| 9918060768 | Guilds | Exclusive organizations that monopolizedthe skilled trades in Europe from the medeival period until broken by the development of cottage industries in the eighteenth century. | | 0 |
| 9918060769 | Humanism | In the Renaissance, both a belief in the value of human achievement and an educational program based on Classical Greek and Roman languages and values. | | 1 |
| 9918060770 | Studia humanitas | The educational program of the Renaissance, founded on knowledge of the Classical Latin and Greek languages and literatures. | | 2 |
| 9918060771 | Oration on the Dignity of Man | One of the best articulations (1486) of the belief in the dignity and potential of humans that characterized Renaissance humanism, authored by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. | | 3 |
| 9918060772 | The Prince | The book by Niccolo Machiavelli (1513), which marks the shift from a "civic ideal" to a "princely ideal" in Renaissance humanism. The princely ideal is focused on the qualities and strategies necessary for attaining and holding social and political power. | | 4 |
| 9918060773 | Neoplatonism | In the Renaissance and Early Modern period, a philosophy based on that of Plato, which contended that reality was located in a changeless world of forms and which, accordingly, spurred the study of mathematics. It also refers to the attempt to reconcile pagan and Christian ideals, and the artistic idea that contemplation of beauty led to contemplation of the divine. | | 5 |
| 9918060774 | Florentine Academy | An informal gathering of humanists devoted to the revival of the teachings of Plato, founded in 1462 under the leadership of Marsilio Ficino and the patronage of Cosimo de' Medici. | | 6 |
| 9918060775 | Frescos | Painting done on either wet or dry plaster; an important medium of art during the Renaissance. | | 7 |
| 9918060776 | Michelangelo's David | Sculpted by Michelangelo Buonarroti (1504), this sculpture of the biblical hero is characteristic of the last and most heroic phase of Renaissance art. Sculpted from a single piece of marble, it is larger than life and offers a vision of the human body and spirit that is more dramatic than real life, an effect Michelangelo produced by making the head and hands deliberately too large for the torso. | | 8 |
| 9918060777 | Treaty of Lodi/Peace of Lodi | The treaty (1454-1455) that established a mutual defensive pact among Venice, Milan, Florence, Naples, and the Papal States. It lapses after the French invasion of 1494. | | 9 |
| 9918060778 | Colloquies | Dialogues written (beginning in 1519) by the most important and influential of the northern humanists, Desiderius Erasmus, for the purpose of teaching his students both the Latin language and how to live a good life. | | 10 |
| 9936707369 | Lay Piety | A tradition in the smaller, independent German provinces, flourishing in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, whereby organized groups promoted pious behavior and learning outside of the bureaucracy of the church. | | 11 |
| 9936707370 | Patronage | The support of artists and artisans, frequently by both aristocrats and the newly emergent middle class merchant; also, awarding of noble titles and government appointments as a means of gaining political support. | | 12 |
| 9936707371 | Papal States | A kingdom in central Italy, ruled directly by the pope until Italian unification (1866-1870). | | 13 |
| 9936707372 | Indulgences | Certificates of absolution sold by the Church forgiving people of their sins, sometimes even before they committed them, in return for a monetary contribution. The selling of indulgences was one of the practices that Martin Luther objected to. | | 14 |
| 9936707373 | Millenarianism | The belief that one is living in the last days of the world and that the judgment day is at hand (originally tied to the belief that the end would come in the year AD 1000) | | 15 |
| 9936707374 | Salvation by Faith Alone | One of the central tenets of Martin Luther's theology: the belief that salvation is a gift from God given to all who possess true faith. | | 16 |
| 9936707375 | Scripture Alone (Sola Scriptura) | One of the central tenets of Martin Luther's theology: the belief that scripture is the only guide to knowledge of God. (In contrast, the Catholic Church holds that there are two guides to knowledge of God: scripture and Church tradition.) | | 17 |
| 9936707376 | Priesthood of All Believers | One of the central tenets of Martin Luther's theology: the belief that all who have true faith are "priests," that is, they are competent to read and understand scripture. | | 18 |
| 9936707377 | The Ninety-Five Theses | The 95 propositions or challenges to official Church theology posted by Martin Luther on the door of Wittenberg castle church in the autumn of 1517. | | 19 |
| 9936707378 | Peace of Augsburg | The treaty, signed in 1555, that established the principle of "whoever rules, his religion" and signaled to Rome that the German princes would not go to war with each other over religion. | | 20 |
| 9936707379 | Peasantry | The class of rural, agricultural laborers in traditional European society. | | 21 |
| 9936707380 | Huguenots | The sixteenth and seventeenth century term for French Calvinists. | | 22 |
| 9936707381 | Edict of Nantes | A royal edict that established the principle of religious toleration in France, proclaimed in 1598 and revoked in 1685. | | 23 |
| 9936707382 | Anglican Church | The state Church of England, established by Henry VIII in the early sixteenth century when he decided to break from the Church in Rome. | | 24 |
| 9936707383 | Dissenters | The collective name for Protestant groups who refused to join the Anglican Church in England. | | 25 |
| 9936707384 | Predestination | The Calvinist belief that asserts that God had predetermined which people will be saved and which will be damned. | | 26 |
| 9936707385 | The Elect | The name given in Calvinist theology to the group of people who have predestined by God for salvation. | | 27 |
| 9936707386 | Anabaptists | A sect of radical Protestant reformers in Europe in the sixteenth century who considered true Protestant faith to require social reform. | | 28 |
| 9936707387 | Council of Trent | The Counter Reformation council of the Catholic Church that began its deliberations in 1545. Despite its reformist aims, it continued to insist that the Catholic Church was the final arbiter in all matters of faith. | | 29 |
| 9936707388 | Inquisition | An institution within Catholic Church, created in 1478 to enforce the conversion of Muslims and Jews in Spain. It was revived and expanded during the Reformation to combat all perceived threats to orthodoxy and the Church's authority. | | 30 |
| 9936707389 | St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre | King Charles IX's massacre of Huguenots in August 1572. | | 31 |
| 9936707390 | Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) | The "last of the religious wars," but actually a European-wide struggle for dominance among the Bourbon and Hapsburg dynasties and the Holy Roman Empire. | | 32 |
| 9936707391 | Spice Trade | The importation of spices from Asia into Europe, revived during the Renaissance. The need to find shorter, more efficient routes have impetus to the great voyages of exploration of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. | | 33 |
| 9936707392 | Haciendas | The large estates that produced food and leather goods for the mining areas and urban centers of the Spanish Empire in the New World. | | 34 |
| 9936707393 | Triangular Trade Networks | The system of interconnected trade routes that quadrupled foreign trade in both Britain and France in the eighteenth century. | | 35 |
| 9936707394 | The Middle Passage | The leg of the triangular trade networks in which African slaves were transported in brutal conditions across the Atlantic Ocean on European trade ships. | | 36 |
| 9936707395 | Plantations | The large estates in the West Indies, which produced sugar for export to Europe. | | 37 |
| 9936707396 | Mercantilism | Economic theory that held that money (gold and silver, especially) is the only form of wealth. Mercantilism led to the quashing of any incipient industry in colonized areas, leaving economic control strictly in the hands of the colonizer. | | 38 |
| 9936707397 | Celestial realm | The realm, in the Aristotelian view of the cosmos, above the orbit of the moon. | | 39 |
| 9936707398 | Elements | The basic components of matter in Aristotelian physics; there were five: earth, air, water, fire, and aether. | | 40 |
| 9936707399 | Qualities | A term, in Aristotelian physics, for the tendencies of matter; that is, Earth sinks, Air floats, etc. | | 41 |
| 9936707400 | Geocentric | Earth-centered; the Aristotelian model of the cosmos. | | 42 |
| 9936707401 | Scholasticism | A term for the pre-Renaissance system of knowledge characterized by the belief that everything worth knowing was written down in ancient texts. | | 43 |
| 9936707402 | Hermeticism | A tradition of knowledge that taught that the world was infused with a single spirit that could be explored through mathematics, as well as through magic. | | 44 |
| 9936707403 | Neoplatonism | In the Renaissance and Early Modern period, a philosophy based on that of Plato, which contended that reality was located in a changeless world of forms and that, accordingly, spurred the study of mathematics. It also refers to the attempt to reconcile pagan and Christian ideals, and the artistic idea that contemplation of beauty led to contemplation of the divine. | | 45 |
| 9936707404 | Platonic-Pythagorean tradition | A tradition of philosophy that developed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which embraced the works of Plato and Pythagoras and which had as its goal the identification of the fundamental mathematical laws of nature. | | 46 |
| 9936707405 | Heliocentric | Sun-centered; the model of the cosmos proposed by Nicolas Copernicus in 1534. | | 47 |
| 9936707406 | Copernicanism | The theory, following Nicolas Copernicus, that the sun is at the center of the cosmos and that the Earth is the third planet from the sun. | | 48 |
| 9936707407 | Kepler's Laws | Three laws of planetary motion developed by Johannes Kepler between 1609 and 1619. | | 49 |
| 9936707408 | The Starry Messenger | Galileo's treatise of 1610, in which he published his celestial observations made with a telescope. | | 50 |
| 9936707410 | Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World | Galileo's treatise of 1632, in which he dismantled the arguments in favor of the traditional, Aristotelian view of the cosmos and presented the Copernican system as the only alternative for reasonable people. | | 51 |
| 9936738292 | Discourse on Method | René Descartes's treatise of 1637, in which he established a method of philosophical inquiry based on radical skepticism. | | 52 |
| 9936983463 | Nobility | The class of privileged landowners in traditional European society. | | 53 |
| 9936983464 | Monarchs | The hereditary rulers of traditional European society. | | 54 |
| 9936983465 | Divine Right of Kings | The theory that monarchs received their right to rule directly from God. | | 55 |
| 9936983466 | Absolutism | A theory of government that a rightful ruler holds absolute power over his or her subjects. | | 56 |
| 9936983467 | English Civil War | (1642-1646) The war in which forces loyal to King Charles I fought to defend the power of the monarchy, the Official Church of England, and the privileges and prerogatives of the nobility, while forces supporting Parliament fought to uphold the rights of Parliament, to bring and end to the notion of an official state church, and for the ideals of individual liberty and the rule of law. | | 57 |
| 9936983468 | The Commonwealth | (1649-1660) The period during which England was ruled without a monarch, following the victory of the Parliamentary forces in the English Civil War and the subsequent execution of King Charles I. | | 58 |
| 9936983469 | Intendent | An administrative bureaucrat in absolutist France of the seventeenth century, usually chosen from the middle class, who owed his position and, therefore, his loyalty directly to the state. | | 59 |
| 9936983470 | Edict of Nantes (1598) | Decree by King Henry IV of France granting Protestants religious tolerance and marking the end of France's Religious Wars. Revoked in 1685. | | 60 |
| 9936983471 | The Restoration | The period of English history (1660-1688) following the Commonwealth and preceding the Glorious Revolution. It encompassed the reigns of Charles II (1660-1685) and James II (1685-1688). | | 61 |
| 9936983472 | The Glorious Revolution | The quick, nearly bloodless uprising (1688) that coordinated Parliament-led uprisings in England with the invasion of a Protestant fleet and army from the Netherlands and led to the expulsion of James II and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in England under William and Mary. | | 62 |
| 9936983473 | Constitutional Monarchy | A theory of government that contends that a rightful ruler's power is limited by an agreement with his or her subjects. | | 63 |
| 9936983474 | Two Treatises on Government | A philosophical work (1690) by the Englishman John Locke, which became the primary argument for the establishment of natural limits to governmental authority. | | 64 |
| 9936983475 | Versailles | The great palace of the French monarchs, located 11 miles outside of Paris, which was the center of court life and political power in France from 1682 until the French Revolution in 1789. | | 65 |
| 9936983476 | Tsars | The hereditary monarchs of Russia. | | 66 |
| 9936983477 | Law Code of 1649 | Legislation in Russia that converted the legal status of groups as varied as peasants and slaves into that of a single class of serfs. | | 67 |
| 9936983478 | Manorial System | The traditional economic system of Europe, developed in the medieval period, in which landowning elites (lords of the manor) held cast estates divided into small plots of arable land farmed by peasants for local consumption. | | 68 |
| 9936983479 | Cash crops | Crops grown for sale and export in the market-oriented approach that replaced the manorial system during the Agricultural Revolution of the eighteenth century. | | 69 |
| 9936983480 | Enclosure | The building of hedges, fences, and walls to deny the peasantry access to traditional farming plots and common lands, which had been converted to fields for cash crops during the Agricultural Revolution of the eighteenth century. | | 70 |
| 9936983481 | Putting-out system (also "cottage industry") | A system in which rural peasants engaged in small-scale textile manufacturing. It was developed in the eighteenth century to allow merchants, faced with an ever-expanding demand for textile, to get around the guild system. | | 71 |
| 9936983482 | Flying Shuttle | A machine invented in 1733 by John Kay that doubled the speed at which cloth could be woven on a loom, creating a need to find a way to produce greater amounts of thread faster. | | 72 |
| 9937069535 | Spinning Jenny | A machine invented in 1760s by James Hargreaves that greatly increased the amount of thread a single spinner could produce from cotton, creating a need to speed of the harvesting of cotton. | | 73 |
| 9937069536 | Cotton Gin | A machine invented in 1793 by an American, Eli Whitney, that efficiently removed seed from raw cotton, thereby increasing the speed with which it could be processed and sent to the spinners. | | 74 |
| 9937069537 | Diplomatic Revolution | The mid-eighteenth-century shift in European alliances, whereby the expansionist aims of Frederick II of Prussia causes old enemies to become allies. Prussia, fearful of being isolated by its enemies, forged an alliance in 1756 with its former enemy Great Britain; Austria and France, previously antagonistic toward one another, responded by forging an alliance of their own. | | 75 |
| 9937069538 | The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) | A conflict that pitted France, Austria, Russia, Saxony, Sweden, and (after 1762) Spain against Prussia, Great Britain, and the German state of Hanover in a contest for control of both the European Continent and the New World in North America. | | 76 |
| 9938560137 | Civil Society | The society formed when free individuals come together and surrender some of their individual power in return for greater protection. | | 77 |
| 9938560138 | The Spirit of Laws | The Baron de Montesquieu's treatise of 1748, in which he expanded on John Locke's theory of limited government and outlined a system in which government was divided into branches in order to check and balance its power. | | 78 |
| 9938560139 | An Essay Concerning Human Understanding | John Locke's treatise of 1689-1690, which argued that humans are born Tabula Rosa (as "blank slates"), contradicting the Christian notion that humans were born corrupt and sinful and implying that what humans become is purely a result of what they experience. | | 79 |
| 9938560140 | The Wealth of Nations | Adam Smith's treatise of 1776, which argued that there are laws of human labor, production, and trade, which stem from the unerring tendency of all humans to seek their own self-interest. | | 80 |
| 9938560141 | Invisible hand | A phrase, penned by Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations (1776), to denote the way in which natural economic laws guide the economy. | | 81 |
| 9938560142 | Vindication of the Rights of Women | Mary Wollstonecraft's treatise of 1792, in which she argued that reason was the basis of moral in all human beings, not just in men. | | 82 |
| 9938560143 | Salons | Places where both men and women gathered, in eighteenth century France, to educate themselves about and discuss the new ideas of the Enlightenment in privacy and safety. | | 83 |
| 9938560144 | Philosophe | Public intellectual of the French Enlightenment who believed that society should be reformed on the basis of natural law and reason. | | 84 |
| 9938560145 | Masonic lodges | Secret meeting places established and run by Freemasons, whose origins dated back to the medieval guilds of the stonemasons. By the eighteenth century, the lodges were fraternities of aristocratic and middle-class men (and occasionally women) who gathered to discuss alternatives to traditional belief. | | 85 |
| 9938560146 | Deism | The belief that the complexity, order, and natural laws exhibited by the universe were reasonable proof that it had been created by a God who was no longer active. | | 86 |
| 9938560147 | Enlightened Despotism | The hope shared by many philosophes that the powerful monarchs of European civilization, once educated in the ideals of the Enlightenment, would use their power to reform and rationalize society. | | 87 |
| 9938560148 | Candide | Voltaire's sprawling satire of European culture, penned in 1759, which has become the classic example of Enlightenment period satire. | | 88 |
| 9938560149 | Encyclopedia | Produced by the tireless efforts of its co-editors, Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1751-1772), the entries of the Encyclopedia championed a scientific approach to knowledge and labeled anything not based on reason as superstition. | | 89 |
| 9938560150 | System of Nature | The Baron Paul d'Holbach's treatise of 1770, which was first work of Enlightenment philosophy to be openly atheist and materialistic. | | 90 |
| 9938560151 | The Social Contract | Jean-Jacques Rousseau's treatise of 1762, in which he wrote,"Man is born free; and everywhere he is chains." He argues that a virtuous citizen should be willing to subordinate his own self-interest to the general good of the community and that the government must be continually responsive to the general will of the people. | | 91 |
| 9938560152 | Almanacs | Popular eighteenth century texts that incorporated much of the new scientific and rational knowledge of the Enlightenment. | | 92 |
| 9938560153 | Philosophical texts | The underground book trade's code name for banned books, which included some versions of the philosophical treatises, and bawdy, popularized versions of the philosophes' critique of the Church and the ruling classes. | | 93 |
| 9938560154 | Bourgeoisie | A term for the merchant and commercial classes of eighteenth and nineteenth-century France. In Marxist social critique, the class that owns the means of production and exploits wage laborers. | | 94 |
| 9938560155 | Ancien Régime (also Old Regime) | The traditional social and political hierarchy of eighteenth-century France. | | 95 |
| 9938560156 | Estates General | The representative body of eighteenth-century France. Members representing each of the three Estates met to hear the problems of the realm and royal requests for new taxes. In return, they were allowed to present a list of their own concerns and proposals, called cahiers, to the Crown. | | 96 |
| 9938560157 | National Assembly | The name taken by the representatives of the Third Estate on June 17, 1789, declaring themselves to be the legislative body of France. This event is often seen as the beginning of the French Revolution's moderate phase. | | 97 |
| 9938560158 | "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" | A declaration adopted by the National Assembly of France on August 27, 1789, espousing individual rights and liberties for all citizens. | | 98 |
| 9938560159 | Sans-culottes | The working people (bakers, shopkeepers, artisans, and manual laborers) who asserted their will in the radical phase of the French Revolution (1791-1794). They were characterized by their long working pants, hence, sans-culottes (literally "without short pants"). | | 99 |
| 9938560160 | Girondins | Active during the National Assembly, the Girondins, primarily drawn from the provincial bourgeoisie, supported the revolution, and advocated war with Europe as a means of uniting France behind the revolutionaries. During the National Convention phase, they became concerned with the increasing violence and the power of the sans-culottes, whose economic demands they opposed. They also opposed execution of the king. This they evolved into the moderate faction of the National Convention, especially when compared to their more radical counterparts, the Jacobins. | | 100 |
| 9938560161 | Jacobins | Members of a political club who were active in the National Assembly, the Jacobins intended to secure support for the revolution. During the National Convention phase, the group was dominated by more radical elements who called for the execution of the king, opposed war with Europe, advocated a republic, and allied with the sans-culottes and the Paris commune. After purging the Girondins, the Jacobin faction was responsible for instituting the Reign of Terror. | | 101 |
| 9938560162 | Committee of Public Safety | A twelve-man committee created in the summer of 1793 and invested with nearly absolute power in order that it might secure the fragile French Republic from its enemies. | | 102 |
| 9938560163 | Reign of Terror | The period of the French Revolution during which Robespierre, the leader of the Committee of Public Safety, created tribunals in the major cities of France to try individuals suspected of being enemies of the Revolution. During the Reign of Terror, between September 1793 and July 1794, between 200,000 and 400,000 people were sentenced to prison; between 25,000 and 50,000 of them are believed to have died either in prison or the guillotine. | | 103 |
| 9938560164 | Directory | A five-man board created to handle the executive functions of the government during Thermidor, the third and final phase of the French Revolution (1794-1799). | | 104 |
| 9938560165 | Napoleonic Code (also known as the Civil Code of 1804) | A system of uniform law and administrative policy the Napoleon created for the empire he was building in Europe. | | 105 |
| 9938560166 | Continental System | A system established by Napoleon in order to weaken Britain by forbidding the continental European states and kingdoms under French control from trading with Britain. | | 106 |
| 9938560167 | Concert of Europe | The alliance created in November 1815 that required important diplomatic decisions to be made by all four great powers-Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain-"in concert" with one another. | | 107 |
| 9938560168 | Industrial Revolution | The phase of the industrialization process, lasting roughly from 1820 to 1900, characterized by the advent of large-scale iron and steel production, the application of the steam engine, and the development of a railway system. | | 108 |
| 9938560169 | Factory System | A system of production created in order to better supervise and centralize labor, increasing their efficiency. In the factory system, workers came to a central location and worked machines under the supervision of managers. | | 109 |
| 9938560170 | Division of labor | A technique whereby formerly complex tasks that required knowledge and skill were broken down into a series of simple tasks, aided by machines. | | 110 |
| 9938560171 | Bessemer Process | A process, invented in the 1850s by English engineer Henry Bessemer, that allowed steel to be produced more cheaply and in larger quantities. | | 111 |
| 9938560172 | Steam engine | A power source that burns coal to produce steam pressure. First used in the early eighteenth century to pump water out of coal mines, it came to be used to drive machinery as diverse as the bellows of iron gorges, looms for textile manufacture, and mills for grain, and, in the nineteenth century, as a source of locomotive power. | | 112 |
| 9938560173 | Internal Combustion Engine | Developed in 1886 by two German engineers, Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz, an engine that burns petroleum as fuel. When mounted on a carriage, it was used to create the automobile. | | 113 |
| 9938560174 | The Railway Boom | The rapid development of a railway system, beginning in Great Britain in the 1830s. The development of railway systems further spurred the development of heavy industry, as railroads facilitated the speedy transportation of iron and steel while simultaneously consuming large quantities of both. | | 114 |
| 9938560175 | Class consciousness | A sense of belonging to a "working class" that developed among European workers during the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century. It developed partly due to their working together in factories and living together in isolated slums. | | 115 |
| 9938560176 | Conservatism | A nineteenth-century ideology that held that tradition was the only trustworthy guide to social and political action. | | 116 |
| 9938560177 | Liberalism | An eighteenth and nineteenth-century ideology that asserted that the task of government was to promote individual liberty. | | 117 |
| 9938560178 | Socialism | An ideology that sought to reorder society in ways that would end or minimize competition, foster cooperation, and allow the working classes to share in the wealth being produced by industrialization. | | 118 |
| 9938560179 | Utopian Socialism | A form of socialism that envisioned, and sometime tried to establish, ideal communities (or utopias) where work and its fruits were shared equitably. | | 119 |
| 9938560180 | Psychological Socialism | A variety of nineteenth-century utopian socialism that saw a conflict between the structure of society and the natural needs and tendencies of human beings. It's leading advocate was Charles Fourier, who argued that the ideal society was one organized on a smaller, more human scale. | | 120 |
| 9938560181 | Technocratic Socialism | A variety of nineteenth-century utopian Socialism that envisioned a society run by technical experts who managed resources efficiently and in a way that was best for all. The most prominent nineteenth-century advocate of technocratic socialism was the French aristocrat Henri Comte de Saint-Simon. | | 121 |
| 9938560182 | Scientific Socialism/Communism | An ideology dedicated to the creation of a class-free society through the abolition of private property. | | 122 |
| 9938560183 | Anarchism | A nineteenth-century ideology that saw the modern state and its institutions as the enemy of individual freedom and recommended terrorism as a way to disrupt the machinery of government. | | 123 |
| 9938560184 | Romanticism | A nineteenth-century ideology that urged the cultivation of sentiment and emotion by reconnecting with nature and with the past. | | 124 |
| 9938560185 | Nationalism | A nineteenth-century ideology that asserted that a nation was a natural, organic entity whose people shared a cultural identity and a historical destiny. | | 125 |
| 9938560186 | Social Darwinism | A nineteenth-century ideology that asserted that competition was natural and necessary for the evolutionary progress of society. | | 126 |
| 9938560187 | Carbonari | Secret groups of Italian nationalists active in the early part of the nineteenth century. In 1820, the Carbonari has briefly succeeded in organizing an uprising that forced King Ferdinand I of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to grant a new constitution and a new Parliament. | | 127 |
| 9938560188 | Risorgimento | The mid-nineteenth-century Italian nationalist moment composed mostly of intellectuals and university students. From 1834 to 1848, the Risorgimento attempted a series of popular insurrections and briefly established a Roman Republic in 1848. | | 128 |
| 9938560189 | Junkers | A powerful class of landed aristocrats in nineteenth-century Prussia who supported Bismarck's plan for the unification of Germany. | | 129 |
| 9938560190 | Realpolitik | A political theory, made fashionable by Bismarck in the nineteenth century, which asserted that the aim of any political policy should be to increase the power of a nation by whatever means and strategies were necessary and useful. | | 130 |
| 9938560191 | The nationalities problem | The name given to the conflict between the 10 distinct linguistic and ethnic groups that lived within the borders of Austria-Hungary and their German-speaking rulers. | | 131 |
| 9938560192 | Russianization | Alexander III's attempt, in the 1880s, to make Russian the standard language and the Russian Orthodox Church the standard religion throughout the Russian Empire. | | 132 |
| 9938560193 | Chartism | A movement in Britain (1837-1842) in support of the People's Charter, a petition that called for universal manhood suffrage, annual Parliaments, voting by secret ballot, equal electoral districts, the abolition of property qualifications for Members of Parliament, and the payment of Members of Parliament. | | 133 |
| 9938560194 | Nationalism (#2) | This term is often conflated with patriotism, but the differences are both subtle and important. Nationalism means a strong sense of national identity based on commonalities like language, culture, ethnicity, and traditional homeland. It can either be a unifying force (Italy, Germany) or a fragmenting one (Greece, Austrian Empire). In its later usage, nationalism is distinguished from patriotism in that, though both entail love of country, nationalism has connotations of national superiority, sometime manifesting in aggression. | | 134 |
| 9938560195 | New Imperialism | The expansion of European influence and control in the last decades of the nineteenth century. It was characterized by a shift from indirect commercial influence to active conquest and the establishment of direct political control of foreign lands around the globe, particularly in Africa and Asia. | | 135 |
| 9938560196 | Scramble for Africa | The rush of European powers to claim interest in and sovereignty over portions of Africa in the first half of the 1880s. It culminated in the Berlin Conference of 1885, at which European powers laid down rules for the official claiming of African territories. As a result, by the end of the 1880s, only Liberia and Ethiopia remained independent African countries. | | 136 |
| 9938560197 | Suez Canal | A canal opened in 1869, built by a French company with Egyptian labor, that connects the Mediterranean Sea through Egypt to the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. In 1875, Great Britain took advantage of the Egyptian ruler's financial distress and purchased a controlling interest in the canal. Control of the canal led to British occupation and the annexation of Egypt. | | 137 |
| 9938560198 | Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 (sometimes known as the Sepoy Mutiny) | A well organized anti-British uprising led by military units of Indians who had formerly served the British. It resulted in the British government taking direct control of India and a restructuring of the Indian economy to produce and consume products in order to aid the British economy. | | 138 |
| 9938560199 | Taiping Rebellion | An attempt to overthrow the Manchu rulers of China (1850-1864), whose authority had been undermined by Western interference. Defending their rule from the rebellion made the Manchus even more dependent on Western support. | | 139 |
| 9938560200 | Globalization | Political, cultural, economic interdependence of the world's nations and the global nature of contemporary problems. | | 140 |
| 9938560201 | Untranationalists | Political parties which argued that political theories that put class solidarity ahead of loyalty to a nation threatened the very fabric of civilization. This, they vowed to fight liberalism and socialism. | | 141 |
| 9938560202 | Zionism | A movement for the creation of an independent state for Jews, which came into being in 1896 when Theodor Herzl published "The Jewish State," a pamphlet that urged an international movement to make Palestine the Jewish homeland. | | 142 |
| 9938560203 | Triple Alliance | A military alliance among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, forged by Bismarck after the unification of Germany in 1871. | | 143 |
| 9938560204 | Triple Entente | A military alliance among Britain, France, and Russia, which countered the Triple Alliance. | | 144 |
| 9938560205 | Bolsheviks | A party of revolutionary Marxists, led by Lenin, who seized power in Russia in November 1917. | | 145 |
| 9938560206 | Treaty of Versailles | The name given to the series of five treaties that made up the overall settlement following World War I. | | 146 |
| 9938560207 | Ottoman Empire | Successor to the Byzantine Empire with the taking of Constantinople on 1453, the Ottoman Empire would remain the center of trade and cultural interaction between East and West (or between Christian Europe and Muslim Middle East) until 1922, when the Republic of Turkey was proclaimed. | | 147 |
| 9938560208 | Weimar Republic | The name given to the liberal democratic government established in Germany following World War I. | | 148 |
| 9938560209 | Spartacists | Marxist revolutionaries in post-World War II Germany, led by Rosa Luxembourg and Karl Liebknecht, who were dedicated to bringing a socialist revolution to Germany. | | 149 |
| 9938560210 | New Economic Plan (NEP) | A plan instituted by Lenin in the early 1920s that allowed rural peasants and small-business operators to manage their own land and businesses and to sell their products-a temporary compromise with capitalism that worked well enough to get the Russian economy functioning again. | | 150 |
| 9938560211 | Great Depression | A total collapse of the economies of Europe and the United States, triggered by the American stock market crash of 1929 and lasting most of the 1930s. | | 151 |
| 9938560212 | Blackshirts (squadristi) | Italian fascist paramilitary groups, largely recruited from disgruntled war veterans, commanded by Mussolini. They were increasingly relied upon by the Italian government to keep order in the 1920s. | | 152 |
| 9938560213 | Nationalist Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP, or the Nazi Party) | German political party that began as a small right-wing group—one of the more than 70 extremist paramilitary organizations that sprang up in post-World War I Germany. It was neither socialist nor did it attract many workers; it was a party made up of war veterans and misfits. The man responsible for its rise to power was Adolf Hitler. | | 153 |
| 9938560214 | Anschluss | The annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in March 1938. | | 154 |
| 9938560215 | The Holocaust | A genocide in which approximately six million Jews were killed by the Nazi Regime and its collaborators. | | 155 |
| 9938560216 | Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) | Often referred to as a "dress rehearsal" for WWII. Brought Francisco Franco to power and ended the monarchy. | | 156 |
| 9938560217 | Truman Doctrine | A U.S doctrine (named after President Harry Truman), created in 1947, that established a system of military and economic aid to countries threatened by communist take over. | | 157 |
| 9938560218 | Marshall Plan | A plan (named after U.S Secretary of State George Marshall), launched in 1947, that provided billions of dollars of aid to help the Western European powers to rebuild their infrastructures and economies following World War II. | | 158 |
| 9938560219 | Council for Mutual Economic Assistance | The Soviet Union's response to the Marshall Plan whereby the Soviet Union offered economic aid packages for Eastern European countries. | | 159 |
| 9938560220 | North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) | A military alliance, formed in 1949, uniting the Western powers against the Soviet Union. | | 160 |
| 9938560221 | Warsaw Pact | The Soviet Union's response, in 1949, to the formation of NATO, which established a military alliance of the communist countries of Eastern Europe. | | 161 |
| 9938560222 | Détente | An era of warmer diplomatic relations between the United States and the Soviet Union, for a period lasting from the 1960s into the 1980s. It was characterized by a number of nuclear test-ban treaties and arms-limitation talks between the two superpowers. | | 162 |
| 9938560223 | Prague Spring | An episode in 1968 when Czechoslovakian communists, led by Alexander Dubcek, embarked on a process of liberalization. Under Dubcek's leadership, the reformers declared that they intended to create "socialism with a human face." Dubcek tried to proceed by balancing reforms with reassurances to the Soviet Union, but on August 21, 1968, Soviet and Warsaw Pact troops invaded and occupied the major cities of Czechoslovakia. | | 163 |
| 9938560224 | Velvet Revolution | The name for the nearly bloodless overthrow of Soviet communism in Czechoslovakia in 1989. | | 164 |
| 9938560225 | Globalization (#2) | A term that refers to the increasing integration and interdependence of the economic, social, cultural, and even ecological aspects of life in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. The term refers not only to the way in which the economies of the world affect one another, but also to the way that the experience of everyday life is becoming increasingly standardized by the spread of technologies that carry with them social and cultural norms. | | 165 |
