not mature	46
2373768868	Cri Du Chat Syndrome	"Cry of the cat"; a disorder resulting from a specific deletion in chromosome 5; those affected are intellectually disabled, have a small head, and usually die in infancy or early childhood	47
2373774380	Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)	A certain strain of bone marrow cancer that results from a translocation in white blood cells, which activates a genes that leads to uncontrolled cell cycle progression	48
2373778802	Philadelphia Chromosome	A shortened version of chromosome 22 because a large fragment of it was translocated with a small fragment of chromosome 9, causing CML	49

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Bio 12: The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

2350174420	The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance	All genes have specific loci along chromosomes, and these chromosomes are what undergo segregation and independent assortment; a specific gene is carried on a specific chromosome	0
2350174421	Wild Type	The phenotype for a character most commonly observed in natural populations (e.g. for fruit flies, red eyes is the wild type, represented by w+)	1
2365147240	Mutant Type	The phenotypes that are alternative to the wild type (e.g. for fruit flies, white eyes is a mutant type, represented by w)	2
2365157923	Thomas Hunt Morgan	An experimental embryologist at Columbia University who bred fruit flies over many generations to research the placement of genes on chromosomes	3
2365161518	Morgan's Fruit Fly Experiment	-Mated male mutants with female wild types -F1 generation all had red eyes (wild type) -F2 generation was 3:1 red:white, but only males had the white eyes -Showed that the mutant white eye allele is only located on the x chromosome, so only males had it because they would have one recessive white eye allele on their x chromosome and none on their y chromosome -Females couldn't have white eyes because they would have to homozygous recessive, but there were only red-eyed fathers in the F1 generation -Supports the chromosome theory of inheritance	4
2367736583	Sex-Linked Gene	A gene that is located on either sex chromosome; those on the Y chromosome are called Y-linked genes, those located on the X chromosome are called X-linked genes	5
2367753227	How is sex determined in an organism?	-All eggs in a female have one X chromosome -Half of the sperm in a male have one X chromosome, while the other half have one Y -50/50 chance, because half the time a Y sperm combines with an egg to get an XY male and half the time an X sperm combines with an egg to get an XX female	6
2367766605	SRY Gene	"Sex-determining region of Y"; a gene on the Y chromosome that is required for the development of testes, so without this gene, the gonads of an embryo develop into ovaries	7
2367774762	Y-Linked Genes	The Y chromosome is passed on basically intact from father to son, but there are very few Y-linked genes so not many disorders are transferred from the Y chromosome	8
2367785820	X-Linked Genes	-Human X chromosome has over 1,000 genes -Fathers can only pass x-linked alleles to their daughters, but mothers can pass them to both sons and daughters, so most disorders are inherited from the mother -X-linked recessive traits can only be expressed in females if both of the mother's X chromosomes have it (homozygous recessive)	9
2367809901	Hemizygous	A term used to describe male sex chromosomes; because very few X-linked genes have a Y-linked counterpart, males only need one recessive X-linked allele from the mother to express that trait in their phenotype; this is why X-linked recessive disorders are much more common in males than females	10
2367834064	Color-Blindedness	An X-linked recessive disorder that, like all X-linked recessive disorders, is much more common in males than females	11
2367836775	Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy	An X-linked recessive disorder that causes a progressive weakening of the muscle and loss of coordination; affected individuals rarely live past their early 20s	12
2367841139	Hemophilia	An X-linked recessive disorder that causes the absence of one or more of the proteins needed for blood clotting; when an afflicted person is injured, the bleeding is prolonged because the clot forms too slowly, which can lead to pain	13
2367851319	X-Chromosome Inactivation	Because females have twice as many X-linked genes as males, one of them must be inactivated so that the genes will only code for half as many proteins to be made; females with heterozygous X-linked genes will have half of their cells expressing the gene from the father and half expressing the gene from the mother	14
2367857095	Barr body	The inactive, condensed X chromosome in a female that lies along the inside of the nuclear envelope; the genes in the Barr body X chromosome are not expressed; one of the two X chromosomes in a female is randomly inactivated during early embryonic development	15
2367880477	How does an X-chromosome become a Barr body?	-There is a special region on every X chromosome that contains several genes involved in the inactivation process -During early embryonic development, the two regions from each X chromosome associate briefly -DNA and histone proteins are modified by the attachment of a methyl group (-CH3) to one of the nitrogenous bases of the DNA nucleotides -The XIST gene then becomes active only on the chromosome that will become the Barr body	16
2367893470	XIST Gene	"X-inactive specific transcript"; the gene that is active on the X chromosome that will eventually become the Barr body because multiple copies of the protein that it codes for attach to the future Barr body and almost cover it; interaction of these proteins with the chromosome initiate the X inactivation	17
2367902078	Linked Genes	Two or more genes on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together; the presence of linked chromosomes decreases variation because these traits tend to be inherited together in the parental combination, so the offspring usually resemble the parental phenotypes	18
2367919346	Parental Types	Phenotypes that resemble the parents (e.g. the parental types of fruit flies are gray body/normal wings and black body/vestigial wings)	19
2367923899	Recombinant Types	Phenotypes that do not resemble the parents (e.g. the recombinant types of fruit flies are gray body/vestigial wings and black body/normal wings)	20
2367928974	Genetic Recombination	The production of recombinant type offspring; when 50% of all offspring are recombinant types, then there is a 50% frequency of recombination; genes that are at loci farther away from each other are more likely to cross over so therefore have higher recombination frequencies	21
2367962078	Crossing Over	The process that physically breaks apart linked genes and recombines them to different chromosomes; replicated homogenous chromosomes are paired during prophase of meiosis I, and the corresponding segments of one maternal and one paternal chromatid and exchanged, so the end portions of two nonsister chromatids trade places and the once-linkde genes are split up	22
2367981876	Chapter Summary: what processes increase variation in species?	1. Sexual reproduction (two parents) 2. Random mating--more traits for gene pool 3. Meiosis--random assortment in metaphase I and crossing over recombines genes into different types 4. Mutation	23
2367985840	Chapter Summary: what processes decrease variation in species?	1. Asexual reproduction (one parent) 2. Nonrandom mating--same traits available for gene pool 3. Linked genes--same traits in offspring	24
2367989337	Genetic Map	An ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome; the farther apart two genes are on a chromosome, the more likely that crossover will occur and there will be a higher recombination frequency	25
2367999888	Linkage Map	A genetic map of chromosomes based on recombination frequencies	26
2368007112	Map Units	Used to express distance between genes in a linkage map; one map unit is equal to a 1% recombination frequency	27
2368012029	Genetically Unlinked Genes	Though they are physically linked on the same chromosome, they are not genetically linked because they have the maximum recombination frequency (50%), which is the same as that of two genes on different chromosomes	28
2368018398	Cytogenetic Map	Maps of chromosomes that locate genes with respect to chromosomal features, such as stained bands, that can be seen in the microscope; these are different from linkage maps because they express the physical distance between genes, rather than the difference in recombination frequencies	29
2368026099	Nondisjunction	An error in meiosis that causes one daughter gamete to have two of the same chromosome and one to not have that chromosome at all (aneuploidy); occurs either in meiosis I when the pair of homologous chromosomes do not separate properly or in meiosis II when the sister chromatids fail to separate; more common in the eggs of elder women	30
2373624876	Aneuploidy	When a zygote has an abnormal number of a particular chromosome because it was created by the fertilization of a normal gamete with one that has gone through nondisjunction; large-scale chromosomal number alterations can lead to developmental disorders or miscarriage	31
2373632834	Monosomy	When a zygote is aneuploid by having 2n-1 chromosomes, because it involved the fertilization of a normal gamete with one that was missing a chromosome; this usually results in miscarriage	32
2373638509	Trisomy	When a zygote is aneuploid by having 2n+1 chromosomes, as a result of either nondisjunction (normal gamete + gamete with extra chromosome) or translocation; trisomy is the cause of Down syndrome along with other disorders	33
2373647792	Polyploidy	When an organism has more than two complete chromosome sets in all of its somatic cells; this is true for many plants and has been key in the evolution of plants including bananas (3n), wheat (6n), and strawberries (8n)	34
2373660611	Triploidy	When an organism has three complete chromosome sets in all of its somatic cells (3n); could result by the fertilization of an abnormal diploid gamete (2n because all of its chromosomes underwent nondisjunction)	35
2373661648	Tetraploidy	When an organism has four complete chromosome sets in all of its somatic cells (4n)	36
2373683355	What are the four possible chromosomal mutations?	1. Deletion 2. Duplication 3. Inversion 4. Translocation All of the above are caused by either errors in meiosis (usually during synapsis) or damage from agents such as radiation that leads to chromosomal breakage	37
2373684970	Deletion	A lethal chromosomal mutation that occurs when a fragment of a chromosome is lost, so this chromosome is missing several genes	38
2373692656	Duplication	A harmful chromosomal mutation that occurs when an extra chromosome fragment broken off from deletion attaches itself to a sister/homologous nonsister chromatid, so there are now two identical copies of certain genes in that chromosome	39
2373699527	Inversion	A phenotype-altering chromosomal mutation that occurs when an extra chromosome fragment broken off from deletion reattaches itself to that chromosome but in reverse orientation	40
2373703812	Translocation	A harmful (or phenotype-altering) chromosomal mutation that occurs when an extra chromosome fragment broken off from deletion attaches itself to a nonsister, nonhomologous chromatid	41
2373719949	How do deletions and duplications occur during synapsis/meiosis?	When the different chromatids are crossed, they often exchange unequal lengths of gene fragments, so one has deletion and one has duplication for those certain genes	42
2373728088	Syndrome	A specific set of traits characteristic of the type of aneuploidy that a cell has	43
2373730514	Down Syndrome	AKA trisomy 21; a type of aneuploid disorder in which there is an extra chromosome 21, so each somatic cell has a total of 47, rather than 46, chromosomes	44
2373747037	Klinefelter Syndrome	A disorder in males in which there is an extra X chromosome (XXY); those affected are usually sterile and can show signs of female body characteristics	45
2373757512	Turner Syndrome	AKA monosomy X; a disorder in females in which there is only only X chromosome (X0); those affected are still phenotypically female yet they are sterile because their sex organs do not mature	46
2373768868	Cri Du Chat Syndrome	"Cry of the cat"; a disorder resulting from a specific deletion in chromosome 5; those affected are intellectually disabled, have a small head, and usually die in infancy or early childhood	47
2373774380	Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)	A certain strain of bone marrow cancer that results from a translocation in white blood cells, which activates a genes that leads to uncontrolled cell cycle progression	48
2373778802	Philadelphia Chromosome	A shortened version of chromosome 22 because a large fragment of it was translocated with a small fragment of chromosome 9, causing CML	49

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Bio 12: The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

2350174420	The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance	All genes have specific loci along chromosomes, and these chromosomes are what undergo segregation and independent assortment; a specific gene is carried on a specific chromosome	0
2350174421	Wild Type	The phenotype for a character most commonly observed in natural populations (e.g. for fruit flies, red eyes is the wild type, represented by w+)	1
2365147240	Mutant Type	The phenotypes that are alternative to the wild type (e.g. for fruit flies, white eyes is a mutant type, represented by w)	2
2365157923	Thomas Hunt Morgan	An experimental embryologist at Columbia University who bred fruit flies over many generations to research the placement of genes on chromosomes	3
2365161518	Morgan's Fruit Fly Experiment	-Mated male mutants with female wild types -F1 generation all had red eyes (wild type) -F2 generation was 3:1 red:white, but only males had the white eyes -Showed that the mutant white eye allele is only located on the x chromosome, so only males had it because they would have one recessive white eye allele on their x chromosome and none on their y chromosome -Females couldn't have white eyes because they would have to homozygous recessive, but there were only red-eyed fathers in the F1 generation -Supports the chromosome theory of inheritance	4
2367736583	Sex-Linked Gene	A gene that is located on either sex chromosome; those on the Y chromosome are called Y-linked genes, those located on the X chromosome are called X-linked genes	5
2367753227	How is sex determined in an organism?	-All eggs in a female have one X chromosome -Half of the sperm in a male have one X chromosome, while the other half have one Y -50/50 chance, because half the time a Y sperm combines with an egg to get an XY male and half the time an X sperm combines with an egg to get an XX female	6
2367766605	SRY Gene	"Sex-determining region of Y"; a gene on the Y chromosome that is required for the development of testes, so without this gene, the gonads of an embryo develop into ovaries	7
2367774762	Y-Linked Genes	The Y chromosome is passed on basically intact from father to son, but there are very few Y-linked genes so not many disorders are transferred from the Y chromosome	8
2367785820	X-Linked Genes	-Human X chromosome has over 1,000 genes -Fathers can only pass x-linked alleles to their daughters, but mothers can pass them to both sons and daughters, so most disorders are inherited from the mother -X-linked recessive traits can only be expressed in females if both of the mother's X chromosomes have it (homozygous recessive)	9
2367809901	Hemizygous	A term used to describe male sex chromosomes; because very few X-linked genes have a Y-linked counterpart, males only need one recessive X-linked allele from the mother to express that trait in their phenotype; this is why X-linked recessive disorders are much more common in males than females	10
2367834064	Color-Blindedness	An X-linked recessive disorder that, like all X-linked recessive disorders, is much more common in males than females	11
2367836775	Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy	An X-linked recessive disorder that causes a progressive weakening of the muscle and loss of coordination; affected individuals rarely live past their early 20s	12
2367841139	Hemophilia	An X-linked recessive disorder that causes the absence of one or more of the proteins needed for blood clotting; when an afflicted person is injured, the bleeding is prolonged because the clot forms too slowly, which can lead to pain	13
2367851319	X-Chromosome Inactivation	Because females have twice as many X-linked genes as males, one of them must be inactivated so that the genes will only code for half as many proteins to be made; females with heterozygous X-linked genes will have half of their cells expressing the gene from the father and half expressing the gene from the mother	14
2367857095	Barr body	The inactive, condensed X chromosome in a female that lies along the inside of the nuclear envelope; the genes in the Barr body X chromosome are not expressed; one of the two X chromosomes in a female is randomly inactivated during early embryonic development	15
2367880477	How does an X-chromosome become a Barr body?	-There is a special region on every X chromosome that contains several genes involved in the inactivation process -During early embryonic development, the two regions from each X chromosome associate briefly -DNA and histone proteins are modified by the attachment of a methyl group (-CH3) to one of the nitrogenous bases of the DNA nucleotides -The XIST gene then becomes active only on the chromosome that will become the Barr body	16
2367893470	XIST Gene	"X-inactive specific transcript"; the gene that is active on the X chromosome that will eventually become the Barr body because multiple copies of the protein that it codes for attach to the future Barr body and almost cover it; interaction of these proteins with the chromosome initiate the X inactivation	17
2367902078	Linked Genes	Two or more genes on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together; the presence of linked chromosomes decreases variation because these traits tend to be inherited together in the parental combination, so the offspring usually resemble the parental phenotypes	18
2367919346	Parental Types	Phenotypes that resemble the parents (e.g. the parental types of fruit flies are gray body/normal wings and black body/vestigial wings)	19
2367923899	Recombinant Types	Phenotypes that do not resemble the parents (e.g. the recombinant types of fruit flies are gray body/vestigial wings and black body/normal wings)	20
2367928974	Genetic Recombination	The production of recombinant type offspring; when 50% of all offspring are recombinant types, then there is a 50% frequency of recombination; genes that are at loci farther away from each other are more likely to cross over so therefore have higher recombination frequencies	21
2367962078	Crossing Over	The process that physically breaks apart linked genes and recombines them to different chromosomes; replicated homogenous chromosomes are paired during prophase of meiosis I, and the corresponding segments of one maternal and one paternal chromatid and exchanged, so the end portions of two nonsister chromatids trade places and the once-linkde genes are split up	22
2367981876	Chapter Summary: what processes increase variation in species?	1. Sexual reproduction (two parents) 2. Random mating--more traits for gene pool 3. Meiosis--random assortment in metaphase I and crossing over recombines genes into different types 4. Mutation	23
2367985840	Chapter Summary: what processes decrease variation in species?	1. Asexual reproduction (one parent) 2. Nonrandom mating--same traits available for gene pool 3. Linked genes--same traits in offspring	24
2367989337	Genetic Map	An ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome; the farther apart two genes are on a chromosome, the more likely that crossover will occur and there will be a higher recombination frequency	25
2367999888	Linkage Map	A genetic map of chromosomes based on recombination frequencies	26
2368007112	Map Units	Used to express distance between genes in a linkage map; one map unit is equal to a 1% recombination frequency	27
2368012029	Genetically Unlinked Genes	Though they are physically linked on the same chromosome, they are not genetically linked because they have the maximum recombination frequency (50%), which is the same as that of two genes on different chromosomes	28
2368018398	Cytogenetic Map	Maps of chromosomes that locate genes with respect to chromosomal features, such as stained bands, that can be seen in the microscope; these are different from linkage maps because they express the physical distance between genes, rather than the difference in recombination frequencies	29
2368026099	Nondisjunction	An error in meiosis that causes one daughter gamete to have two of the same chromosome and one to not have that chromosome at all (aneuploidy); occurs either in meiosis I when the pair of homologous chromosomes do not separate properly or in meiosis II when the sister chromatids fail to separate; more common in the eggs of elder women	30
2373624876	Aneuploidy	When a zygote has an abnormal number of a particular chromosome because it was created by the fertilization of a normal gamete with one that has gone through nondisjunction; large-scale chromosomal number alterations can lead to developmental disorders or miscarriage	31
2373632834	Monosomy	When a zygote is aneuploid by having 2n-1 chromosomes, because it involved the fertilization of a normal gamete with one that was missing a chromosome; this usually results in miscarriage	32
2373638509	Trisomy	When a zygote is aneuploid by having 2n+1 chromosomes, as a result of either nondisjunction (normal gamete + gamete with extra chromosome) or translocation; trisomy is the cause of Down syndrome along with other disorders	33
2373647792	Polyploidy	When an organism has more than two complete chromosome sets in all of its somatic cells; this is true for many plants and has been key in the evolution of plants including bananas (3n), wheat (6n), and strawberries (8n)	34
2373660611	Triploidy	When an organism has three complete chromosome sets in all of its somatic cells (3n); could result by the fertilization of an abnormal diploid gamete (2n because all of its chromosomes underwent nondisjunction)	35
2373661648	Tetraploidy	When an organism has four complete chromosome sets in all of its somatic cells (4n)	36
2373683355	What are the four possible chromosomal mutations?	1. Deletion 2. Duplication 3. Inversion 4. Translocation All of the above are caused by either errors in meiosis (usually during synapsis) or damage from agents such as radiation that leads to chromosomal breakage	37
2373684970	Deletion	A lethal chromosomal mutation that occurs when a fragment of a chromosome is lost, so this chromosome is missing several genes	38
2373692656	Duplication	A harmful chromosomal mutation that occurs when an extra chromosome fragment broken off from deletion attaches itself to a sister/homologous nonsister chromatid, so there are now two identical copies of certain genes in that chromosome	39
2373699527	Inversion	A phenotype-altering chromosomal mutation that occurs when an extra chromosome fragment broken off from deletion reattaches itself to that chromosome but in reverse orientation	40
2373703812	Translocation	A harmful (or phenotype-altering) chromosomal mutation that occurs when an extra chromosome fragment broken off from deletion attaches itself to a nonsister, nonhomologous chromatid	41
2373719949	How do deletions and duplications occur during synapsis/meiosis?	When the different chromatids are crossed, they often exchange unequal lengths of gene fragments, so one has deletion and one has duplication for those certain genes	42
2373728088	Syndrome	A specific set of traits characteristic of the type of aneuploidy that a cell has	43
2373730514	Down Syndrome	AKA trisomy 21; a type of aneuploid disorder in which there is an extra chromosome 21, so each somatic cell has a total of 47, rather than 46, chromosomes	44
2373747037	Klinefelter Syndrome	A disorder in males in which there is an extra X chromosome (XXY); those affected are usually sterile and can show signs of female body characteristics	45
2373757512	Turner Syndrome	AKA monosomy X; a disorder in females in which there is only only X chromosome (X0); those affected are still phenotypically female yet they are sterile because their sex organs do not mature	46
2373768868	Cri Du Chat Syndrome	"Cry of the cat"; a disorder resulting from a specific deletion in chromosome 5; those affected are intellectually disabled, have a small head, and usually die in infancy or early childhood	47
2373774380	Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)	A certain strain of bone marrow cancer that results from a translocation in white blood cells, which activates a genes that leads to uncontrolled cell cycle progression	48
2373778802	Philadelphia Chromosome	A shortened version of chromosome 22 because a large fragment of it was translocated with a small fragment of chromosome 9, causing CML	49

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Animals Chapter 32 Flashcards

Mrs.proaschik
North Pocono
biology 10
chapter 32

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66675221	Animals	are multicellular heterotrophs organsims that lack cell walls.	0
66675222	vertebrates	animals that have back bone	1
66675223	invertebrates	do not have a backbone	2
66675224	specialization	is the evolutionary adaptation of cell for a particular function	3
66675225	ingestion	an animal takes in organic material or food, usually in the form of other living things	4
66675226	zygote	the diploid cell that results from the fusion of the gametes,then undergoes repeated mitotic divisions	5
66675227	differentiation	cells become specialized and therefore different from each other	6
66675228	chordate	refers to animals with a notochard	7
66675229	notochard	a firm, flexible rod of tissue located in the dorsal part of the body	8
66675230	dorsal nerve cord	is a hollow tube above the notochord	9
66675231	pharyngeal pouches	are small putpockets of the anterior digestive tract.	10
66675232	symmetry	is a body arrangement in which parts that lie on opposite sides of an axis are identical.	11
66675233	radial symmetry	a body plan in which the parts are organized in a cirlce around an axis	12
66675234	dorsal	animals that have ( back)	13
66675235	ventral	animals that have (abodomen side)	14
66675236	anterior	towards to the head	15
66675237	posterior	toward to the tail	16
66675238	bilaterial symmetry	such animals have to similiar halves on either side of a central plane displays	17
66675239	cephalization	the concentration of sensory and brain structure in the anterior end of the animal.	18
66675240	germ layers	are tissues layers in the embryos of all animals except sponges, which have no true tissues.	19
66675241	segemntation	in animals refers to a body composed of a series of repeating similiar units.	20
66675242	exoskeleton	is a rigid outer covering that protects the soft tissues of many animals, including arthropods, such as crustaceans, which includes crayfish.	21
66675243	gills	organs that consists of blood vessels surrounded by a membrane and are specialized for gas exchange in the water.	22
66675244	open circulatory system	in which cirulcatory fluid is pumped by the heart through vessels and into the body cavity and is then returned to the vessels.	23
66675245	closed circulatory system	blood is pumped by a heart and circulates through the body in vessels that form a closed loop.	24
66675246	hermaphrodite	is an organsim that produces both male and female gametes, allowing a single individual to function as both a male and female.	25
66675247	larva	is a free-living, immature form of an organsim that is a morphologically different from the adult.	26
66675248	vertebrae	the repeating bony units of the backbone	27
66675249	endoskeleton	an internal skeleton made of bone and cartilage, which includes the backbone	28
66675250	integument	the outer coverint of an animal	29
66675251	kidneys	filters wastes from the blood while regulating water levels in the body.	30
66676576	Lungs	are organs for gas exhange composed of moist, membranous surface deep inside the animal's body	31
67753712	fertilization	is the union of female and male gametes to form a zygote	32
67753713	cleavage	the series of cell division that occurs immediately following fertilization is termed	33
67753714	blastula	as the number of dividing cells further increases, the mass becomes hollow ball of cells	34
67753715	gastrulation	reorganization of the cells of the hollow blastula begins with the inward movement of cells at one end of the blastula	35
67753716	gastrula	transforms the blastula into a multilayered embryo	36
67753717	archenteron	as the inward folding continues the now cup- shaped embryo enlarges, and a deep cavity, or primitive gut, develops	37
67753718	blastopore	the open end of the archenteron	38
67753719	ectoderm	forming the outer layer of the gastrula is the outer germ layer	39
67753720	endoderm	the inner germ layer	40
67753721	mesoderm	forms between the endoderm and the ectoderm	41
67753722	pseudocoelom	a cavity that is not completely lined by mesoderm	42
67753723	coelom	a cavity completely lined by mesoderm	43
67753724	protostomes	in the embryos of mollusks, arthropods, and annelids, the blastopore develops into a mouth, and a second opening forms at the other end of the archenteron, forming an anus...protostomes also means "first mouth"	44
67753725	deuterostomes	in the embryos of echinoderms and chordates, the blastopore develops into an anus, and a second opening at the other end of the archenteron becomes the mouth...it's also called "second mouth"	45
67753726	schizocoely	the mesoderm then spreads and splits to form the coleom	46
67753727	enterocoely	the coelom develops within the mesodermal pouches	47
67753728	acoelomates	animals, such as flatworms, that do not have a body cavity	48

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Pharm Ch. 13; Drugs used in heart failure Flashcards

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2876075041	Heart failure	Occurs when cardiac output is inadequate to provide the oxygen needed by the body	0
2876078905	50%	5 year mortality of heart failure	1
2876081592	CAD	Most common cause of heart failure in the USA	2
2876083057	Systolic failure	50% of younger patients have ______, with reduced contractility and reduced ejection fraction	3
2876085678	Diastolic failure	50% of younger patients have _________ with stiffening and loss of adequate relaxation playing a major role in reducing filling and cardiac output	4
2876090239	Ejection fraction	___________ may be normal even though stroke volume is significantly reduced	5
2876094426	Diastolic	The proportion of patients with ______ failure increases with age	6
2876125360	Excitation-contraction coupling	The primary defect in early systolic heart failure resides in the _________ machinery of the heart	7
2876141822	Non-cardiac targets	Therapy directed at __________ is more valuable in the long-term treatment of heart failure than traditional positive inotropic agents such as cardiac glycosides (digitalis)	8
2876154786	ACE inhibitors, AT receptor blockers, beta blockers, aldosterone receptor antagonists, and combined hydralazine therapy	Agents in current use that prolong the life of patients in chronic heart failure; useful in both systolic and diastolic failure	9
2876159065	Positive inotropic drugs	Drugs that are helpful in acute systolic failure	10
2876166411	Cardiac glycosides	Reduce symptoms in chronic systolic heart failure	11
2876172650	Chronic heart failure	Diuretics, aldosterone receptor antagonists, ACE inhibitors, AT receptor blockers, beta blockers, cardiac glycosides, vasodilators	12
2876176860	Acute heart failure	Diuretics, vasodilators, beta agonists, bipyridines, natriuretic peptide	13
2876181737	Calcium	Cardiac contraction results from the interaction of ______ during systole with the actin-troponin-tropomyosin system	14
2876201872	Levosimendan	Drug that increases calcium sensitivity and reduces symptoms in models of heart failure	15
2876204585	Omecantiv mecarbil	Alters the rate of transmission of myosin from a low-actin binding state to a strongly actin-bound force-generating state	16
2876215686	RyR	A small rise in free cytoplasmic calcium, brought about by calcium influx during AP, triggers the opening of ________ in the membrane of cardiac SR and the rapid release of a large amount calcium into the cytoplasm	17
2876235737	SERCA pump	Pump maintains free cytoplasmic calcium at very low levels during diastole by pumping calcium into the SR	18
2876239150	Pospholamban	SERCA is normally inhibited by __________	19
2876242130	Beta agonists	Phosphorylation of phospholamban by PKA (Beta agonists) removes this inhibition	20
2876250266	SNS	The amount of calcium sequestered in the SR is determined (partly) by the ______ activity	21
2876303147	Sympathomimetics	Cause an increase in calcium influx through an action on channels	22
2876323384	Calcium channel blockers	Reduce this influx and depress contractility of cardiac tissue	23
2876327108	NCX antiporter	Uses the sodium gradient to move calcium against its concentration gradient from the cytoplasm to the extracellular space	24
2876332500	Na/K ATPase channels	Removes intracellular sodium Major determinant of sodium concentration in the cell	25
2876338584	Digoxin	N/K ATPase is the primary target of ______ and other cardiac glycosides	26
2876355812	Systolic dysfunction	__________ with reduced cardiac output and significantly reduced ejection fraction (<45%) is typical of acute failure, especially that resulting from MI	27
2876358666	Diastolic dysfunction	Often occurs as a result of hypertrophy and stiffening of the myocardium Cardiac output may be reduced while ejection fraction may be normal	28
2876367402	Positive inotropic drugs	Heart failure due to diastolic dysfunction does not response optimally to __________.	29
2876372326	High-output failure	Rare form of heart failure where the demands of the body are so great that even increased cardiac output is insufficient Responds poorly to drugs	30
2876379202	Hyperthyroidism, beriberi, anemia, and AV shunts	Causes of high-output failure	31
2876391980	Tachycardia, dyspnea, cardiomegaly, edema	Primary signs and symptoms or heart failure	32
2876394153	Diminished cardiac output	Decreased exercise tolerance with rapid muscular fatigue is the major direct consequence of ___________.	33
2876400046	Extrinsic compensation	Neurohumoral or _________ involves the SNS and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone hormonal response.	34
2876406509	Baroreceptor	This reflex resets with a lower sensitivity to arterial pressure in extrinsic compensation.	35
2876418270	Decreased Carotid Sinus Firing	-Increased sympathetic discharge -Increases force, rate, and preload	36
2876422746	Decreased blood flow	-Increased renin release -Increased AT II -Increased preload, after load, and remodeling	37
2876431749	Increased sympathetic outflow	Causes tachycardia, increased cardiac contractility, and increased vascular tone	38
2876442324	ATII and endothelia	Vascular tone is further increased by __________	39
2876443868	Endothelin	Potent vasoconstrictor released by vascular endothelial cells	40
2876445025	Afterload	Vasoconstriction increases _______, which further reduces ejection fraction and cardiac output	41
2876458685	Beta one	Down-regulatory changes to the _____ adrenoceptor-G protein-effector system result in diminished stimulatory effects	42
2876462709	Beta two	Receptors are not down-regulated and may develop increased coupling to the IP3-DAG cascade	43
2876467613	Beta three	Has been suggested the cardiac _____ receptors may mediate negative inotropic effects	44
2876472823	Beta activation	Excessive _________ can lead to leakage of calcium from the SR via RyR channels and contributes to stiffening of the ventricles and arrhythmias.	45
2876476485	Caspases	Prolonged beta activation increases ________, the enzyme responsible for apoptosis	46
2876479471	ATII	Increased _____ leads to increased aldosterone secretion with associated salt and water retention. The after load is increased	47
2876487818	Arrhythmogenesis	Changes in ion channels, particular potassium channels leads to __________.	48
2876493207	RyR channels	Phosphorylation of ______ in the sarcoplasmic reticulum enhances Ca2+ release	49
2876497441	Protein phosphatease 1 (PP1)	Enzyme that is primarily responsible for RyR dephosphorylation is unregulated in heart failure	50
2876524020	Myocardial hypertrophy	Most important intrinsic mechanism	51
2876529723	Hypertrophy	_______ can lead to ischemic changes, impairment of diastolic filling and alterations in ventricular geometry	52
2876531589	Remodeling	Term applied to dilation (other than that due to passive stretch) and other slow slow structural changes in the myocardium	53
2876536475	Apoptosis	Myocytes in the failing heart die at an accelerated rate through ________	54
2876540282	Left ventricular function curve	Measure of left ventricular performance such as stroke volume or stroke work is plotted as a function of left ventricular filling pressure or end-diastolic fiber length	55
2876546214	Preloads	_____>20-25 mm Hg result in pulmonary congestion	56
2876551424	Blood volume and venous tone	Preload is usually increased in heart failure because of increased ________ and ________	57
2876556715	filling pressures	The goal of a low salt diet is to decrease _________.	58
2876561396	Preload	Ventilator drugs such as nitroglycerin reduce preload by redistributing blood away from the chest into the peripheral veins	59
2876564881	Afterload	Resistance against which the heart must pump blood Represented by aortic impedance and systemic vascular resistance	60
2876568645	Systemic vascular resistance	As cardiac output falls in chronic heart failure, a reflex increase in _________ occurs. It is mediated by increased sympathetic outflow and circulating catecholamines	61
2876578008	heart rate	Major determinant of cardiac output	62
2876582173	Beta adrenoreceptors	As stroke volume diminishes, and increase in heart rate through sympathetic activation of _______ is the first compensatory mechanism that maintains cardiac output	63
2876592760	Digoxin	Prototype of cardiac glycosides or cardenolides	64
2876594095	pH dependent	Because glycosides lack an easily ionizable group, their solubility is not _________.	65
2876597489	Oleander, lily of the valley, milkweed	Plants with digoxin like activity	66
2876601909	65-80%	Digoxin is _____ absorbed after oral administration	67
2876602850	Digoxin	Only cardiac glycoside in use in the United States	68
2876606154	Widely distributed	Once present int he blood, all cardiac glycosides are _________ to tissues, including the CNS	69
2876609643	kidneys	Digoxin is not extensively metabolized by the _______.	70
2876611249	Creatinine clearance	The renal clearance of digoxin is proportional to the __________.	71
2876613109	36 hours	The half-life of digoxin in patients with normal renal function is ______.	72
2876616519	Na/K ATPase	All therapeutically useful cardiac glycosides inhibit the ________.	73
2876625117	Free calcium	Cardiac glycosides increase _______ of the cardiac sarcomere by increasing the ________ concentration in the vicinity of the contractile proteins during systole	74
2876629279	Intracellular sodium	Cardiac glycosides increase intracellular calcium via a two step process. First, the ______ increases due to Na/K ATPase inhibition. Second, there is a reduction in calcium expulsion from the cell by the NCX (sodium-calcium exchanger)	75
2876635337	SERCA	The increased intracellular calcium associated with cardiac glycosides is sequestered by the _______ pump.	76
2876644469	Tension and relaxation	The development of ________ and ________ are increased with little change in time to peak tension when cardiac glycosides are administered	77
2876651190	Glycosides	The electrical effects of ________ are as follows: prolonged AP, increased K+ conductance, reduction in resting membrane potential (most positive)	78
2877958393	Delayed after-depolarizations (DADs)	As glycoside toxicity progresses, oscillatory depolarizing after-potentials appear following normally evoked action potential Associated with overloading intracellular calcium stores	79
2877968901	Premature depolarizations	Occur when after-potentials reach threshold Couple to preceding AP May create bigeminy	80
2877979919	Digoxin toxicity	Tachycardia may deteriorate into fibrillation in the case of ________ toxicity.	81
2877984839	Parasympathomimetic effects	In the lower range for digoxin dosage, _______ (atropine-blockablp)predominate.	82
2877988766	Digitalis	Early actions of digitalis include sensitization of baroreceptors, central vagal stimulation, and facilitation of muscarinic transmission at the cardiac muscle cell	83
2877993142	Atria	Cholinergic innervation is much richer in the _____	84
2877995346	Atria and AV node	Digitalis initially affects the ______ and ______ substantially more than the Purkinje fibers or ventricular function	85
2878002469	sympathetic	At toxic levels, ______ outflow is increased by digitalis	86
2878006570	AV junctional rhythm, premature ventricular depolarization, bigeminal rhythm, second-degree AV blockade	Most common cardiac manifestations of digitalis toxicity	87
2878008792	GI tract	Most common site of digitalis toxicity outside the heart Anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea	88
2878013170	SA node	Heart tissue that has decreased rate at both therapeutic and toxic doses of digitalis	89
2878014521	Atrial muscle	Digitalis affects the ______ by decreasing the refractory period at both therapeutic and toxic doses. At toxic doses, arrhythmia also occurs.	90
2878018157	AV node	Digitalis decreases conduction velocity and increases the refractory period at the _______ at therapeutic doses. At toxic doses, there is a decrease in refractory period and the possibility of arrhythmia	91
2878023829	Purkinje system, ventricular muscle	Digitalis Therapeutic doses: slight decrease in refractory period Toxic doses: extrasystoles, tachycardia, fibrillation	92
2878026741	ECG	Digitalis Therapeutic- increased PR interval, decreased QT interval Toxic- tachycardia, fibrillation, and arrest	93
2878037837	Hyperkalemia	Reduces the enzyme-inhibiting actions of glycosides	94
2878038891	Hypokalemia	Facilitates the actions of glycosides	95
2878044364	Calcium	Facilitates the toxic actions of cardiac glycosides by accelerating the overloading of intracellular _______ stores that appear to be responsible for digitalis-induced abnormal automaticity	96
2878051183	Hypercalcemia	Increases the risk of digitalis-induced arrhythmia	97
2878053933	Hypermagnesmia	Decreases the risk of digitalis induced arrhythmia	98
2878059022	Istaroxime	Investigational steroid derivative that increases contractility by inhibiting Na/K ATPase and facilitates sequestration of Ca2+ by the SR	99
2878066592	Arrhythmogenic	Because Istaroxime facilitates calcium sequestration, the drug is less _________ that digoxin	100
2878074422	phosphodiesterases	Drugs that inhibit ___________ (cAMP and cGPM inactivators) have long been used in therapy of heart failure	101
2878078196	vasodilation	Though phosphodiesterases have positive inotropic effects, most of their benefits appear to derive from _________	102
2878082572	Inamrinone and milrinone	Most successful bipyridines Inhibit phosphodiesterases	103
2878084762	Levosimendan	Drug that sensitizes the troponin system to calcium; appears to inhibit phosphodiesterase and cause so vasodilation in addition to its inotropic effects	104
2878098107	Inamrinone and milrinone	Bipyridine compounds that inhibit PDE-3 Active orally and parenterally; available only parenterally	105
2878100884	3-6 hours	Inamrinone and milrinone have a half-life of ______ and are 10-40% excreted in the urine	106
2878119947	inward calcium flux	Bipyridines increase myocardial contractility by increasing the ________ during the AP Bipyridines may also alter the intracellular movements of calcium by influencing the SR Have important vasodilating effects	107
2878128763	contractility and vasodilation	Inhibition of posphodiesterase results in an increase in cAMP and an increase in _________ and _________	108
2878130781	Inamrinone	The toxicity of ______ includes nausea and vomiting, arrhythmias, thrombocytopenia, and liver enzyme changes	109
2878134227	Milrinone	Of the bipyridines, ________ appears less likely to cause bone marrow and liver toxicity than inamrinone. It does cause arrhythmias	110
2878138717	Acute heart failure	Inamrinone and milrinone are used only intravenously for _______ or severe exacerbation of chronic heart failure	111
2878141648	Dobutamine	The selective beta-1 agonist that has been most widely used in patients with heart failure is ________	112
2878143311	parenterally	Dobutamine is administered _________	113
2878145402	Cardiac output, ventricular filling pressure	Dobutamine produces as increase in ______ and a decrease in _________.	114
2878148932	angina, arrhythmia, tachyphylaxis	The potential for producing ______ or _______ in patients with CAD is significant as is the ________ that accompanies the sue of any beta-stimulant	115
2878157466	Diuretics, ACE inhibitors, ATIIr antagonists, aldosterone antagonists, and beta blockers	First line therapies for chronic heart failure	116
2878162127	Furosamide	Diuretics, especially ______ are drugs of choice in heat failure Have no direct effect on cardiac contractility	117
2878164969	Ventricular preload	The mechanism of diuretics in heart failure it to reduce venous pressure and __________. This results in reduction of salt and water retention and edema and its symptoms	118
2878169899	Spironolactone and eplerenone	Aldosterone antagonis diuretics Have the additional benefit of decreasing forbidding and mortality in patients with severe heart failure who are also receiving ACE inhibitors and other standard therapy	119
2878174994	baroreceptor dysfunction	It is thought that aldosterone may cause myocardial and vascular fibrosis and ___________ in addition to its renal effects	120
2878208711	Afterload	ACE inhibitors reduce ________. They also reduce salt and water retention by reducing aldosterone secretion, which reduces preload	121
2878218959	Norepinephrine release	The reduction in tissue angiotensin levels reduces sympathetic activity through diminution of angiotensin's presynaptic effects on ______________	122
2878275941	ACE inhibitors	AT receptor blockers should be considered in patients intolerant of ACE inhibitors because of incessant cough	123
2878280555	Aliskiren	Renin inhibitor approved for hypertension	124
2878283900	preload, afterload	Vasodilators are effective in acute heart failure because they provide a reduction in _______ though ventilation or a reduction in ________- through arteriolar dilation	125
2878288116	Hydralazine and isosorbide dinitrate	Use of ________ and ________ can reduce damaging remodeling of the heart	126
2878289586	Nesiritide	A synthetic form of endogenous peptide BNP approved for use in acute (not chronic) cardiac failure	127
2878292598	cGMP	Nesiritide increases _____ in smotth muscle cells and reduces venous and arteriolar tone in experimental preparations Also causes diuresis	128
2878298769	20 minutes	The half-life of nesiritide is short at ______. It is initially administered as an IV bolus followed by continuous infusion	129
2878301400	hypotension	The most common adverse effect of nesiritide is excessive _______. Significant renal damage and death have occasionally occurred	130
2878305286	Endogenous BNP	Plasma concentrations of _________ increase in most patients with heart failure and are correlated with severity	131
2878308899	Carperitide and Ularitide	Synthetic analogs of ANP and urodilantin	132
2878310934	Bosentan and tezosentan	Orally active competitive inhibitors of endothelia	133
2878312383	pulmonary hypertension	Bosentan has been approved for use in ________. It has significant teratogenic and hepatotoxic effects	134
2878317790	Bisoprolol, carvedilol, metoprolol, nebivolol	Beta blockers associated with a reduction in mortality in patients with severe stable heart failure *Effect not seen with bucindolol	135
2878323026	Beta blcokers	Anttentuate adverse effects of high concentrations of catecholamines, up-regulation of beta receptors, decreased heart rate, and reduced remodeling through inhibition of the mitogenic activity of catecholamines	136
2878326922	Stage A	Stage of heart failures where patients are at high risk because of other disease but have no sign or symptoms of heart failure	137
2878329432	Stage B	Patients have evidence of structural heart disease but no symptoms of failure	138
2878330765	Stage C	Patients have structural heart disease and symptoms of failure Symptoms are responsive to ordinary therapy	139
2878331812	Stage D	Patients have heart failure refractory to ordinary therapy and specify interventions Resynchronization therapy or transplant are required	140
2878333182	Stage C	Once ______ is reached, the severity of heart failure is usually described according to a scale devised by the NY heart association	141
2878335707	Class I	_____ heart failure is associated with no limitations on ordinary activities. Symptoms only occur with greater than normal exercise	142
2878338077	Class II	________ is characterized by slight limitation of activities Results in fatigue and palpitations with ordinary physical activity	143
2878340679	Class III	______ results in no symptoms at rest Fatigue, SOB, and tachycardia occur with less that ordinary physical activity	144
2878342359	Class IV	Associated with symptoms, even when the patient is at rest	145
2878344070	A, prefailure	No symptoms but risk factors present Treat obesity, hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia etc.	146
2878344896	B, I	Symptoms with severe exercise ACEI/ARB, beta blcoker, diuretic	147
2878346272	C, II/III	Symptoms with marked (class II) or mild (class III) exercise Add aldosterone antagonist, digoxin; CRT, hydralazine/nitrate to ACEI/ ARB, beta-blocker and diuretic	148
2878349554	D, IV	Severe symptoms at rest Transplant, LVAD	149
2878352127	Thiazide	Diuretic used in very mild failure	150
2878352833	Furosamide	Loop agent used for symptomatic heart failure	151
2878353978	Potassium	Sodium loss causes secondary loss of ______, which is particularly hazardous for patients taking digitalis	152
2878355666	Hypokalemia	Can be treated with potassium supplementation or through the addition of an ACE inhibitor or potassium-sparing diuretic such as spironolactone	153
2878358316	ACE inhibitor	In patients with left ventricular dysfunction and no edema, a ______ should be the first drug used	154
2878361173	Digoxin	ACE inhibitors cannot replace _______ in patients that already receive the glycoside Patients that withdraw from _____ deteriorate while ACE therapy	155
2880304070	Ventricular dilation	By reducing preload and after load in asymptomatic patients, ACE inhibitors slow the progress of ________.	156
2880306806	ACE inhibitors	Medication that is useful in all subsets of patients Asymptomatic to severe and chronic failure	157
2880313134	AT-1 receptor blockers	Produce beneficial hemodynamic effects similar to those of ACE inhibitors These medications are best reserved for patients who cannot tolerate ACE inhibitors	158
2880321532	Venous dilators (nitrates)	In patients with high filling pressures in whom the principal symptom is dyspnea, _______ such as _______ will be most helpful in reducing filling pressures and the symptoms of pulmonary congestion	159
2880327839	Hydralazine	In a patient with low left ventricular output, an arteriolar dilator such as _______ may be helpful in increasing cardiac output	160
2880340824	BiDil	Fixed combination of ACE hydrazine and isosorbide dinitrate Approved for use only in African Americans	161
2880351767	Bisoprolol, carvedilol, metoprolol, nebivolol	Reduce mortality	162
2880355119	Heart failure and A-fib	Digoxin is indicated in patients with _____ and ______ if ACE inhibitors and diuretics have failed to control symptoms	163
2880359838	50%	About _____ of patients with a normal sinus rhythm will have relief of heart failure with digitalis treatment	164
2880371369	Therapeutic end point	With digitalis, toxic effects occur before the _______ is reached	165
2880376832	Decreased	Mortality is decreased in patients with serum digoxin concentrations <0.9 mg/mL but increased when digoxin levels > 1.5 ng/mL	166
2880741538	Wolff-Parkinson White syndrome	Digoxin is explicitly contraindicated in patients with ___________ and atrial fibrillation	167
2880755917	WPW syndrome	caused by the presence of an abnormal accessory electrical conduction pathway between the atria and the ventricles. Electrical signals traveling down this abnormal pathway (known as the bundle of Kent) may stimulate the ventricles to contract prematurely, resulting in a unique type of supraventricular tachycardia referred to as an atrioventricular reciprocating tachycardia	168
2880764169	Renal dialysis	If administering digitalis, it is particularly important to monitor potassium levels in patients on _______.	169
2880769065	elevated	In severe digitalis intoxication, serum potassium will already be _______ at the time of diagnosis	170
2880776263	Digoxin immune fab	If severe digoxin intoxication occurs, it is important to insert a pacemaker and administer ________.	171
2880782202	arrhythmias	Digitalis-induced _______ are frequently made worse by cardioversion	172
2880791351	Nebivolol	Effective in both systolic and diastolic failure	173
2880803250	Furosemide	Most commonly used diuretic	174
2880805284	Dopamine or dobutamine	Positive inotropic drugs with prompt onset and short durations of action Most useful in patients with severe hypertension	175
2880809909	Nitroprusside, nitroglycerine, and nesiritide	Vasodilators used in patients with acute decompensation	176
2880811456	Conivaptan	Parenteral treatment of euvolemic hyponatremia	177
2880817084	Vasopressin antagonists	Do not seem to reduce mortality	178
2880820681	Furosamide	Loop diuretic: Decreases NaCl and KCl reabsorption in thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle in the nephron Increased excretion of salt and water • reduces cardiac preload and afterload • reduces pulmonary and peripheral edema	179
2880828562	Acute and chronic heart failure, severe hypertension, and edematous conditions	Furosemide can be used for _________.	180
2880834030	Hypovolemia, hypokalemia, orthostatic hypotension, ototoxicity, and sufa allergy	Furosemide toxicities	181
2880846100	oral and IV	Furosemide is available in _______ forms. The duration is 2-4 hours	182
2880835793	Hydrochlorothiazide	Decreases NaCl reabsorption in the DCT Effects same as furosemide; less effective	183
2880841387	Mild chronic failure and mild-moderate hypertension	Hydrochlorothiazide is used in _______. It has not been shown to reduce mortality	184
2880848785	Oral	Hydrochlorothiazide is available in ______ form only. It's duration is 10-12 hours	185
2880853172	Hyponatremia, hypokalemia, hyperglycemia, hyperuricemia, hyperlipidemia, sulfa allergy	Adverse effects of hydrochlorothiazide	186
2880858099	Bumetonide and torsemide	Loop diuretics similar to furosemide	187
2880859624	Spironolactone	Blocks cytoplasmic aldosterone receptors in collecting tubules of nephron • possible membrane effect ncreased salt and water excretion • reduces remodeling • reduces mortality	188
2880907693	Chronic heart failure, HTN and aldosteronism	Spironolactone is used for __________. It has been shown to reduce mortality	189
2880912289	Hyperkalemia and antiandrogen actions	The toxicity of spirinolactone includes _______ and _______. Duration is 24-72 hours with low onset and offset	190
2880918854	Cirrhosis and adrenal tumor	Aldosteronism is frequently associated with 2 diseases	191
2880923829	ATI to ATII	ACE inhibitors such as captopril inhibit the conversion of ____ to ____	192
2880930217	Arteriolar and venous dilation, reduced aldosterone secretion, and reduced cardiac remodeling	The effects of ACE inhibitors include _________, ________	193
2880935753	Chronic heart failure, HTN, diabetic renal disease	ACE inhibitors are used for _______. They have been shown to reduce mortality	194
2880978249	Cough, hyperkalemia, angioneurotic edema	ACE inhibitor toxicity Additive with other AT antagonists	195
2880981777	Orally	ACE inhibitors are administered. The half life is short, but they are given every 12-24 hours in large doses	196
2880988876	ARBs	Antagonize all effects of AT-1 receptors Actions similar to ACE inhibitors	197
2880990992	ACE inhibitors	ARBs are used in patients that cannot tolerate ________. They do reduce mortality	198
2880998455	Oral	ARBs are available in ____ form. The duration is 6-8 hours.	199
2881002027	Hyperkalemia, angioneurotic edema	Side effects of ARBs include _________. These are additive with other angiotensin antagonists	200
2881006872	Beta blockers	Medications such as carvedilol that competitively block beta 1 receptors	201
2881011361	Decreased HR, BP, heart failure	Actions of beta blockers include ____________	202
2881014061	chronic heart failure	Beta blockers are used to ________ and reduce mortality in moderate and severe heart failure.	203
2881016404	Oral	_____ administration is used for beta blockers. Their duration of action is 10-12 hours.	204
2881020678	Bronchospasm, bradycardia, AV block, acute cardiac decompensation	Dis effects of beta blockers include __________.	205
2881021793	Digoxin	Na+/K+-ATPase inhibition results in reduced Ca2+ expul- sion and increased Ca2+ stored in sarcoplasmic reticulum	206
2881026794	contractility and parasympathomimetic effect	Digoxin increases cardiac ______ and ________, which is seen with a slowed sinus HR and slowed AV conduction	207
2881064228	Chronic symptomatic heart failure	Digoxin is used for __________ and rapid ventricular rate in atrial fibrillation It has not been definitively shown to reduce mortality	208
2881066340	Oral or parenteral	Digoxin is administered ______ or _______. It lasts 36-40 hours	209
2881095202	Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and cardiac arrhythmia	The toxicity of digoxin is apparent with the following symptoms:	210
2881100105	Venodilator	Isosorbide dinitrate is a _______. It causes NO release and activates guanylyl cyclase	211
2881102676	preload and ventricular stretch	Venodilators decrease ______ and _____.	212
2881105217	Acute and chronic hear failure and angina	Venodilators are used for ________.	213
2881110881	Postural hypotension, tachycardia, and headache	Side effects of venodilators are __________. Administration is oral	214
2881112093	PDE5i	Venodilators are additive with other vasodilators and have a synergistic effect with _______.	215
2881120484	Arteriolar dilators	_______ such as hydrazine increase NO synthesis in endothelium	216
2881122066	reduces BP and afterload	Hydralazine and other arteriolar dilators reduce ____ and ______, resulting in higher CO	217
2881124764	Nitrates	Hydralazine + _______ have reduced mortality	218
2881131138	Tachycardia, fluid retention, lupus-like syndrome	Toxicities of hydrazine include _______	219
2881140747	Nitroprusside	Combined arteriolar and venodilator Release NO spontaneously and activates GC	220
2881150755	Nitropursside	Used for acute cardiac decompensation and hypertensive emergencies such as malignant hypertension	221
2881152354	IV	Nitroprusside is available via ____ administration. The duration is 1-2 minutes	222
2881156516	Hypotension, thiocyanate, and cyanide toxicity	Side effects of nitroprusside include __________. It is additive with other vasodilators	223
2881161028	Dobutamine	________ is a beta-1 selective agonist that increases cAMP synthesis.	224
2881163300	Cardiac contractility and output	Dobutamine increases _______ and _______	225
2881168417	Acute decompensated heart failure and intermittent therapy in chronic failure	Dobutamine is used for _______ and ________ to reduce symptoms	226
2881169521	IV	Dobutamine is administered by _____. The duration of action is only a few minutes	227
2881171042	Arrythmia	The most common dobutamine toxicity is ________. It has additive interactions with other sympathomimetics	228
2881177993	Dopamine	Dopamine receptor agonist; higher doses activate beta and alpha adrenoceptors Acts by increasing renal blood flow (low dose)	229
2881185451	Cardiac force and BP	Higher doses of dopamine increase _______ and _______	230
2881188654	Acute decompensated heart failure	Dopamine is used for ________ and shock.	231
2881203684	IV	Dopamins is administered via ____. The duration is only a few minutes	232
2881223436	Sympathomimetics	The action of dopamine is additive with _______.	233
2881226010	Bipyridines	______, such as inamrinone and milrinone are PDE3 inhibitors that decrease cAMP breakdown	234
2881229787	vasodilators	Bipyridines are ______. they lower peripheral vascular resistance and increase cardiac contractility	235
2881232968	Acute decompensated heart failure	Bipyridines are used in ________. They are not used in chronic failure due to an increase in mortality	236
2881242974	arrhythmogenic	Bipyridines are additive with other _________ agents.	237
2881322933	Nesiritide	Activates BNP receptors and increases cGMP	238
2881324427	vasodilation and diuresis	Nesiritide causes ______ and ______	239
2881325815	Acude decompensated failure	Nesiritide is used for ________. It has not been shown to reduce mortality	240
2881327234	IV	Nesiritide is administered via ____. The duration is 18 minutes	241
2881328986	Renal damage, hypotension	Nesiritide toxicity is associated with ______ and ______. It may increase mortality as well.	242

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Module 9-2 Antimicrobial Therapy Week 2, Antimetabolites Sulfonamides / Trimethoprim, and Quinolones. Katzung Pharm 46 - Flashcards

Katzung, Basic and Clinical Pharmacology 12th Ed.

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3181323459	Sulfonamides	analogs of PABA (something +/- bact have to use to make purines) block dihydopteroate synthase. Bacteriostatic INHIBITOR of microbial enzymes involved in folic acid synthesis. Combined with inhibitors of dihydrofolate reductase to have synergistic effect. MOA	0
3181366082	Trimethoprim -Sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) MOA: Pharmacokinetics: Elimination: ADE:	Synergistic Bactericidal, Inhibitory effects of sulfonamides and trimethoprim on folic acid synthesis. Inhibition of 2 successive steps in the formation of tetrahydrofolic acid constitutes sequential blockade and results in antibacterial synergy. Remember: • Time-dependent killing Pharmacokinetics Absorption: • well absorbed po w/ good bioavailability • Good tissue and body fluid distribution Elimination • Renal & hepatic • Renal dose adjustment ADE: • Skin rash- urticaria, epidermal necrolysis (Stevens-Johnson syndrome) • Photosensitivity • N/V/D • Fever, bone marrow suppression, hyperkalemia • crystalluria & hematuria	1
3181395797	Trimethoprim -Sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) Clinical Indication	Effective against many gram-positive (+) & gram- negative (-) organisms • UTI and respiratory infections • Otitis media • Bacterial sinusitis • Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia • Toxoplasmosis • Nocardiosis Mechanisms of resistance plasmid-mediated • Reduced cell permeability • reduced drug binding	2
3181432434	Metronidazole - overview MOA Pharmacokinetics	Antiprotozoan & antibacterial agent Mechanism of action • Interferes w/ DNA synthesis • Bactericidal • IV , PO & topical formulations • Resistance uncommon Pharmacokinetics • Good oral absorption & bioavailability • Distribution- widely distributed to tissues & body fluids w/ good CSF penetration • Hepatic metabolism, elimination	3
3181454000	Metronidazole ADE & Clinical Indications	ADE: • N/V/D, stomatitis, metallic taste • peripheral neuropathy • Disulfiram reaction w/ ETOH ingestion Clinical Uses: • Anaerobic bacterial infections • Bacteroides & Clostridium • Clostridium difficile colitis • Helicobacter pylori • vaginitis • (trichomonas infection, bacterial vaginosis) • Amebicide • amebic colitis & amebic liver abscess	4
3181472784	Mupirocin Miscellaneous Antimicrobial	Topical Use Only: MOA: Inhibits protein synthesis • Acts on gram- positive cocci ADE: • Itching & burning sensation • Rash, erythema, & contact dermatitis Clinical Use: • indicated for impetigo (staphylococci) and some streptococci species • Intranasally to eliminate staph carriage states • Patients & medical personnel.	5
3181494109	Nitrofurantoin	MOA: not well understood • disrupts protein synthesis & inhibits multiple bacterial enzyme systems Absorption: Well absorbed, metabolized & excreted rapidly • (no systemic antimicrobial action) Contraindicated in significant renal insufficiency • (Cr Cl <60ml/min) • Bacteriocidal • Covers many gram-positive & gram-negative organisms	6
3181513126	Nitrofurantoin Clinical Indications and ADE	Clinical Indications Simple UTI only • (not upper urinary tract infection) ADE • GI irritation • skin rashes • hypersensitivity pneumonitis • Phototoxicity • neuropathies Dosing • Nitrofurantoin 100mg q6h • Macrobid- long acting formulation- bid dosing • Daily dosing 100mg • used for prophylaxis • Low urine pH (<5.5) enhances drug effect	7

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Module 9-2 Antimicrobial Therapy Week 2, Antimetabolites Sulfonamides / Trimethoprim, and Quinolones. Katzung Pharm 46 - Flashcards

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