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Meiosis And Sexual Life Cycles Flashcards

Chapter 13
Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles
Vocabulary: heredity, variation, genetics, genes, gametes, asexual reproduction, clone, sexual reproduction, life cycle, karyotypes, homologous chromosomes, sex chromosomes, autosomes, diploid cell, haploid cell, zygote, fertilization, meiosis, alternation of generations, sporophyte, spores, gametophyte, meiosis I, meiosis II, synapsis, crossing over, chiasma, recombinant chromosomes, independent assortment
Objectives:
After attending lectures and studying the chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Relating to cell division involving meiosis (meiosis + cytokinesis):
a. Define meiosis.
b. Explain why meiosis is sometimes considered "reduction division".
c. State what 1 diploid cell becomes after meiosis plus cytokinesis.
d. State the gametes in the human male and human female and describe the role of gametes in the human life cycle.
e. State the reason humans undergo cell division involving meiosis.
f. Define gametogenesis and distinguish between human spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
g. State which cells in humans undergo cell division involving meiosis.
h. Describe the 4 stages of meiosis I and the 4 stages of meiosis II.
2. Define genetic recombination.
3. Explain how recombination leads to genetic variation in a population and how genetic variation relates to evolution.
4. Explain how mating leads to recombination in eukaryotic organisms.
5. Briefly distinguish between the three types of sexual life cycles (p. 252) and their major differences. Use the examples: animal, plants, and multicellular fungi
6. Relating to recombination that occurs as a result of meiosis in eukaryotic organisms:
a. Describe segregation, state when it occurs during meiosis, and explain how it can lead to recombination.
b. Describe independent assortment and explain how it can lead to recombination.
c.

Terms : Hide Images

3358091842	Heredity	The transmission of traits from one generation to the next	0
3358091843	Variation	Differences between members of the same species	1
3358091844	Genetics	The scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation	2
3358091845	Genes	A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).	3
3358091846	Gametes	A haploid reproductive cell, such as an egg or a sperm. They unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.	4
3358091847	Somatic cells	Any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg or their precursor	5
3358091848	Locus	A specific place along the length of a chromosome where a given gene is located	6
3358091849	Asexual reproduction	Without the fusion of gametes. The generation of offspring from a single parent that occurs without the fusion of gametes. In most cases the offspring are genetically identical to the parent.	7
3358091850	Clone	A lineage of genetically identical individuals or cells.	8
3358091851	Sexual reproduction	A type of reproduction in which two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the gametes of the parents.	9
3358091852	Life cycle	The generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism..	10
3358091853	Karyotope	A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape.	11
3358091854	Homologous chromosomes	A pair of chromosomes of the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern that possess genes for the same characters at corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism's father, the other from the mother. Also called homologs, or a homologous pair.	12
3358091855	Sex chromosomes	A chromosome responsible for determining the sex of an individual	13
3358091856	Autosomes	A chromosome that is not directly involved in determining sex; not a sex chromosome.	14
3358091857	Diploid cells	A cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n), one set inherited from each parent	15
3358091858	Haploid cells	A cell containing only one set of chromosomes (n).	16
3358091859	Zygote	The diploid product of the union of haploid gametes during fertilization; a fertilized egg.	17
3358091860	Meiosis	A modified type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms consisting of two rounds of cell division but only one round of DNA replication. It results in cells with half the number of chromosome sets as the original cell.	18
3358091861	Alternation of generations	A life cycle in which there is both a multicellular diploid form, the sporophyte, and a multicellular haploid form, the gametophyte; characteristic of plants and some algae.	19
3358091862	Meiosis I	Homologous chromosomes separate	20
3358091863	Recombinant chromosomes	A chromosome created when crossing over combines DNA from two parents into a single chromsome	21
3358091864	The diploid number for fruit flies is 8, and the diploid number for grasshoppers is 46. If no crossing over took place, would the genetic variation among offspring from a given pair of parents be greater in fruit flies or grasshoppers?	...	22
3358091865	Independent Assortment	..., Independent segregation of genes during the formation of gametes	23
3358091866	Independent assortment	One of Mendel's principles that states that genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes	24
3358091867	Meiosis II	sister chromatids separate	25
3358091868	Haploid	A cell containing only one set of chromosomes (half)	26
3358091869	Diploid	A cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n), one set inherited from each parent	27
3358091870	Mitosis	A cell splitting to form copies of itself	28
3358091871	Which life cycle stage is found in plants but not animals?	multicellular haploid	29
3358091872	Homologous chromosomes move toward opposite poles of a dividing cell during	meiosis I.	30
3358091873	Meiosis II is similar to mitosis in that	sister chromatids separate during anaphase.	31
3358091874	f the DNA content of a diploid cell in the G1 phase of the cell cycle is x, then the DNA content of the same cell at metaphase of meiosis I would be	2x.	32
3358091875	How many different combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes can be packaged in gametes made by an organism with a diploid number of 8 (2n 5 8)?	16	33
3358091876	chiasma	The X-shaped, microscopically visible region where homologous nonsister chromatids have exchanged genetic material through crossing over during meiosis, the two homologs remaining associated due to sister chromatid cohesion.	34
3358091877	crossing over	The reciprocal exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids during prophase I of meiosis.	35
3358091878	gametophyte	In organisms (plants and some algae) that have alternation of generations, the multicellular haploid form that produces haploid gametes by mitosis. The haploid gametes unite and develop into sporophytes.	36
3358091879	spore	(1) In the life cycle of a plant or alga undergoing alternation of generations, a haploid cell produced in the sporophyte by meiosis. A ___can divide by mitosis to develop into a multicellular haploid individual, the gametophyte, without fusing with another cell. (2) In fungi, a haploid cell, produced either sexually or asexually, that produces a mycelium after germination.	37
3358091880	sporohyte	In organisms (plants and some algae) that have alternation of generations, the multicellular diploid form that results from the union of gametes. The sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis that develop into gametophytes.	38
3358091881	synapsis	The pairing and physical connection of replicated homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis.	39

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Biology Final Exam (1) Flashcards

Cells and Cell Membrane
Links to individual sets:
http://quizlet.com/7869541/biology-ch-114-vocab-olczyk-flash-cards/
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http://quizlet.com/11801196/biology-ch-3-vocab-olczyk-flash-cards/

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1981715807	what is a species	group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring	0
1981715808	what is a population	group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area	1
1981715809	what is an autotroph	organism that can capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use it to produce its own food from inorganic compounds; also called a producer	2
1981715810	what is a producer	organism that can capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use it to produce food from inorganic compounds; also called an autotroph	3
1981715811	what is photosynthesis	process by which plants and some other organisms use light energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and high-energy carbohydrates such as sugars and starches	4
1981715812	what is chemosythesis	process by which some organisms, such as certain bacteria, use chemical energy to produce carbohydrates	5
1981715813	what is a heterotroph	organism that obtains energy from the foods it consumes; also called a consumer	6
1981715814	what is a consumer	organism that relies on other organisms for its energy and food supply; also called a heterotroph	7
1981715815	what is a herbivore	organism that obtains energy by eating only plants	8
1981715816	what is a carnivore	organism that obtains energy by eating animals	9
1981715817	what is a decomposer	organism that breaks down and obtains energy from dead organic matter	10
1981715818	what is the food chain	series of steps in an ecosystem in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten	11
1981715819	what is phytoplankton	population of algae and other small, photosynthetic organisms found near the surface of the ocean and forming part of plankton	12
1981715820	what is the food vacuole	small cavity in the cytoplasm of protists that temporarily stores food	13
1981715821	what is cilia and what does it do	short hairlike projection similar to a flagellum; produces movement in many cells	14
1981715822	what is a prokaryote	unicellular organism lacking a nucleus	15
1981715823	what is an aerobe	organism that requires a constant supply of oxygen in order to live	16
1981715824	what is an anaerobe	organism that cannot live in the presence of oxygen	17
1981715825	what is binary fission	type of asexual reproduction in which an organism replicates its DNA and divides in half, producing two identical daughter cells	18
1981715826	whta is a pathogen	disease-causing agent	19
1981715827	what is a vaccine	a preparation of weakened or killed pathogens	20
1981715828	what is an antibiotic	compound that blocks the growth and reproduction of bacteria	21
1981715829	virus	a particle made up of nucleic acid, protein, and in some cases lipids that can replicate only by infecting living cells	22
1981715830	capsid	outer protein coat of a virus	23
1981715831	what is a gene pool	combined genetic information of all the members of a particular population	24
1981715832	relative frequency	number of times an allele occurs in a gene pool compared with the number of times other alleles occur	25
1981715833	single-gene trait	trait controlled by a single gene that has two alleles	26
1981715834	polygenic trait	trait controlled by two or more genes	27
1981715835	directional selection	form of natural selection in which the entire curve moves; occurs when individuals at one end of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end of the curve	28
1981715836	stabilizing selection	form of natural selection by which the center of the curve remains in its current position; occurs when individuals near the center of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals at either end	29
1981715837	disruptive selection	form of natural selection in which a single curve splits into two; occurs when individuals at the upper and lower ends of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle	30
1981715838	genetic drift	random change in allele frequencies that occurs in small populations	31
1981715839	speciation	formation of new species	32
1981715840	reproductive isolation	separation of species or populations so that they cannot interbreed and produce fertile offspring	33
1981715841	behavioral isolation	form of reproductive isolation in which two populations have differences in courtship rituals or other types of behavior that prevent them from interbreeding	34
1981715842	geographical isolation	form of reproductive isolation in which two populations are separated physically by geographic barriers such as rivers, mountains, or stretches of water	35
1981715843	temporal isolation	form of reproductive isolation in which two populations reproduce at different times	36
1981715844	evolution	change in a kind of organism over time; process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms	37
1981715845	theory	well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations	38
1981715846	fossil	preserved remains or evidence of an ancient organism	39
1981715847	artificial selection	selection by humans for breeding of useful traits from natural variation	40
1981715848	struggle for existence	competition among members of a species for food, living space, and the other necessities of life	41
1981715849	fitness	ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment	42
1981715850	adaptation	inherited characteristic that increases an organism's chance of survival	43
1981715851	survival of the fittest	process by which the individuals that are better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully; also called natural selection	44
1981715852	natural selection	process by which the individuals that are better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully; also called survival of the fittest	45
1981715853	common descent	principle that all living things were derived from common ancestors	46
1981715854	homologous structures	structures that have different mature forms in different organisms but develop from the same embryonic tissues	47
1981715855	vestigial organ	organ that serves no useful function in an organism	48
1981715856	transformation	process in which one strain of bacteria is changed by a gene or genes from another strain of bacteria	49
1981715857	nucleotide	building block of a nucleic acid (DNA and RNA)	50
1981715858	base pairing	Adenine+ Thymine, Cytosine+ Guanine	51
1981715859	Cell Membrane	- contains the cytoplasm (all interior cell organelles and the cytosol) - allowing the chemical reactions in the cell to occur- semipermeable (or selectively permeable) - allows certain substances in, keeps others out	52
1981715860	what makes up a Phospholipid	- two hydrophobic fatty acids bound to a hydrophilic head (with a phosphate group)	53
1981715861	Protein	- integral proteins are buried inside the membrane	54
1981715862	Carbohydrates	- chains of carbohydrates serve as ID markers so the body can recognize its own cells from foreign invaders	55
1981715863	Cholesterol	- found in animal cell membranes , stiffens membranes	56
1981715864	Fluid Mosaic Model	- modern theory of how the cell membrane is arranged	57
1981715865	Diffusion	- particles move from high concentration to low concentration until equilibrium is reached	58
1981715866	passive transport	Movement of substances through a cell membrane without the use of cellular energy; includes diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.	59
1981715867	Active Transport	- breaks concentration gradient but needs to use ATP (energy for cell) - are very specific -pumps act as enzymes with active sites so they often pump only one substrate	60
1981715868	Osmosis	- diffusion of water across a membrane	61
1981715869	Hypotonic	- has less dissolved material (therefore less water)	62
1981715870	Prokaryotic Cells	- cells lack a nucleus and all other membrane based organelles	63
1981715871	Nucleus	- contains the DNA	64
1981715872	Nucleolus	- dark area in the nucleus where DNA encoding ribosomal RNA and proteins are located	65
1981715873	Endoplasmic Reticulum	- transport tubes made of membrane , - carry proteins that will go into the membane or leave the cell completely	66
1981715874	- rough ER	contains ribosomes for protein synthesis	67
1981715875	Ribosome	- found in two places; the cytosol or on the rough ER , -site of protein synthesis	68
1981715876	mRNA	- instructions for building proteins, A type of RNA, synthesized from DNA, that attaches to ribosomes in the cytoplasm and specifies the primary structure of a protein.	69
1981715877	rRNA	- a ribozyme that actually builds the proteins, Ribosomal RNA	70
1981715878	The Golgi Body	- puts final modifications on membrane proteins and proteins that leave the cell- packages proteins in vesicles (sacs of membrane)	71
1981715879	Vesicles (Vacuoles)	- membrane storage sacs; named after their contents	72
1981715880	Lysosomes	contain digestive enzymes (like lysozyme)- used to digest food	73
1981715881	Mitochondria	- responsible for harvesting energy for the cell , use oxygen	74
1981715882	Endosymbiotic Theory	Mitochondria and chloroplasts were once bacteria that were once swallowed by ancient eukaryotes but not digested. Rather, they developed a symbiosis with the cells and evolved into the organelles.	75
1981715883	Flagella	a long tail whips back and forth, very fast and makes cell move	76
1981715884	Centrioles	- found only in animal cells	77
1981715885	Cytoskeleton	- cells have an internal skeleton for strength and shape	78
1981715886	Unique to Plant Cells	- cell wall	79
1981715887	- chloroplasts	'Solar panel/fuel factory" of the cell	80
1981715888	large central vacuole	The organelle that stores water and other materials in plant cell- largest organelle in plant cell	81
1981715889	Cell Wall in plants is made of	cellulose	82
1981715890	chloroplasts	- organelles that use the sun's energy to produce ATP	83
1981715891	HIV	HIV is a virus that mutates at an extremely high rate and attacks human immune cells	84
1981715892	Two ways Antibiotic resistance is caused	Over prescription of antibiotics to patients with viral infections and patients not taking the antibiotics for the full course of treatment	85
1981715893	The parts of a virus	Protein coat (or viral envelope) & DNA or RNA (genome)	86
1981715894	What does gram staining do	Classifies bacteria -	87
1981715895	How does HIV attacks the Immune system	Killing and hiding in white blood cells (immune cells) and turning the immune system against itself	88
1981715896	Why is the triple cocktail's effective in treating HIV	It kills infected cells and helps prevent resistance to drugs	89
1981715897	Who discovered the first antibiotic and what was it	Alexander Fleming - penicillin	90
1981715898	Define a pathogen	An agent that is harmful to living organisms	91
1981715899	Three shapes of bacteria	Coccus - spherical, bacillus- rod shaped, spirillum - spiral	92
1981715900	What are antibiotics effective at treating	Bacteria	93
1981715901	Define a plasmid	An extra circular piece of DNA found in the bacteria cell cytoplasm	94
1981715902	Define a vaccine	Creates an immune response, which will protect the body if ever infected again	95
1981715903	sizes of viruses, bacteria, and human cells smallest to largest	virus, bacteria, human cell	96
1981715904	Why is HIV difficult to treat	It hides inside human cells and mutates extremely quickly	97
1981715905	The elements that make up carbohydrates,	C, H, O	98
1981715906	The elements that make up Lipids	C, H, O	99
1981715907	The elements that make up Proteins	C, H, O, N , S	100
1981715908	What does 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids together make	Lipid	101
1981715909	Simple sugar -	monosaccharide's such as glucose or fructose	102
1981715910	Carbohydrates - can be	monosaccharide's, disaccharides (lactose or sucrose) or polysaccharides (starches or cellulose)	103
1981715911	polysaccharides ex:	starches or cellulose	104
1981715912	disaccharides ex:	lactose or sucrose	105
1981715913	What kinds of bonds are used in making proteins	Peptide bonds	106
1981715914	What is a cell wall made of in plants	Cellulose	107
1981715915	important function of carbohydrates, Carbohydrates	primary fuel source of cells	108
1981715916	Proteins - wide variety of functions including	making up part of cell membrane, regulating and controlling cell function	109
1981715917	Lipids of functions including	Energy storage	110
1981715918	Saturated fats have no ______ bonds	double bonds	111
1981715919	Unsaturated fats has ______ bonds	double bonds	112
1981715920	How many amino acids there are	20 amino acids which join in a variety of combinations	113
1981715921	The properties of enzymes	Catalyst, protein, not used up in a reaction, specific, acts to lower the activation energy of a reaction, bonds with a substrate molecule at the enzyme's active site	114
1981715922	The name of the molecule an enzyme acts on	substrate	115
1981715923	What molecules the body uses to store energy	ATP	116
1981715924	The relationship between the numbers on the pH scale and acids and bases	Ranges from 0-14 Acids 0-6.9 Bases 7.1-14	117
1981715925	too much heat and different pH on enzymes can cause ______	denaturing	118
1981715926	effect that enzymes have on a reaction	Lowers the activation energy thereby speeding up a reaction at the same temperature	119
1981715927	Define a substrate	Molecules on which an enzyme acts	120
1981715928	Enzymes are proteins and they have	a 3-d shape.	121
1981715929	Carb's are either	mono/ di/ polysaccahrides.	122
1981715930	Lipids are made of	3 fatty acids and glycerol	123
1981715931	lactose intolerance	When a person is unable to digest milk because they lack the enzyme they need (lactase) to break down the lactose	124
1981715932	Aerobic	needs oxygen	125
1981715933	Anaerobic	doesn't need oxygen	126
1981715934	The reactants and products of photosynthesis	Carbon Dioxide + water + light energy Glucose + Oxygen	127
1981715935	What makes a good experiment and what is reliable data	Controlled experiment (one independent variable, multiple trials, and a control group) involving random assignment, statistically significant, and a double blind set up to help control bias	128
1981715936	Theory	proposition or principle shown to explain phenomena through experimentation	129
1981715937	Control	remains the same in an experiment for comparison	130
1981715938	Hypothesis	educated guess	131
1981715939	Objective	impartial	132
1981715940	Variables	independent variable is what you change in an experiment to see its effect (only 1 in ea. Exp), dependent variable is the result or effect of that independent variable	133
1981715941	Smooth ER is the	transport system within the cell	134
1981715942	Rough ER has	ribosomes lining it (involved in protein synthesis)	135
1981715943	Cell membrane	double layer of lipids with proteins imbedded within, selectively permeable, regulates what passes into/out of the cell	136
1981715944	Nucleus	control center of the cell, holds genetic material	137
1981715945	Cell wall	made of cellulose, provides rigid support for a plant cell	138
1981715946	Mitochondria	powerhouse of the cell	139
1981715947	Vacuole	used for storage, in plant cell plays a part in turgor pressure	140
1981715948	What does selectively permeable mean	only allows certain materials to pass through	141
1981715949	Which cell parts does a plant cell have	Chloroplast, Cell wall, Large central vacuole	142
1981715950	Passive transport	Movement of molecules with the concentration gradient (from area of higher concentration to area of lower concentration) and Does not require energy	143
1981715951	Osmosis	movement of water	144
1981715952	Diffusion	movement of particles	145
1981715953	Facilitated Diffusion	same as passive transport but with assistance of carrier molecules embedded within cell membrane	146
1981715954	Active Transport	requires energy, goes against concentration gradient (from low to high concentrations)	147

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Biology End-of-Course Review Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

532306407	courtship ritual	Behavior that helps attract mates (mating dances, gifts, displays)	0
532306408	prokaryotic	Cell in which DNA is loose - it has NO NUCLEUS; bacteria cell	1
532306409	antigen	Marker on the outside of a pathogen	2
532306410	polygenic	A trait that is controlled by many genes, for example eye color, hair color	3
532306411	endocrine system	Controls hormones (including growth, development)	4
532306412	denature	Protein changes shape, stops working (usually because of high temps.)	5
532306413	estivation	animals go dormant (inactive) during seasons with high temperatures	6
532306414	diploid	cell with 2 of each chromosome type. (human's number is 46)	7
532306415	autotroph	a synonym for producer	8
532306416	incomplete dominance	trait in which the heterozygotes express a blending of the two phenotypes.	9
532306417	catalyst	a molecule (like an enzyme) that speeds up chemical reactions	10
532306418	greenhouse effect	caused by carbon dioxide trapping sun's heat; keeps us warm	11
532306419	mitosis	cell division in which a diploid cell makes another diploid cell.	12
532306420	heterotroph	synonym for consumer	13
532306421	eukaryotic	cell in which DNA is contained inside of a nucleus	14
532306422	angiosperm	plant that has flowers for attracting pollinators	15
532306423	biomagnification	toxins (pesticides, mercury) build-up in food chains and affect top most	16
532306424	haploid	cell with 1 of each type of chromosome (23 in humans); sex cells are this type	17
532306425	homeostasis	maintaining a stable internal environment (plasma membrane's main job)	18
532306426	imprinting	behavior that helps babies attach to mother	19
532306427	osmosis	salt sucks water towards the most concentrated place	20
532306428	gamete	a sex cell - for example sperm, egg, pollen, ova	21
532306429	contractile vacuole	structure inside unicellular protists - regulates water balance	22
532306430	diffusion	substances (minerals, gases, etc) move from high to low concentrations	23
532306431	codominance	trait in which heterozygotes express both phenotypes of their two alleles	24
532306432	autotroph	organism that converts inorganic (inedible) compounds into organic (edible)	25
532306433	ribosome	the site of protein synthesis (where proteins are made)	26
532306434	stomata	openings in plants that allow gases to exit/enter	27
532306435	xylem	type of vascular tissue in plants that water travels through	28
532306436	PKU	genetic disorder requiring a special diet	29
532306437	phylogenetic tree	diagram showing evolutionary relationships	30
532306438	pedigree	diagram showing family relationships	31
532306439	meiosis	cell division that makes sex cells	32
532306440	triglyceride	three fatty acids and a glycerol (building blocks of lipids)	33
532306441	habituation	learning to ignore a repeated, meaningless stimulus	34
532306442	antibodies	made by B cells; inactivates the pathogen	35
532306443	consumer, heterotroph	2 words for organisms that must eat other organisms	36
532306444	classical conditioning	two stimuli become closely associated (bell, meat) to elicit same response	37
532306445	B cell	white blood cell that makes antibodies	38
532306446	anaerobic respiration	creates 2 ATP; happens when no oxygen is present	39
532306447	amphibian	type of vertebrate that lives part of its life in water - frogs, salamanders	40
532306448	starch, cellulose	complex carbohydrates found in plants	41
532306449	glycogen	complex carbohydrate found in animals	42
532306450	karyotype	Look at this to see if someone has 3 21st chromosomes (Down's syndrome)	43
532306451	nucleotide	phosphate, sugar, base (building block of DNA)	44
532306452	fermentation	happens after anaerobic respiration; creates lactic acid or alcohol	45
532306453	vascular	ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms have these tissues	46
532306454	protein synthesis	translation is the second part of this process	47
532306455	chloroplast	glucose is made in this organelle	48
532306456	nephridia	structure on annelid worms that collects/excretes nitrogenous waste (pee)	49
532306457	cellular respiration	process that needs oxygen and glucose	50
532306458	photosynthesis	process that needs carbon dioxide and water	51
532306459	punnet square	diagram showing predicted traits of offspring	52
532306460	independent assortment	increases variation - chromosomes move alone during meiosis	53
532306461	insulin	protein that helps regulate blood glucose levels	54
532306462	gymnosperm	type of plant with seeds but no flowers (seeds on cones)	55
532306463	transcription	mRNA copies a gene from DNA that codes for a protein	56
532306464	hemoglobin	protein that carries oxygen in blood cells; it's messed up in sickle-cell anemia	57
532306465	DNA replication	happens before a cell can divide; the process is semi-conservative	58
532306466	active	type of transport that uses energy	59
532306467	passive	type of transport that moves from high to low concentration (ex. diffusion)	60
532306468	carbohydrate	biomolecule that stores energy to be used short-term	61
532306469	lipid	biomolecule that stores energy to be used long-term	62
532306470	codon	group of three nitrogenous bases that codes for an amino acid	63
532306471	tRNA	carries amino acids to the ribosome	64
532306472	abiogenesis (spontaneous generation)	concept supported by Miller and Urey's early Earth experiment	65
532306473	introduced species	usually has a negative impact on an ecosystem because no natural predators	66
532306474	Biuret's	used to test for presence of protein	67
532306475	multiple alleles	Different blood types is an example of a trait controlled by this	68
532306476	homologous chromosomes	A pair of the same type of chromosome (one from mom, one from dad); they line up together during meiosis	69
532306477	enzyme	a catalyst that can be used over and over to speed up chemical reactions	70
532306478	acid rain	caused by burning fuels that release sulfur dioxide into atmosphere	71
532306479	binomial nomenclature	the two name (genus, species) system for giving organisms scientific names	72
532306480	abiotic	any non-living part of the environment that affect living organisms	73
532306481	ozone depletion	caused by the release of CFC's into the atmosphere	74
532306482	germination	a seed sprouts and relies on the cotyledon (endospore) for nutrients	75
532306483	fertilization	the male gamete meets the female gamete (ex. pollen+egg) zygote is formed	76
532306484	mitochondria	cellular respiration happens here	77
532306485	amino acid	Building blocks of proteins - one codon codes for this	78
532306486	Down's Syndrome	disorder caused by non-disjunction of 21st chromosomes	79

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Psychology Themes and Variations Chapter 10 Flashcards

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1944291179	motivation	goal directed behavior	0
1944291180	homeostasis	state of physiological equilibrium or stability	1
1944291181	drive	internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension	2
1944291182	incentive	an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior	3
1944291183	Madsen's list of biological needs	hunger, thirst sex	4
1944291184	Murray's list of social needs	achievement, affiliation and dominance	5
1944291185	leptin	long-term regulation of hunger, produced by fat cells	6
1944291186	insulin	hormone secreted by the pancreas	7
1944291187	ghrelin	stomach contractions and promotes hunger, produced by stomach	8
1944291188	palatability	the better the food tastes, the more of it people consume	9
1944291189	quantity available	determinant of the amount eaten is the amount available; people tend to consume what is put in front of them	10
1944291190	variety	humans and animals increase their consumption when a greater variety of foods is available (sensory-specific satiety)	11
1944291191	presence of others	individuals eat 44% more when they eat with other people as opposed to eating alone	12
1944291192	obesity	the condition of being overweight	13
1944291193	body mass index	weight in kg/height in meters squared (kg/m^2)	14
1944291194	phases of sexual response	excitement phase, plateau phase, orgasm phase, resolution phase	15
1944291195	excitement phase	level of physical arousal arise rapidly--> muscle tension, respiration, heart rate and blood pressure increase rapidly	16
1944291196	vasocongestion	engorgement of blood vessels during excitement phase	17
1944291197	plateau phase	physiological arousal continues to build but at a slower pace	18
1944291198	orgasm phase	sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity; heart rate, respiration rate and blood pressure increase sharply	19
1944291199	refractory period	a time following orgasm during which males are largely unresponsive to further stimulation	20
1944291200	parental investment	what each sex has to invest in terms of time, energy, survival risk and forgone opportunities to produce and nurture offspring	21
1944291201	sexual orientation	a person's preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex, or either sex	22
1944291202	heterosexuals	seek emotional relationships with members of other sex	23
1944291203	bisexuals	seek emotional relationships with members of either sex	24
1944291204	homosexuals	seek emotional relationships with members of the same sex	25
1944291205	Kinsey's seven point scale	0 exclusively heterosexual- 6 exclusively homosexual	26
1944291206	achievement motive	the need to master difficult challenges to outperform others and to meet high standards of excellence	27
1944291207	emotion	a subjective conscious experience accompanied by bodily arousal (physical component) and by characteristic overt expressions (the behavioral component)	28
1944291208	affective forecasting	efforts to predict one's emotional reactions to future events	29
1944291209	galvanic skin response (GSR)	increase in the electrical conductivity of the skin that occurs when sweat glands increase their activity	30
1944291210	polygraph	a device that records autonomic fluctuations while a subject is being questioned	31
1944291211	six fundamental emotions	happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise and disgust	32
1944291212	display rules	norms that regulate the appropriate expression of emotions	33
1944291213	James-Lange Theory	emotion results from one's perception of autonomic arousal	34
1944291214	Cannon-Bard theory	emotions originate in subcortical areas of the brain	35
1944291215	Schachter's two factor theory	people infer emotion from arousal and then label the emotion in accordance with their cognitive explanation for the arousal	36
1957229477	adaptation level principle	our conceptualizations of happiness or satisfaction is relative to our previous experiences	37
1957229478	relative deprivation principle	our conceptualization of happiness is not only defined by our past experiences but also relative to attainments (resources to sustain diet, lifestyle, activities, etc)	38
1957229479	thalamus	sends sensory input along two independent neural pathways (one to the amygdaloid and one to the cerebral cortex	39
1957229480	amygdaloid	emotional and behavioral reaction	40
1957229481	cerebral cortex	conscious interpretation	41
1957229482	appraisal process	what we think is desireable or not desirable for us	42
1957229483	James-Lange	feel afraid because pulse is racing	43
1957229484	Cannon-Bard	thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex and ANS	44
1957229485	Schacter's Two Factor Theory	look to external cues to decide what we feel	45
1957229486	evolutionary theores	innate reactions with little cognitive implementation	46
1957229487	motivation	process that influences the direction, persistence and vigor of goal directed behavior	47
1957229488	adaptive significance	we are motivated to engage in behavior that promotes survival advantages	48
1957229489	extrinsic motivation	performing an activity to obtain an external reward or punishment	49
1957229490	intrinsic motivation	performing an activity because you find it enjoyable or stimulating	50
1957229491	drive reduction theory	the push and pull of needs and wants (continuing to return the body to homeostasis)	51
1957229492	instinct theory	many behaviors are biologically "hard wired" such that no learning is required for their expression	52
1957229493	incentive theory	he value of a goal object determined the likelihood of an individual to seek out that object	53
1957229494	arousal theory	individuals engage in behaviors to produce sensory stimulation and reduce bored one (intentional challenges to homeostasis)	54
1957229495	social penetration theory	interactions between people become broader and deeper, self disclosure plays an important role	55

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Constitutional Law Bar Exam Flashcards

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3347244971	How old to be in US Senate?	You must be 30 years old.	0
3347244972	Term length for US Senate?	6 years	1
3347244973	How old to be in H.O.R?	25 years old	2
3347244974	Term length for H.O.R?	2 years	3
3347244975	Term length for President?	4 years	4
3347244976	How old to be President?	35 years old	5
3347244977	How many people in Supreme Court Justice?	9 people	6
3347244978	Trem length for Supreme Court Justice?	For Life	7
3347244979	What branch has the power to print and coin money?	Legislative Branch	8
3347244980	Which branch of government has the power to make laws?	Legislative Branch	9
3347244981	Which Congressional House has the power to propose new taxes?	H.O.R	10
3347244982	What branch of government has the power to decide how money raised through taxes should be spent?	Legislative Branch	11
3347244983	Which Congressional House has the power to impeach the President?	H.O.R	12
3347244984	Who is Commander and Chief of the Military Forces?	Presidnet	13
3347244985	Who has the power to declare war?	Congress	14
3347244986	Who has the power to prepose a new bill?	Congress	15
3347244987	Who has the power to veto a law?	President	16
3347244988	Who has the power to over ride a veto?	Congress by 2/3 vote	17
3347244989	Who has the power to make other treaties with other nations?	President	18
3347244990	Who has the power to ratify treaties with other nations?	Congress	19
3347244991	Who has the power to declare a law or treaty unconstitutional?	Judicial Branch	20
3347244992	Define federalism	system that shares powers with state government and national government	21
3347244993	What are powers of national government only?	Declaring war, making treaties, and printing money	22
3347244994	What are powers of the state only?	Schools, marriage, local government, owning property, licensing doctors, and lawyers	23
3347244995	What are powers of the federal government and states?	Raise taxes, build roads, and barrow money	24
3347244996	What is the system of "Checks and Balances"?	It limits each branch's power	25
3347244997	What is popular sovereignty?	The idea that government comes from the people	26
3347244998	What is elastic clause? And what does it do?	It says that congress may make all laws which should be necessary to carry out it's other powers. And it gives congress flexibility needed to do it's job.	27
3347244999	What are the first 10 amendments?	1. Basic freedoms 2. Right to bear arms 3. Quartering of soldiers 4. Search and arrest 5. Rights in criminal cases 6. Rights to a fair trial 7. Rights in Civil Cases 8. Bail, fines, and punishment 9. Rights retained by the people 10. State' rights	28
3347245000	What power does the commerce clause give the government?	It gives the government to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among states, and among indian tribes.	29
3347245001	How does a bill become a law?	1. H & S introduce then a bill send it to the committee 2. Then both H & S committee approve bill 3. Then both H & S debate and passes its form of the bill 4. Then both H & S committees compromise on differences between the two versions 5. Then H & S pass revised bill 6. Then the president signs it into a law	30

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The American Pageant Unit 1 Vocab Flashcards

Chapter 1: New World Beginnings (18 terms)
pages 4-46;
Chapter 2: The Planting of English America (16 terms)
pages 27-45;
Chapter 3: Settling the Northern Colonies (19 terms)
pages 46-67;
Chapter 4: American Life in the Seventeenth Century (12 terms)
pages 68-87;
Transcribed by Alex Wyllie

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1651273616	Canadian Shield	First part of the North American landmass to emerge above sea level.	0
1651273617	Incas	Highly advanced South American civilization that occupied present-day Peru until they were conquered by Spanish forces under Francisco Pizarro in 1532. The Incas developed sophisticated agricultural techniques, such as terrace farming, in order to sustain large, complex societies in the unforgiving Andes Mountains.	1
1651273618	Aztecs	Native American empire that controlled present-day Mexico until 1521, when they were conquered by Spanish Hernán Cortés. The Aztecs maintained control over their vast empire through a system of trade and tribute, and came to be known for their advances in mathematics and writing, and their use of human sacrifices in religious ceremonies.	2
1651273619	Cahokia	Mississippian settlement near present-day East St. Louis, home to as many as 25,000 Native Americans.	3
1651273620	Three-sister farming	Agricultural system employed by North American Indians as early as 1000 A.D.; maize, beans, and squash were grown together to maximize yields.	4
1651273621	Middlemen	In trading systems, those dealers who operate between the original producers of goods and the retail merchants who sell to consumers. After the eleventh century, European exploration was driven in large part by a desire to acquire Asian goods without paying heavy tolls to Muslim middlemen.	5
1651273622	Caravel	Small regular vessel with a high deck and three triangular sails. Caravels could sail more closely into the wind, allowing European sailors to explore the Western shores of Africa, previously made inaccessible due to the prevailing winds on the homeward journey.	6
1651273623	Plantation	Large-scale agricultural enterprise growing commercial crops and usually employing coerced or slave labor. European settles established plantations in Africa, South America, the Caribbean, and the American South.	7
1651273624	Columbian Exchange	The transfer of goods, crops, and diseases between New and Old World societies after 1942.	8
1651273625	The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)	Signed by Spain and Portugal, dividing the territories of the New World. Spain received the bulk of the territory in the Americas, compensating Portugal with titles to lands in Africa and Asia.	9
1651273626	Conquistadores	Sixteenth century Spaniards who fanned out across the Americas, from Colorado to Argentina, eventually conquering the Aztec and Incan empires.	10
1651273627	Capitalism	Economic system characterized by private property, generally free trade, and open and accessible markets. European colonization of the Americas, and in particular, the discovery of vast bullion deposits, helped bring about Europe's transition to capitalism.	11
1651273628	Encomienda	Spanish government's policy to "commend," or give, Indians to certain colonists in return for the promise to christianize them. Part of a broader Spanish effort to subdue Indian tribes in the West Indies and on the North American mainland.	12
1651273629	Noche Triste	"Sad night", when the Aztecs attacked Hernán Cortés and his forces in the Aztec capital, Tenochitlán, killing hundreds. Cortés laid siege to the city the following year, precipitating the fall of the Aztec Empire and inaugurating three centuries of Spanish rule.	13
1651273630	Mestizos	People of mixed Indian and European heritage, notably in Mexico.	14
1651273631	Battle of Acoma	Fought between Spaniards under Don Juan de Oñate and the Pueblo Indians in present-day New Mexico. Spaniards brutally crushed the Pueblo peoples and established the territory as New Mexico in 1609.	15
1651273632	Popé's Rebellion	Pueblo Indian rebellion which drove Spanish settlers from New Mexico.	16
1651273633	Black Legend	False notion that Spanish Conquerors did little but butcher the Indians and steal their gold in the name of Christ.	17
1651273634	Protestant Reformation	Movement to reform the catholic church launched in Germany by Martin Luther. Reformers questioned the authority of the Pope, sought to eliminate the selling of indulgences, and encouraged the translation of the Bible from Latin, which few at the time could read. The reformation was launched in England in the 1530s when King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church.	18
1651273635	Roanoke Island	Sir Walter Raleigh's failed colonial settlement off the coast of North Carolina.	19
1651273636	Spanish Armada	Spanish fleet defeated in the English Channel in 1588. The defeat of the Armada marked the beginning of the decline of the Spanish Empire.	20
1651273637	Primogeniture	Legal principle that the oldest son inherits all family property or land. Landowner's younger sons, forced to seek their fortunes elsewhere, pioneered early exploration and settlement of the Americas.	21
1651273638	Joint-stock Company	Short-term partnership between multiple investors to fund a commercial enterprise; such arrangements were used to fund England's early colonial ventures.	22
1651273639	Charter	Legal document granted by a government to some group or agency to implement a stated purpose, and spelling out the attending rights and obligations. British colonial charters guaranteed inhabitants the rights of Englishmen, which helped solidify colonists' ties to Britain during the early years of settlement.	23
1651273640	Jamestown	First permanent English settlement in North America founded by the Virginia Company.	24
1651273641	First Anglo-Powhatan War	Series of clashes between the Powhatan confederacy and English settlers in Virginia. English colonists torched and pillaged Indian villages, employing tactics used in England's campaign against the Irish.	25
1651273642	Second Anglo-Powhatan War	Last-ditch effort by the Indians to dislodge Virginia settlements. The resulting peace treaty formally separated white and Indian areas of settlement.	26
1651273643	Act of Toleration	Passed in Maryland, it guaranteed toleration to all Christians but decreed the death penalty for those, like Jews and atheists, who denied the divinity of Jesus Christ. Ensured that Maryland would continue to attract a high proportion of Catholic immigrants throughout the colonial period.	27
1651273644	Barbados slave code	First formal statute governing the treatment of slaves, which provided for harsh punishments against offending slaves but lacked penalties for the mistreatment of slaves by masters. Similar statutes were adopted by Southern plantation societies on the North American mainland in the 17th and 18th centuries.	28
1651273645	Squatters	Frontier farmers who illegally occupied land owned by others or not yet officially opened for settlement. Many of North Carolina's early settlers were squatters, who contributed to the colony's reputation as being more independent-minded and "democratic" than it's neighbors.	29
1651273646	Tuscarora War	Began with an Indian attack on Newbern, North Carolina. After the Tuscaroras were defeated, remaining Indian survivors migrated northward, eventually joining the Iroquois Confederacy as its sixth nation.	30
1651273647	Yamasee Indians	Defeated by the South Carolinians in the war of 1715-1716. The Yamasee defeat devestated the last of the coastal Indian tribes in the Southern colonies.	31
1651273648	Buffer	In politics, a territory between two antagonistic powers, intended to minimize the possibility of conflict between them. In British North America, Georgia was established as a buffer colony between British and Spanish territory.	32
1651273649	Iriquois Confederacy	Bound together five tribes - the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas - in the Mohawk Valley of what is now New York State.	33
1651273650	Calvinsim	Dominant theological credo of the New England Puritans based on the teachings of John Calvin. Calvinists believed in predestination - that only "the elect" were destined for salvation.	34
1651273651	Predestination	Calvinist doctrine that God has foreordained some people to be saved and some to be damned. Though their fate was irreversible, Calvinists, particularly those who believed they were destined for salvation, sought to lead sanctified lives in order to demonstrate to others that they were in fact members of the "elect."	35
1651273652	Conversion	Intense religious experience that confirmed an individual's place among the "elect," or the "visible saints." Calvinists who experienced conversion were then expected to lead sanctified lives to demonstrate their salvation.	36
1651273653	Puritans	English Protestant reformers who sought to purify the Church of England of Catholic rituals and creeds. Some of the most devout Puritans believed that only "visible saints" should be admitted to church membership.	37
1651273654	Separatists	Small group of Puritans who sought to break away entirely from the Church of England; after initially settling in Holland, a number of English Separatists made their way to Plymouth Bay, Massachusetts in 1620.	38
1651273655	Mayflower Compact	Agreement to form a majoritarian government in Plymouth, signed aboard the Mayflower. Created a foundation for self-government in the colony.	39
1651273656	Massachusetts Bay Colony	Established by non-separating Puritans, it soon grew to be the largest and most influential of the New England colonies.	40
1651273657	Great Migration	Migration of seventy thousand refugees from England to the North American colonies, primarily New England and the Caribbean. The twenty thousand migrants who came to Massachusetts largely shared a common sense of purpose - to establish a model Christian settlement in the new world.	41
1651273658	Antinomianism	Belief that the elect need not obey the law of either God or man; most notably espoused in the colonies by Anne Hutchinson.	42
1651273659	Fundamental Orders	Drafted by settlers in the Connecticut River Valley, document was the first "modern constitution" establishing a democratically controlled government. Key features of the document were borrowed for Connecticut's colonial charter and later, its state constitution.	43
1651273660	Pequot War	Series of clashes between English settlers and Pequot Indians in the Connecticut River valley. Ended in the slaughter of the Pequots by the Puritans and their Narragansett Indian allies.	44
1651273661	King Phillip's War	Series of assaults by Metacom, King Philip, on English settlements in New England. The attacks slowed the westward migration of New England settlers for several decades.	45
1651273662	English Civil War	Armed conflict between royalists and parliamentarians, resulting in the victory of pro-Parliament forces and the execution of Charles I.	46
1651273663	Dominion of New England	Administrative union created by royal authority, incorporating all of New England, New York, and East and West Jersey. Placed under the rule of Sir Edmund Andros, who curbed popular assemblies, taxed residents without their consent, and strictly enforced the navigation laws. Its collapse after the Glorious revolution in England demonstrated colonial opposition to strict royal control.	47
1651273664	Navigation Laws	Series of laws passed, beginning in 1651, to regulate colonial shipping; the acts provided that only English ships would be allowed to trade in English and colonial ports, and all goods destined for the colonies would first pass through England.	48
1651273665	Glorious (Bloodless) Revolution	Relatively peaceful overthrow of the unpopular Catholic monarch, James II, replacing him with Dutch-born William III and Mary, daughter of James II. William and Mary accepted increased Parliamentary oversight and new limits on monarchical authority.	49
1651273666	Salutary Neglect	Unofficial policy of relaxed royal control over colonial trade and only weak enforcement of Navigation Laws. Lasted from the Glorious Revolution to the end of the French and Indian War in 1763.	50
1651273667	Patroonships	Vast tracts of land along the Hudson River in New Netherlands granted to wealthy promoters in exchange for bringing fifty settlers to the property.	51
1651273668	Blue laws	Also known as sumptuary laws, they are designed to restrict personal behavior in accord with a strict code of morality. Blue laws were passed across the colonies, particularly in Puritan New England and Quaker Pennsylvania.	52
1651273669	Indentured servants	Migrants who, in exchange for transatlantic passage, bound themselves to a colonial employer for a term of service, typically between 4 and seven years. Their migration addressed the chronic labor shortage in the colonies and facilitated settlement.	53
1651273670	Headright system	Employed in the tobacco colonies to encourage the importation of indentured servants, the system allowed an individual to acquire fifty acres of land if he paid for a laborer's passage to the colony.	54
1651273671	Bacon's rebellion	Uprising of Virginia backcountry farmers and indentured servants lead by planter Nathaniel Bacon; initially a response to Governor William Berkeley's refusal to protect backcountry settlers from Indian attacks, the rebellion eventually grew into a broader conflict between impoverished settlers and the planter elite.	55
1651273672	Royal African Company	English joint-stock company that enjoyed a state-granted monopoly on the colonial slave trade from 1672 until 1698. The supply of slaves to the North American colonies rose sharply once the company lost its monopoly privileges.	56
1651273673	Middle passage	Transatlantic voyage slaves endured between Africa and the colonies. Mortality rates were notoriously high.	57
1651273674	New York slave revolt	Uprising of approximately two dozen slaves that resulted in the deaths of nine whites and the brutal execution of twenty-one participating blacks.	58
1651273675	South Carolina slave revolt (Stono River)	Uprising, also known as the Stono rebellion, of more than fifty South Carolina blacks along the Stono river. The slaves attempted to reach Spanish Florida but were stopped by the South Carolina militia.	59
1651273676	Congregational church	Self-governing Puritan congregations without the hierarchical establishment of the Anglican Church.	60
1651273677	Jeremiad	Often-fiery sermons lamenting the waning piety of parishioners first delivered in New England in the mid-seventeenth century; named after the doom-saying Old Testament prophet Jeremiah.	61
1651273678	Half-way covenant	Agreement allowing unconverted offspring of church members to baptize their children. It signifies a waning of religious zeal among second and third generation Puritans.	62
1651273679	Salem witch trials	Series of witchcraft trials launched after a group of adolescent girls in Salem, Massachusetts, claimed to have been bewitched by certain older women of the town. Twenty individuals were out to death before the trials were put to an end by the Governor of Massachusetts.	63
1651273680	Leisler's Rebellion	Armed conflict between aspiring merchants led by Jacob Leisler and the ruling elite of New York. One of many uprisings that erupted across the colonies when wealthy colonists attempted to recreate European social structures in the New World.	64

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The American Pageant Unit 1 Vocab Flashcards

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1651273616	Canadian Shield	First part of the North American landmass to emerge above sea level.	0
1651273617	Incas	Highly advanced South American civilization that occupied present-day Peru until they were conquered by Spanish forces under Francisco Pizarro in 1532. The Incas developed sophisticated agricultural techniques, such as terrace farming, in order to sustain large, complex societies in the unforgiving Andes Mountains.	1
1651273618	Aztecs	Native American empire that controlled present-day Mexico until 1521, when they were conquered by Spanish Hernán Cortés. The Aztecs maintained control over their vast empire through a system of trade and tribute, and came to be known for their advances in mathematics and writing, and their use of human sacrifices in religious ceremonies.	2
1651273619	Cahokia	Mississippian settlement near present-day East St. Louis, home to as many as 25,000 Native Americans.	3
1651273620	Three-sister farming	Agricultural system employed by North American Indians as early as 1000 A.D.; maize, beans, and squash were grown together to maximize yields.	4
1651273621	Middlemen	In trading systems, those dealers who operate between the original producers of goods and the retail merchants who sell to consumers. After the eleventh century, European exploration was driven in large part by a desire to acquire Asian goods without paying heavy tolls to Muslim middlemen.	5
1651273622	Caravel	Small regular vessel with a high deck and three triangular sails. Caravels could sail more closely into the wind, allowing European sailors to explore the Western shores of Africa, previously made inaccessible due to the prevailing winds on the homeward journey.	6
1651273623	Plantation	Large-scale agricultural enterprise growing commercial crops and usually employing coerced or slave labor. European settles established plantations in Africa, South America, the Caribbean, and the American South.	7
1651273624	Columbian Exchange	The transfer of goods, crops, and diseases between New and Old World societies after 1942.	8
1651273625	The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)	Signed by Spain and Portugal, dividing the territories of the New World. Spain received the bulk of the territory in the Americas, compensating Portugal with titles to lands in Africa and Asia.	9
1651273626	Conquistadores	Sixteenth century Spaniards who fanned out across the Americas, from Colorado to Argentina, eventually conquering the Aztec and Incan empires.	10
1651273627	Capitalism	Economic system characterized by private property, generally free trade, and open and accessible markets. European colonization of the Americas, and in particular, the discovery of vast bullion deposits, helped bring about Europe's transition to capitalism.	11
1651273628	Encomienda	Spanish government's policy to "commend," or give, Indians to certain colonists in return for the promise to christianize them. Part of a broader Spanish effort to subdue Indian tribes in the West Indies and on the North American mainland.	12
1651273629	Noche Triste	"Sad night", when the Aztecs attacked Hernán Cortés and his forces in the Aztec capital, Tenochitlán, killing hundreds. Cortés laid siege to the city the following year, precipitating the fall of the Aztec Empire and inaugurating three centuries of Spanish rule.	13
1651273630	Mestizos	People of mixed Indian and European heritage, notably in Mexico.	14
1651273631	Battle of Acoma	Fought between Spaniards under Don Juan de Oñate and the Pueblo Indians in present-day New Mexico. Spaniards brutally crushed the Pueblo peoples and established the territory as New Mexico in 1609.	15
1651273632	Popé's Rebellion	Pueblo Indian rebellion which drove Spanish settlers from New Mexico.	16
1651273633	Black Legend	False notion that Spanish Conquerors did little but butcher the Indians and steal their gold in the name of Christ.	17
1651273634	Protestant Reformation	Movement to reform the catholic church launched in Germany by Martin Luther. Reformers questioned the authority of the Pope, sought to eliminate the selling of indulgences, and encouraged the translation of the Bible from Latin, which few at the time could read. The reformation was launched in England in the 1530s when King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church.	18
1651273635	Roanoke Island	Sir Walter Raleigh's failed colonial settlement off the coast of North Carolina.	19
1651273636	Spanish Armada	Spanish fleet defeated in the English Channel in 1588. The defeat of the Armada marked the beginning of the decline of the Spanish Empire.	20
1651273637	Primogeniture	Legal principle that the oldest son inherits all family property or land. Landowner's younger sons, forced to seek their fortunes elsewhere, pioneered early exploration and settlement of the Americas.	21
1651273638	Joint-stock Company	Short-term partnership between multiple investors to fund a commercial enterprise; such arrangements were used to fund England's early colonial ventures.	22
1651273639	Charter	Legal document granted by a government to some group or agency to implement a stated purpose, and spelling out the attending rights and obligations. British colonial charters guaranteed inhabitants the rights of Englishmen, which helped solidify colonists' ties to Britain during the early years of settlement.	23
1651273640	Jamestown	First permanent English settlement in North America founded by the Virginia Company.	24
1651273641	First Anglo-Powhatan War	Series of clashes between the Powhatan confederacy and English settlers in Virginia. English colonists torched and pillaged Indian villages, employing tactics used in England's campaign against the Irish.	25
1651273642	Second Anglo-Powhatan War	Last-ditch effort by the Indians to dislodge Virginia settlements. The resulting peace treaty formally separated white and Indian areas of settlement.	26
1651273643	Act of Toleration	Passed in Maryland, it guaranteed toleration to all Christians but decreed the death penalty for those, like Jews and atheists, who denied the divinity of Jesus Christ. Ensured that Maryland would continue to attract a high proportion of Catholic immigrants throughout the colonial period.	27
1651273644	Barbados slave code	First formal statute governing the treatment of slaves, which provided for harsh punishments against offending slaves but lacked penalties for the mistreatment of slaves by masters. Similar statutes were adopted by Southern plantation societies on the North American mainland in the 17th and 18th centuries.	28
1651273645	Squatters	Frontier farmers who illegally occupied land owned by others or not yet officially opened for settlement. Many of North Carolina's early settlers were squatters, who contributed to the colony's reputation as being more independent-minded and "democratic" than it's neighbors.	29
1651273646	Tuscarora War	Began with an Indian attack on Newbern, North Carolina. After the Tuscaroras were defeated, remaining Indian survivors migrated northward, eventually joining the Iroquois Confederacy as its sixth nation.	30
1651273647	Yamasee Indians	Defeated by the South Carolinians in the war of 1715-1716. The Yamasee defeat devestated the last of the coastal Indian tribes in the Southern colonies.	31
1651273648	Buffer	In politics, a territory between two antagonistic powers, intended to minimize the possibility of conflict between them. In British North America, Georgia was established as a buffer colony between British and Spanish territory.	32
1651273649	Iriquois Confederacy	Bound together five tribes - the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas - in the Mohawk Valley of what is now New York State.	33
1651273650	Calvinsim	Dominant theological credo of the New England Puritans based on the teachings of John Calvin. Calvinists believed in predestination - that only "the elect" were destined for salvation.	34
1651273651	Predestination	Calvinist doctrine that God has foreordained some people to be saved and some to be damned. Though their fate was irreversible, Calvinists, particularly those who believed they were destined for salvation, sought to lead sanctified lives in order to demonstrate to others that they were in fact members of the "elect."	35
1651273652	Conversion	Intense religious experience that confirmed an individual's place among the "elect," or the "visible saints." Calvinists who experienced conversion were then expected to lead sanctified lives to demonstrate their salvation.	36
1651273653	Puritans	English Protestant reformers who sought to purify the Church of England of Catholic rituals and creeds. Some of the most devout Puritans believed that only "visible saints" should be admitted to church membership.	37
1651273654	Separatists	Small group of Puritans who sought to break away entirely from the Church of England; after initially settling in Holland, a number of English Separatists made their way to Plymouth Bay, Massachusetts in 1620.	38
1651273655	Mayflower Compact	Agreement to form a majoritarian government in Plymouth, signed aboard the Mayflower. Created a foundation for self-government in the colony.	39
1651273656	Massachusetts Bay Colony	Established by non-separating Puritans, it soon grew to be the largest and most influential of the New England colonies.	40
1651273657	Great Migration	Migration of seventy thousand refugees from England to the North American colonies, primarily New England and the Caribbean. The twenty thousand migrants who came to Massachusetts largely shared a common sense of purpose - to establish a model Christian settlement in the new world.	41
1651273658	Antinomianism	Belief that the elect need not obey the law of either God or man; most notably espoused in the colonies by Anne Hutchinson.	42
1651273659	Fundamental Orders	Drafted by settlers in the Connecticut River Valley, document was the first "modern constitution" establishing a democratically controlled government. Key features of the document were borrowed for Connecticut's colonial charter and later, its state constitution.	43
1651273660	Pequot War	Series of clashes between English settlers and Pequot Indians in the Connecticut River valley. Ended in the slaughter of the Pequots by the Puritans and their Narragansett Indian allies.	44
1651273661	King Phillip's War	Series of assaults by Metacom, King Philip, on English settlements in New England. The attacks slowed the westward migration of New England settlers for several decades.	45
1651273662	English Civil War	Armed conflict between royalists and parliamentarians, resulting in the victory of pro-Parliament forces and the execution of Charles I.	46
1651273663	Dominion of New England	Administrative union created by royal authority, incorporating all of New England, New York, and East and West Jersey. Placed under the rule of Sir Edmund Andros, who curbed popular assemblies, taxed residents without their consent, and strictly enforced the navigation laws. Its collapse after the Glorious revolution in England demonstrated colonial opposition to strict royal control.	47
1651273664	Navigation Laws	Series of laws passed, beginning in 1651, to regulate colonial shipping; the acts provided that only English ships would be allowed to trade in English and colonial ports, and all goods destined for the colonies would first pass through England.	48
1651273665	Glorious (Bloodless) Revolution	Relatively peaceful overthrow of the unpopular Catholic monarch, James II, replacing him with Dutch-born William III and Mary, daughter of James II. William and Mary accepted increased Parliamentary oversight and new limits on monarchical authority.	49
1651273666	Salutary Neglect	Unofficial policy of relaxed royal control over colonial trade and only weak enforcement of Navigation Laws. Lasted from the Glorious Revolution to the end of the French and Indian War in 1763.	50
1651273667	Patroonships	Vast tracts of land along the Hudson River in New Netherlands granted to wealthy promoters in exchange for bringing fifty settlers to the property.	51
1651273668	Blue laws	Also known as sumptuary laws, they are designed to restrict personal behavior in accord with a strict code of morality. Blue laws were passed across the colonies, particularly in Puritan New England and Quaker Pennsylvania.	52
1651273669	Indentured servants	Migrants who, in exchange for transatlantic passage, bound themselves to a colonial employer for a term of service, typically between 4 and seven years. Their migration addressed the chronic labor shortage in the colonies and facilitated settlement.	53
1651273670	Headright system	Employed in the tobacco colonies to encourage the importation of indentured servants, the system allowed an individual to acquire fifty acres of land if he paid for a laborer's passage to the colony.	54
1651273671	Bacon's rebellion	Uprising of Virginia backcountry farmers and indentured servants lead by planter Nathaniel Bacon; initially a response to Governor William Berkeley's refusal to protect backcountry settlers from Indian attacks, the rebellion eventually grew into a broader conflict between impoverished settlers and the planter elite.	55
1651273672	Royal African Company	English joint-stock company that enjoyed a state-granted monopoly on the colonial slave trade from 1672 until 1698. The supply of slaves to the North American colonies rose sharply once the company lost its monopoly privileges.	56
1651273673	Middle passage	Transatlantic voyage slaves endured between Africa and the colonies. Mortality rates were notoriously high.	57
1651273674	New York slave revolt	Uprising of approximately two dozen slaves that resulted in the deaths of nine whites and the brutal execution of twenty-one participating blacks.	58
1651273675	South Carolina slave revolt (Stono River)	Uprising, also known as the Stono rebellion, of more than fifty South Carolina blacks along the Stono river. The slaves attempted to reach Spanish Florida but were stopped by the South Carolina militia.	59
1651273676	Congregational church	Self-governing Puritan congregations without the hierarchical establishment of the Anglican Church.	60
1651273677	Jeremiad	Often-fiery sermons lamenting the waning piety of parishioners first delivered in New England in the mid-seventeenth century; named after the doom-saying Old Testament prophet Jeremiah.	61
1651273678	Half-way covenant	Agreement allowing unconverted offspring of church members to baptize their children. It signifies a waning of religious zeal among second and third generation Puritans.	62
1651273679	Salem witch trials	Series of witchcraft trials launched after a group of adolescent girls in Salem, Massachusetts, claimed to have been bewitched by certain older women of the town. Twenty individuals were out to death before the trials were put to an end by the Governor of Massachusetts.	63
1651273680	Leisler's Rebellion	Armed conflict between aspiring merchants led by Jacob Leisler and the ruling elite of New York. One of many uprisings that erupted across the colonies when wealthy colonists attempted to recreate European social structures in the New World.	64

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The American Pageant (13th Edition) Chapter 29 Flashcards Flashcards

A list of terms, acts, policies, and more from Chapter 29 of the American Pageant 13th Edition APUSH textbook.

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1953646512	Bull Moose	The unofficial Progressive symbol.	0
1953646513	Roosevelt's "New Nationalism"	Stated that the government should control the bad trusts, leaving he good trusts alone and free to operate.	1
1953968646	Wilson's "New Freedom"	Favored small enterprise, desired to break up all trusts and basically shunned social-welfare proposals.	2
1953968647	Triple Wall of Privelege	The tariff, the banks, and the trusts.	3
1953968648	Underwood Tariff of 1913	Substantially reduced import fees and enacted a graduated income tax (16th Amendment).	4
1953968649	"Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It"	Written in 1914 by Louis D Brandeis, exposed the financial problems of America at the time of the war.	5
1953968650	Federal Reserve Act of 1913	Created the Federal Reserve Board, which oversaw a nationwide system of 12 regional reserve districts, each with its own central bank, and had the power to issue paper money.	6
1953968651	Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914	Empowered a president-appointed position to investigate trusts and stop unfair trade practices such as mislabeling and bribery.	7
1953968652	Clayton Anti-Trust Act of 1914	Lengthened the Sherman Anti-Trust Act's list of practices, exempted labor unions from being called trusts, and legalized strikes and peaceful picketing by labor union members.	8
1953968653	Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916	Made credit available to farmers at low rates of interest.	9
1953968654	Warehouse Act of 1916	Permitted loans on the security of staple crops.	10
1953968655	La Follette Seamen's Act of 1915	Required good treatment of America's sailors.	11
1953968656	Workingmen's Compensation Act of 1916	Granted assistance of federal civil-service employees during periods of instability.	12
1953968657	Adamson Act of 1916	Established an 8-hour workday with overtime pay.	13
1953968658	Louis Brandeis	First Jew ever nominated to the Supreme Court.	14
1953968659	Panama Canal Tolls Act of 1912	Let American shippers not pay tolls for using the canal.	15
1953968660	Jones Act of 1916	Granted full territorial status to the Philippines and promised independence as soon as a stable government could be established.	16
1953968661	Francisco "Pancho" Villa	Combination bandit/freedom fighter who murdered 16 Americans in January of 1916 in Mexico and killed 19 more a month later in New Mexico.	17
1953968662	Lusitania Attack	German U-boats sunk a British passenger liner, killing 1,198 people, including 128 Americans.	18
1953968663	Sussex Pledge	Germany agreed not to sink passenger ships or merchant vessels without warning.	19

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Learning Flashcards

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148913900	learning	relatively permanent change in organism's behavior due to experience.	0
148913901	associative learning	learning that events occur together. Events may be 2 stimuli (classical conditioning) or response and consequences (operant conditioning).	1
148913902	classical conditioning	type of learning in which organism comes to associate stimuli.	2
148913903	behaviorism	Approach that says psychology (1) should be an objective science & (2) study behavior without reference to mental processes.	3
148913904	conditioned response (CR)	in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).	4
148913905	conditioned stimulus (CS)	in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a learned involuntary reaction.	5
148913906	unconditioned response (UCR)	in classical conditioning, unlearned, naturally occurring response to unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.	6
148913907	unconditioned stimulus (UCS)	in classical conditioning, stimulus that naturally and automatically—triggers a response.	7
148913908	acquisition	in classical conditioning; associating neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the NS becomes a CS and produces a CR; in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response	8
148913909	extinction	diminishing of conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an UCS does not follow a CS; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.	9
148913910	spontaneous recovery	reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.	10
148913911	discrimination	in classical conditioning, learned ability to distinguish between a CS and stimuli that do not signal a UCS.	11
148913912	generalization	tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses.	12
148913913	operant conditioning	learning associated with Skinner in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a positive reinforcer or diminished if followed by an aversive stimulus. Response is always voluntary.	13
148913915	law of effect	Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.	14
148913916	Skinner box	chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research.	15
148913917	shaping	operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of desired behavior.	16
148913918	negative reinforcement	increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli, such as shock	17
148913919	positive reinforcement	increasing behaviors by adding a desired stimuli, such as food	18
148913920	reinforcement	in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens behavior it follows.	19
148913921	secondary reinforcer	stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (e.g., money)	20
148913922	continuous reinforcement	reinforcing desired response every time it occurs.	21
148913923	primary reinforcer	innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (e.g., food)	22
148913924	fixed-ratio schedule	reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses or behaviors	23
148913925	partial (intermittent) reinforcement	reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.	24
148913926	fixed-interval schedule	reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.	25
148913927	punishment	any event that decreases behavior it follows.	26
148913928	variable-interval schedule	reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.	27
148913929	variable-ratio schedule	reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.	28
148913930	cognitive map	mental representation of layout of one's environment.	29
148913931	latent learning	learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. Associated with EC Tolman	30
148913932	extrinsic motivation	desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.	31
148913933	intrinsic motivation	desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.	32
148913934	mirror neurons	frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so.; may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.	33
148913935	modeling	process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.	34
148913936	observational learning	learning by observing others	35
148913937	Ivan Pavlov	Russian researcher associated (!) with classical conditioning	36
148913939	aversion therapy	behavioral therapy that works by replacing one bond with another but this time adding something nasty. (Ex. To stop smoking add something to cigarettes that induces vomiting.)	37
148913940	taste aversion	learned avoidance of a particular food	38
148913941	Garcia and Koelling	researchers who did major studies on classical conditioning and taste aversions (rats)	39
148913942	Edward Thorndike	Pioneer in operant conditioning who discovered concepts in instrumental learning such as law of effect. Known for work with cats in puzzle boxes.	40
148913943	BF Skinner	pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments; used boxes to study schedules of reinforcement on pigeons and rats.	41
148913944	positive punishment	following undesired response by adding an aversive stimulus to decrease likelihood of the behavior reoccurring (e.g., paying a fine)	42
148913945	negative punishment	following undesired response by removing a pleasant stimulus and reduces likelihood of behavior reoccurring. (e.g. time out, grounding)	43
148913946	chaining	reinforcing different learned behaviors in a sequence	44
148913947	modeling	term coined by Bandura on how we learn by imitating others. His research: children will spontaneously imitate the behavior of a model without any obvious reinforcement.	45
148913948	Albert Bandura	famous for work in observational or social learning including famous Bobo doll experiment	46
148913949	Little Albert	Subject used by John Watson to test classical conditioning on humans; made fearful of white rabbit	47
148913950	preparedness	evolutionary predisposition to learn some pairings of feared stimuli over others due to their survival value	48
342319472	John B. Watson	American psychologist who founded behaviorism; classically conditioned Little Albert in order to demonstrate that emotions can be learned	49
342321402	Robert Rescorla	he proposed that there is a cognitive connection between the CS and UCS in classical conditioning (a smoker is aware that a nausea-producing drug will affect his behavior)	50
342321867	immediate reinforcer	A reinforcer that occurs right after a behavior (Ex. rat gets a food pellet for a bar press; student gets sticker if does well on test)	51
342321868	delayed reinforcer	reinforcer that is delayed a certain amount of time (ex. receiving a paycheck at the end of work week)	52
342322219	Bobo doll	used to show aggressive behavior can be imitated by children in an experiment by Bandura	53

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AP World History Chapter 9 Flashcards

Civilization in Eastern Europe: Byzantium and Orthodox Europe
AP World Civilization Third Edition

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787882224	Byzantine Empire	(330-1453) The eastern half of the Roman Empire, which survived after the fall of the Western Empire at the end of the 5th century C.E. Its capital was Constantinople, named after the Emperor Constantine; a continuation of the Roman Empire after it's fall	0
787882225	Hagia Sophia	Most famous example of Byzantine architecture, it was built under Justinian I and is considered one of the most perfect buildings in the world; a huge church; long one of the wonders of the Christian world; an achievement in agriculture as well as architecture.	1
787882226	Belisarius	One of Justinian's most important military commanders during period of reconquest of western Europe; commanded in north Africa and Italy	2
787882227	Greek Fire	Byzantine weapon consisting of mixture of chemicals (petroleum, quicklime, sulfur) that ignited when exposed to water; utilized to drive back Arab fleets that attacked Constantinople	3
787882228	Bulgaria	Slavic kingdom established in northern portions of Balkan peninsula; constant source of pressure on Byzantine Empire; defeated by Emperor Basil II in 1014	4
787882229	Caesar	A title used by all Roman emperors; Justinian is the last emperor to use the title	5
787882230	tsar	The Russian term for ruler or king; taken from the Roman word caesar.	6
787882231	icon	a conventional religious painting in oil on a small wooden panel; venerated in the eastern orthodox church	7
787882232	iconoclasm	The breaking of images; a religious controvery of the 8th century; Byzantine emperor attempted, but failed, to surpress icon veneration	8
787882233	Cyril	Along with Methodius, missionary sent by Byzantine government to eastern Europe and the Balkans; converted southern Russia and Balkans to Orthodox Christianity; responsible for creation of written script for Slavic known as Cyrillic.	9
787882234	Methodius	Along with Cyril, missionary sent by Byzantine government to eastern Europe and the Balkans; converted southern Russia and Balkans to Orthodox Christianity; responsible for creation of written script for Slavic known as Cyrillic.	10
787882235	Kiev	Trade city in southern Russia established by Scandinavian traders in 9th century; became focal point for kingdom of Russia that flourished to 12th century.	11
787882236	Kieven Rus	or Kievan Russia, was a medieval polity in Europe, from the late 9th to the mid 12th century, when it disintegrated under the pressure of the Mongol invasion of 1237-1240. Ruler was Grand Duke of Kiev. boyars helped govern. very large; a monarchy with Rurik as the first prince; established in 855 c.e.	12
787882237	Rurik	Legendary Scandinavian regarded as founder of the first kingdom of Russia based in Kiev in 855 C.E.	13
787882238	Vladimir I	Grand prince of Kiev who converted to Orthodox Christianity and made it the state religion, One of the first Czars; Tried to expand south, which conflicted with Byzantine Empire. Eventually formed deal with emperor of BE; a Rurik descendant	14
787882239	Russian Orthodox Church	Russian form of Christianity imported from Byzantine Empire and combined with local religion; king characteristically controlled major appointments	15
787882240	boyars	Russian landholding aristocrats; possessed less political power than their western European counterparts	16
787882241	Hellenism	Blending of Egyptian, Persian and Greek culture; emphasis on philosophy and sciences.; Byzantine cultural life centered on the secular traditions of Hellenism	17
787882242	Secular	worldly; not pertaining to church matters or religion; temporal	18
787882243	Yuroslav	last of the great kievan monarchs; issued legal codification (written laws) based on formal codes developed in Byzantine	19
787882244	Tartars	Mongols; captured Russian cities and largely destroyed Kieven state in 1236; left Russian Orthodoxy and aristocracy intact	20
787882245	Latin	original language of the Byzantine empire	21
787882246	Greek	official language after latin	22
787882247	Justinian's achievements	rebuilt Constantinople, built Hagia Sophia, conquered North Africa, systemized the Roman Law Code, expanded and improved Byzantine empire, his wife (Theodora) began woman's rights, conquered italy	23
787882248	Eastern Othodox	no pope; used yeast in bread; priests may marry and have sexual relations	24
787882249	Roman Catholic	had pope; used NO yeast in bread; priests can't marry or have sexual relations	25
787882250	Celibacy	The state of one who has chosen to remain unmarried for the sake of the Kingdom of Heaven in order to give himself entirely to God and to the service of his people; cannot marry or have sexual relations	26
787882251	Excommunication	the most severe penalty for refusing to obey Roman Catholic Church laws; if you were excommunicated - could not be buried on sacred ground and could not receive the sacraments	27
787882252	Russia	"red"; "Scandinavian red heads"; Mongols disallowed new ideas into Russia which caused Russia to fall behind the West; Byzantine's most important step child	28
787882253	1453	Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans (Turks). End of the Byzantine Empire.	29
787882254	1205	Fourth Crusade captures Constantinople. The Latin Empire of Constantinople is formed as well as many Byzantine successor states. The capture of Constantinople in 1204 was a blow from which the Byzantines never fully recovered.	30
787882255	1054	The Great Schism: The Latin Roman Church and the Greek Orthodox Church excommunicate each other.	31

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