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APES: EVERYTHING Flashcards

13789415286	Nitrogen	Produces green color of healthy plant. Nitrates are easily leached from soil.	0
13789415287	Phosphorus	Stimulates root, seed and flower development. DNA synthesis.	1
13789415288	Potassium	Adds vigor and disease resistance and to plants	2
13789415289	Three Numbers of Fertilizers	15:15:15 20:4:2 5:20:20	3
13789415290	soil texture	Relative percent of sand, silt, clay	4
13789415291	Three particles listed in biggest to smallest	Sand silt clay	5
13789415292	high permeability	Bigger particles	6
13789415293	Good water infiltration	Sand soil texture	7
13789415294	Poor water holding capacity	Sand soil texture	8
13789415295	Poor Nutrient Holding capacity	Sand soil texture	9
13789415296	Good aeration	Sand soil texture	10
13789415297	Good Workability	Sand soil texture	11
13789415298	Med water infiltration	Silt soil texture	12
13789415299	Med water holding capacity	Silt soil texture	13
13789415300	Med Nutrient Holding capacity	Silt soil texture	14
13789415301	Med aeration	Silt soil texture	15
13789415302	Med Workability	Silt soil texture	16
13789415303	Poor water infiltration	Clay soil texture	17
13789415304	Good water holding capacity	Clay soil texture	18
13789415305	Good Nutrient Holding capacity	Clay soil texture	19
13789415306	Poor aeration	Clay soil texture	20
13789415307	Poor Workability	Clay soil texture	21
13789415308	Med water infiltration	Loam Soil Texture	22
13789415309	Med water holding capacity	Loam Soil Texture	23
13789415310	Med Nutrient Holding capacity	Loam Soil Texture	24
13789415311	Med aeration	Loam Soil Texture	25
13789415312	Med Workability	Loam Soil Texture	26
13789415313	What is the best soil texture	One with all medium attributes/where attributes are balanced	27
13789415314	What kind of culture does GR primarily use	Monoculture	28
13789415315	Change of intensity and freq with GrR	Increase in intensity and freq	29
13789415316	How much was harvest index raised	50%	30
13789415317	How much is harvest index's physiological limit	60%	31
13789415318	Results of GR	4 fold increase in energy use, 8% of the oil; 10 fold increase in pesticide use; 2.5 fold increase in irrigated land	32
13789415319	How has GR impacted global diet	Increase in process foods has contributed to rise in obesity and related diseases; in 2012 US spent $11 billion on corn & soy, $1.6 on fruits and vegetables; Cost of fresh food has risen 24%; sodas sweetened by corn syrup have decreased by 27%	33
13789415320	Last 40 years...	Food production has doubled	34
13789415321	How many people in developed countries consume half the worlds grain supply	1.2 billion	35
13789415322	Amount of Ag land going out of production each year due to soil erosion	20 million hectares	36
13789415323	How much of worlds cropland is degraded	40%	37
13789415324	How much of worlds topsoil has been lost	14%	38
13789415325	pesticide treadmill	Application, resistance, resurgence; caused by over application of pesticides; must break cycle to fix problem	39
13789415326	IPM	Integrated Pest Management	40
13789415327	Benefits of IPM	Can reduce pesticide use by 50-90% Utilizes combo of methods and looks at each case individually as part of ecosystem Aim to reduce crop damage to economically tolerable level	41
13789415328	Theory of Island Biogeography	Habitat fragmentation can create a large "edge" effect and isolate a gene pool, this preventing offspring from dispersing and colonizing new areas. Closer the island—>higher biodiversity	42
13789415329	Negative Externalities	a cost imposed without compensation on third parties by the production or consumption of sellers or buyers. Example: a manufacturer dumps toxic chemicals into a river, killing the fish sought by sports fishers; an external cost or a spillover cost	43
13789415330	Types of Logging: Selective cutting	Intermediate-aged or mature trees in an uneven-aged forests are cut singly or in a small group, creating gaps no larger than the height of standing trees.	44
13789415331	Types of Logging: Shelterwood Cutting	Removes all mature trees in two or three cuttings over a period of 10 years	45
13789415332	Types of Logging: Seed-tree Cutting	Harvests nearly all of the trees in one cutting and leave a few uniformly distributed trees to regenerate stand.	46
13789415333	Types of Logging: Clear-cutting	Removal of all trees in a single cutting, can be a whole strand, a strip, or a series of patches	47
13789415334	Types of Logging: Strip Cutting	A variation of clear cutting that can allow sustainable timber yield to without widespread destruction	48
13789415335	Causes of Species Extinction	Hunting-23%, Habitat Destruction-36%, Species Introduction-39%, Other-2%	49
13789415336	Healthy Forest Initiative	Legislation passed in 2003, created as a result of 100 years suppression. Increases removal of medium and large trees/brush	50
13789415337	Rangeland	A dry open grassland. Often used for grazing.	51
13789415338	Red List-Endangered Species	13% Birds species, 25% of Mammal species, 41% Amphibian species (2012)	52
13789415339	Biosphere Reserve: core area	Legally constituted for long term protection. Legally protected for conservation.	53
13789415340	Biosphere Reserve: Buffer zone	Clearly identified for activities compatible with conservation. Research, monitoring, education, training	54
13789415341	Biosphere Reserve: Transition Area	Sustainable resource management practices. Sustainable development.	55
13789415342	Biogeography	past and present distribution of organisms	56
13789415343	Gap Analysis	1.) map existing vegetation and vertebrate species. 2.) create a computer generated model. 3.) compare land management programs to see if alterations are necessary.	57
13789415344	maximum sustainable yield (MSY)	the maximum amount of a renewable resource that can be harvested without compromising the future availability of that resource	58
13789415345	Percent of world's forests are old growth	22%	59
13789415346	Biological Hotspot	An area in the biosphere where there is at least 1500 endemic species and at least 70% of habitat has been destroyed.	60
13789415347	Biodiversity	Earth's natural capital	61
13789415348	Types of ecosystem services	provisioning, regulating, cultural, supporting	62
13789415349	Example of Provisioning Ecosystem service	food, fresh water, fuelwood	63
13789415350	Example of Regulating Ecosystem service	climate regulation, disease regulation, water regulation, water purification, pollination.	64
13789415351	Example of Cultural Ecosystem service	spiritual/religious, recreational, ecotourism, inspirational, educational, cultural exchange	65
13789415352	Example of Supporting Ecosystem service	Soil formation, nutrient recycling, primary production	66
13789415353	intrinsic value	value independent of any benefit to humans - environment, ethics, leads to ecotourism	67
13789415354	instrumental value	species existence benefits some other entity, all considered anthropocentric. Humans get use out of it.	68
13789415355	Instrumental value of biodiversity	agriculture, medicine, scientific research, recreational	69
13789415356	What percent of native plant species in CA can't be found anywhere else	60%	70
13789415357	Why are forests important?	used as fuelwood, 66% of paper produced from wood-siviculture, 50-80% of moisture in tropic comes from transpiration, climate change	71
13789415358	Kenaf	an annual now grown for paper, produces more paper pulp and requires less pesticides and herbicides.	72
13789415359	How many people depend on seas for their primary resource of food	3.5 billion people	73
13789415360	Four Fire Dependent Biomes	Temperate grassland, savanna, taiga, and chaparral.	74
13789415361	Biome with richest soil	Grassland and Deciduous Forest	75
13789415362	Biome with poorest soil	Coniferous Forest	76
13789415363	Determines climate	Altitude and Latitude	77
13789415364	Climate describes	Temperature and Precipitation	78
13789415365	Characteristics of all Biomes	not uniform, consist of a mosaic of biological communities, communities are formed due to microclimates within biome, different soil and rock within biome can also alter the community that exists.	79
13789415366	microclimate	environmental conditions within a small area that differs significantly from the climate of the surrounding area (ex. mist off waterfall).	80
13789415367	ecotone	a region of transition between two biomes.	81
13789415368	vertical stratification	the layering of an ecosystem into bands based upon depth or elevation	82
13789415369	Temperate Grasslands	Various grasses and shrubs are the dominant vegetation. Have low diversity of wildlife. High abundance of organisms. Soil is nutrient rich. Low rain and windy conditons.	83
13789415370	Temperate Deciduous Forest	Dominated by trees that lose their leaves each year. Found in areas with warm moist summers and cool winters. Home to broadleaf trees, shrubs, perennial herbs, and mosses. Most notable for the fact that its trees change with the seasons. Diverse animal life, must adapt to changing seasons	84
13789415371	Arctic Tundra	Coldest biome. Frozen landscape (large amount permafrost). Few nutrients. Low diversity.	85
13789415372	Alpine Tundra	Similar to arctic tundra, but slightly warmer on average, greater numbers flora and fauna, and greater diversity.	86
13789415373	Taiga	Biome below tundra and above temperate forests. Largest land biome in the world.	87
13789415374	Savanna	A tropical grassland inhabited by different grasses and few shrubs and trees that are randomly distributed.	88
13789415375	Mangrove	a coastal area of water similar to swamp or estuary, composed mainly of ____ trees and aquatic shrubs. Plants half submerged in water depending on ocean tides or nearby flooding. Dense biome that makes it have relatively high NPP.	89
13789415376	Rocky Shore	Solid rock along coast. Between high and low tide lines. Conditions range between terrestrial and marine. Distribution of species is influenced by the gradient.	90
13789415377	Coral Reef	Underwater biome that is home to hard and soft corals, fish, sponges, lobsters, rays, sea turtles, and other sea life. Oldest ecosystem on earth.	91
13789415378	Estuaries	Bodies of water typically found where river meets the sea. Most nutrient rich biome of earth.	92
13789415379	Lake	Freshwater biome.	93
13789415380	Tragedy of the Commons	the tendency of a shared, limited resource to become depleted because people act from self-interest for short-term gain. Burden is shared among everyone who depends on resource.	94
13789415461	Logistic Growth Curve		95
13789415381	Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrogen Fixation	atmospheric Nitrogen is assimilated into organic compounds. N2 to NH3	96
13789415382	Nitrogen Cycle: Assimilation	the absorption and digestion of food or nutrients by a biological system.	97
13789415383	Nitrogen Cycle: Ammonification	performed by bacteria to convert organic nitrogen to ammonia.	98
13789415384	Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrification	ammonia is oxidized to nitrites and then nitrates.	99
13789415385	Nitrogen: Denitrification	Nitrate turned back into N2 and goes back into atmosphere.	100
13789415386	Carbon Cycle: Sinks	Oceans, Soil, Plants (photosynthesis)	101
13789415387	Carbon Cycle: Sources	Emissions from fossil fuels, Forest fires, animal respiration, plants (cellular respiration).	102
13789415388	r-strategist	reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce early, bear many small, unprotected offspring (ex. insects, mice).	103
13789415389	k-strategist	reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce late, bear few, cared for offspring (ex. humans, elephants).	104
13789415390	Selective Pressure	when the environment pushes an individual or population to adapt or evolve	105
13789415391	type of niches	Fundamental vs. Realized Generalists vs. Specialists Native vs. Non-native	106
13789415392	Speciation	the formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.	107
13789415393	Primary Succession	An ecological succession that begins in an area where no biotic community previously existed	108
13789415394	Secondary Succession	Succession following a disturbance that destroys a community without destroying the soil	109
13789415395	Fire Succession	Type of secondary succession. I'd important to help maintain native plant dominance and health.	110
13789415396	aquatic succession	Aquatic ecosystem become terrestrial	111
13789415397	Symbiosis	Two organisms working together	112
13789415398	Symbiosis: Mutualism	both organisms benefit	113
13789415399	Symbiosis: Commensalism	one organism benefits and the other is unaffected	114
13789415400	Symbiosis: Parasitism	one organism benefits at the expense of the other	115
13789415401	indicator species	Indicates if something is wrong in ecosystems	116
13789415402	keystone species	Impact is more significant than abundance	117
13789415403	What do communities differ in?	Physical appearance and species diversity	118
13789415404	Hadley Cells	A convection current in the atmosphere that cycles between the equator and 30° N and 30° S.	119
13789415405	El Nino	an irregularly occurring and complex series of climatic changes affecting the equatorial Pacific region and beyond every few years, characterized by the appearance of unusually warm, nutrient-poor water off northern Peru and Ecuador, typically in late December.	120
13789415406	Surface currents	Important for moderating climate	121
13789415407	Labrador Current	a cold ocean current flowing down from the north	122
13789415408	Gulf Stream	A warm ocean current that flows from the Gulf of Mexico northward through the Atlantic Ocean	123
13789415409	Montreal Protocol	meeting in 1987 where a group of nations met in Canada and agreed to take steps to fight against Ozone Depletion-CFC's banned	124
13789415410	The Greenhouse Effect	Thicker greenhouse gas blanket, the longer that radiation stays in the atmosphere, the warmer the planet gets.	125
13789415411	Upper 2 meters of ocean	store more solar heat than the entire atmosphere.	126
13789415412	IPCC	Between 1970 and 2004 there was a 70% increase in GHG's, CO2 grew by 80% Largest growth of CO2 came from power generation and road transportation. Methane rose by 40%, agriculture main source, rice fields. Nitrous oxide N20 rose by 50% due to increased use of inorganic fertilizers.	127
13789415413	Carbon Dioxide	CO2; 20% of warming. 1kg FF = 3kg CO2	128
13789415414	Methane	CH4; over 20 times more efficient than CO2.	129
13789415415	Nitrous Oxide	200 times more efficient than CO2.	130
13789415416	Water Vapor	60% of warming	131
13789415417	CFC's	20,000 times more efficient than CO2.	132
13789415418	Causes of seasonal fluctuations	Fluctuation due to seasonal changes in northern hemisphere. Majority of land mass is in northern hemisphere. CO2 up in winter due to deciduous behaviors. CO2 down in summer due to increased biomass.	133
13789415419	tropospheric ozone	ground level ozone; is considered bad because it is closer to the earth making it more likely for someone to breathe it in. It is also more dangerous because it is made up of particulate matter.	134
13789415420	catalytic converter	a device that reduces carbon monoxide emissions from vehicles.	135
13789415421	inversion layers	Prevent convective circulation and traps things in this ________. Only way to reversed it with reversed wind directions.	136
13789415422	Urban Heat Dome	Forms from excess CO2. Forms because of lower water content (no trees no transpiration) and black asphalt absorbs heat (different albedo).	137
13789415423	acid deposition	Sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, emitted by burning fossil fuels, enter the atmosphere-where they combine with oxygen and water to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid-and return to Earth's surface	138
13789415424	Consequences of acid deposition	Kills forests and lakes.	139
13789415425	clean air act of 1970	Mandates the setting of standards for particulates, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, lead, and ozone. Monitors and regulates toxic substances such as arsenic, asbestos, and mercury.	140
13789415426	Primary pollutant examples	hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides	141
13789415427	particulate matter	the sum of all solid and liquid particles suspended in air many of which are hazardous.	142
13789415428	radon	Naturally occurring radioactive gas found in some types of rocks and soil. Carcinogenic. Long term exposure causes lung cancer.	143
13789415429	lead	can be found in air, household dust, soil, water, and commercial products. too much exposure bad for health	144
13789415430	PM 2.5	Worse for you. Combustion particles, organic compounds, metals, etc.	145
13789415431	PM 10	dust, pollen, mold, etc.	146
13789415432	Dust pollution	Carries industrial pollution from China such as heavy metals mercury and lead. Carries Biological pathogens. Large scale solar projects and urbanization disrupt	147
13789415433	Noise Pollution	When we use technology/boats/etc with the same sound frequencies animals operate on it interferes with animals' echolocation.	148
13789415462	Oxygen Sag Curve		149
13789415434	Eutrophication	As nutrients enter water, phytoplankton bloom consuming nutrients, block off light and oxygen flow from surface, benthic plants and animals dies, raises BOD lower DO.	150
13789415435	Dead Zone	In a body of water, an area with extremely low oxygen concentration and very little life	151
13789415436	Wastewater Treatment Plant: Primary Treatment	Screen out solid material (sludge)	152
13789415437	Wastewater Treatment Plant: Secondary Treatment	Aerobic bacteria digest 90% of oxygen demanding organic wastes.	153
13789415438	Wastewater Treatment Plant: Tertiary Treatment	Used to remove nitrates and phosphates	154
13789415439	Clean Water Act	Established the basic structure for regulating pollutant discharges into the waters of the United States.	155
13789415440	Water Quality Act of 1987	limits non point pollution, one of the main forms is construction.	156
13789415441	Waste Hierarchy (how to reduce our impact)	Waste prevention, reuse, recycle/compost, energy recovery, disposal.	157
13789415442	Integrated Waste Management	an approach to waste disposal that employs several waste reduction, management, and disposal strategies in order to reduce the environmental impact of municipal solid waste.	158
13789415443	Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA)	EPA identifies hazardous waste and governs the location, design, construction, operation, and final closure of landfill. All hazardous shipped to landfills must be manifested so that regulators can trace the waste from "cradle to grave."	159
13789415444	Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA)	Defines policies and procedures for release of hazardous substances into the environment. Established the Superfund - cleanup the worst abandoned hazardous-waste sites.	160
13789415463	Biomagnification vs. Bioaccumulation		161
13789415445	5 R's	refuse, reduce, reuse, repurpose, recycle	162
13789415446	Biological Hazards	Plagues, cholera, malaria, tuberculosis, overuse of antibiotics.	163
13789415447	Tuberculosis	Has a drug-resistant form because of overuse of antibiotics; traveling globe.	164
13789415448	Maleria	Anophoeles mosquito is at higher latitudes and higher altitudes because of warming of the planet, makes this disease an increased issue.	165
13789415449	Threshold dose response	When compounds need to build up to be toxic.	166
13789415450	Non-threshold dose-response	When compounds are so toxic they begin to do damage with the first molecule.	167
13789415451	OPEC	the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, a group established in 1960 by some oil-producing nations to coordinate policies on selling petroleum products	168
13789415452	Hybrid cars	vehicles that run on a gasoline / electric motor; often increasing fuel efficiency. Promoted as more eco-friendly because of they don't emit as much gases and don't need as much fuel as regular car but environmental impact of battery is also detrimental.	169
13789415453	Fuel cells	an electrochemical cell that uses replenishable substances such as hydrogen or oxygen or water to produce electricity	170
13789415454	Fracking	The pumping of water at high pressure to break apart rocks in order to release natural gas. Can release toxins into groundwater. Causes random "earthquakes" where there are no fault lines.	171
13789415455	Half-life	length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay	172
13789415456	coal	World's most abundant fossil fuel, but the dirtiest. Problems include industrial smog (particulate pollution), acidrain from SO2/NOX, CO2 emissions, Mercury pollution, coal ash (contains arsenic).	173
13789415457	Mercury	a toxic element that causes health problems for humans. Can bioaccumulate/biomagnify through consumption. Byproduct of energy production.	174
13789415458	Trend of fossil fuel in last decade	increasing	175

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Apes Cycles Flashcards

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13860413095	Carbon Cycle	Carbon is one of the most crucial elements for life on Earth. All life is carbon based that is currently living on Earth. All organisms require this to survive. Carbon moves throughout the environment with the carbon cycle so that it is dispersed to all organisms and the atmosphere.	0
13860413096	Nitrogen Cycle	Nitrogen is another very crucial element to the survival of organisms on Earth. It is needed with the growth of plants and 78% of the atmosphere is made of nitrogen. Nitrogen is very important in making fertilizer for plants.	1
13860413097	Water Cycle	Water is the cornerstone all environments on Earth. Every organism requires water. Water has the ability to shift between liquid, gas, and a solid and through this water creates all weather and climate on Earth.	2
13860413098	Phosphorus Cycle	Phosphorus is a very important element to organisms. It is used in the creation of nucleotides along with ATP. These two components are essential for organisms. It is also very helpful to marine life in oceans and fresh water locations. However too much phosporus can be deadly to marine life which is why the cycle keeps it at a median. Phosphorus is not common in the atmosphere. There are trace amounts of phosphoric gas but serves no major purpose.	3
13860413099	Sulfur Cycle	Sulfur is a key component of proteins. It is common in amino acids and is therefor needed in all plants and animals. Sulfur is also used in the creation of body fluids and bone.	4

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AP Psychology AP Review Flashcards

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13617916528	psychology	the study of behavior and mental processes	0
13617916529	psychology's biggest question	Which is more important in determining behavior, nature or nurture?	1
13617916530	psychology's three levels of analysis	biopsychosocial approach (looks at the biological, psychological, and social-cultural approaches together)	2
13617916531	biological approach	genetics, close-relatives, body functions	3
13617916532	evolutionary approach	species - helped with survival (ancestors)	4
13617916533	psychodynamic approach	(Freud) subconscious, repressed feelings, unfulfilled wishes	5
13617916534	behavioral approach	learning (classical and operant) observed	6
13617916535	cognitive approach	thinking affects behavior	7
13617916536	humanistic approach	becoming a better human (behavior, acceptance)	8
13617916537	social-cultural approach	cultural, family, environment	9
13617916538	two reasons of why experiments are important	hindsight bias + overconfidence	10
13617916539	types of research methods	descriptive, correlational, and experimental	11
13617916540	descriptive methods	case study survey naturalistic observation (DON'T SHOW CAUSE/EFFECT)	12
13617916541	case study	studies one person in depth may not be typical of population	13
13617916542	survey	studies lots of people not in depth	14
13617916543	naturalistic observation	observe + write facts without interference	15
13617916544	correlational method	shows relation, but not cause/effect scatterplots show research	16
13617916545	correlation coefficient	+ 1.0 (both increase) 0 (no correlation - 1.0 (one increases, other decreases)	17
13617916546	experimental method	does show cause and effect	18
13617916547	population	type of people who are going to be used in experiment	19
13617916548	sample	actual people who will be used (randomness reduces bias)	20
13617916549	random assignment	chance selection between experimental and control groups	21
13617916550	control group	not receiving experimental treatment receives placebo	22
13617916551	experimental group	receiving treatment/drug	23
13617916552	independent variable	drug/procedure/treatment	24
13617916553	dependent variable	outcome of using the drug/treatment	25
13617916554	confounding variable	can affect dependent variable beyond experiment's control	26
13617916555	scientific method	theory hypothesis operational definition revision	27
13617916556	theory	general idea being tested	28
13617916557	hypothesis	measurable/specific	29
13617916558	operational definition	procedures that explain components	30
13617916559	mode	appears the most	31
13617916560	mean	average	32
13617916561	median	middle	33
13617916562	range	highest - lowest	34
13617916563	standard deviation	how scores vary around the mean	35
13617916564	central tendency	single score that represents the whole	36
13617916565	bell curve	(natural curve)	37
13617916566	ethics of testing on animals	need to be treated humanly basically similar to humans	38
13617916567	ethics of testing on humans	consent debriefing no unnecessary discomfort/pain confidentiality	39
13617916568	sensory neurons	travel from sensory receptors to brain	40
13617916569	motor neurons	travel from brain to "motor" workings	41
13617916570	interneurons	(in brain and spinal cord) connecting motor and sensory neurons	42
13617916762	neuron		43
13617916571	dendrites	receive messages from other neurons	44
13617916572	myelin sheath	protects the axon	45
13617916573	axon	where charges travel from cell body to axon terminal	46
13617916574	neurotransmitters	chemical messengers	47
13617916575	reuptake	extra neurotransmitters are taken back	48
13617916576	excitatory charge	"Let's do it!"	49
13617916577	inhibitory charge	"Let's not do it!"	50
13617916578	central nervous system	brain and spinal cord	51
13617916579	peripheral nervous system	somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system	52
13617916580	somatic nervous system	voluntary movements	53
13617916581	autonomic nervous system	involuntary movements (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems)	54
13617916582	sympathetic nervous system	arousing	55
13617916583	parasympathetic nervous system	calming	56
13617916584	neural networks	more connections form with greater use others fall away if not used	57
13617916585	spinal cord	expressway of information bypasses brain when reflexes involved	58
13617916586	endocrine system	slow uses hormones in the blood system	59
13617916587	master gland	pituitary gland	60
13617916588	brainstem	extension of the spinal cord responsible for automatic survival	61
13617916589	reticular formation (if stimulated)	sleeping subject wakes up	62
13617916590	reticular formation (if damaged)	coma	63
13617916591	brainstem (if severed)	still move (without purpose)	64
13617916592	thalamus	sensory switchboard (does not process smell)	65
13617916593	hypothalamus	basic behaviors (hunger, thirst, sex, blood chemistry)	66
13617916594	cerebellum	nonverbal memory, judge time, balance emotions, coordinate movements	67
13617916595	cerebellum (if damaged)	difficulty walking and coordinating	68
13617916596	amygdala	aggression, fear, and memory associated with these emotions	69
13617916597	amygdala (if lesioned)	subject is mellow	70
13617916598	amygdala (if stimulated)	aggressive	71
13617916599	hippocampus	process new memory	72
13617916600	cerebrum	two large hemispheres perceiving, thinking, and processing	73
13617916601	cerebral cortex	only in higher life forms	74
13617916602	association areas	integrate and interpret information	75
13617916603	glial cells	provide nutrients to myelin sheath marks intelligence higher proportion of glial cells to neurons	76
13617916604	frontal lobe	judgement, personality, processing (Phineas Gage accident)	77
13617916605	parietal lobe	math and spatial reasoning	78
13617916606	temporal lobe	audition and recognizing faces	79
13617916607	occipital lobe	vision	80
13617916608	corpus callosum	split in the brain to stop hyper-communication (eliminate epileptic seizures)	81
13617916609	Wernicke's area	interprets auditory and hearing	82
13617916610	Broca's area	speaking words	83
13617916611	plasticity	ability to adapt if damaged	84
13617916612	sensation	what our senses tell us	85
13617916613	bottom-up processing	senses to brain	86
13617916614	perception	what our brain tells us to do with that information	87
13617916615	top-down processing	brain to senses	88
13617916616	inattentional blindness	fail to "gorilla" because attention is elsewhere	89
13617916617	cocktail party effect	even with tons of stimuli, we are able to pick out our name, etc.	90
13617916618	change blindness	giving directions and person is changed and we don't notice	91
13617916619	choice blindness	when defending the choice we make, we fail to notice choice was changed	92
13617916620	absolute threshold	minimum stimulation needed in order to notice 50% of the time	93
13617916621	signal detection theory	we notice what is more important to us (rather hear a baby crying)	94
13617916622	JND (just noticeable difference)	(Weber's law) difference between different stimuli noticed in proportion	95
13617916623	sensory adaptation	tired of noticing (Brain says, "Been there, done that. Next?"	96
13617916624	rods	night time	97
13617916625	cones	color	98
13617916626	parallel processing	notice color, form, depth, movement, etc.	99
13617916627	Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory	3 corresponding color receptors (RGB)	100
13617916628	Hering's opponent-process theory	after image in opposite colors (RG, YB, WB)	101
13617916629	trichromatic + opponent-process	Young-Helmholtz -> color stimuli Hering -> en route to cortex	102
13617916630	frequency we hear most	human voice	103
13617916631	Helmoltz (hearing)	we hear different pitches in different places in basilar membrane (high pitches)	104
13617916632	frequency theory	impulse frequency (low pitches)	105
13617916633	Helmholtz + frequency theory	middle pitches	106
13617916634	Skin feels what?	warmth, cold, pressure, pain	107
13617916635	gate-control theory	small fibers - pain large fibers - other senses	108
13617916636	memory of pain	peaks and ends	109
13617916637	smell	close to memory section (not in thalamus)	110
13617916638	grouping	Gestalt make sense of pieces create a whole	111
13617916639	grouping groups	proximity similarity continuity connectedness closure	112
13617916640	make assumptions of placement	higher - farther smaller - farther blocking - closer, in front	113
13617916641	perception =	mood + motivation	114
13617916642	consciousness	awareness of ourselves and the environment	115
13617916643	circadian rhythm	daily biological clock and regular cycle (sleep and awake)	116
13617916644	circadian rhythm pattern	- activated by light - light sensitive retinal proteins signal brains SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) - pineal gland decreases melatonin	117
13617916645	What messes with circadian rhythm?	artificial light	118
13617916646	The whole sleep cycle lasts how long?	90 minutes	119
13617916647	sleep stages	relaxed stage (alpha waves) stage 1 (early sleep) (hallucinations) stage 2 (sleep spindles - bursts of activity) (sleep talk) stage 3 (transition phase) (delta waves) stage 4 (delta waves) (sleepwalk/talk + wet the bed) stage 5 (REM) (sensory-rich dreams) (paradoxical sleep)	120
13617916648	purpose of sleep	1. recuperation - repair neurons and allow unused neural connections to wither 2. making memories 3. body growth (children sleep more)	121
13617916649	insomnia	can't sleep	122
13617916650	narcolepsy	fall asleep anywhere at anytime	123
13617916651	sleep apnea	stop breathing in sleep	124
13617916652	night terrors	prevalent in children	125
13617916653	sleepwalking/sleeptalking	hereditary - prevalent in children	126
13617916654	dreaming (3)	1. vivid bizarre intense sensory experiences 2. carry fear/survival issues - vestiges of ancestors' survival ideas 2. replay previous day's experiences/worries	127
13617916655	purpose of dreaming (5 THEORIES)	1. physiological function - develop/preserve neural pathways 2. Freud's wish-fulfillment (manifest/latent content) 3. activation synthesis - make sense of stimulation originating in brain 4. information processing 5. cognitive development - reflective of intelligence	128
13617916656	1. Can hypnosis bring you back in time? 2. Can hypnosis make you do things you wouldn't normally do? 3. Can it alleviate pain? 4. What state are you in during hypnosis? 5. Who is more susceptible?	1. cannot take you back in time 2. cannot make you do things you won't do 3. can alleviate pain 4. fully conscious ((IMAGINATIVE PEOPLE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE))	129
13617916657	depressants	slows neural pathways	130
13617916658	alcohol	((depressant)) disrupts memory formation (REM) lowers inhibition expectancy effect	131
13617916659	barbituates (tranquilizers)	((depressant)) reduce anxiety	132
13617916660	opiates	((depressant)) pleasure reduce anxiety/pain	133
13617916661	stimulants	hypes neural processing	134
13617916662	methamphetamine	((stimulant)) heightens energy euphoria affects dopamine	135
13617916663	caffeine	((stimulant))	136
13617916664	nicotine	((stimulant)) CNS releases neurotransmitters calm anxiety reduce pain affects (nor)epinephrine and dopamine	137
13617916665	cocaine	((stimulant)) euphoria affects dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine	138
13617916666	hallucinogen	excites neural activity	139
13617916667	ecstasy	((hallucinogen)) reuptake is blocked affects dopamine and serotonin	140
13617916668	LSD	((hallucinogen)) affects sensory/emotional "trip" (+/-) affects serotonin	141
13617916669	marijuana	((hallucinogen)) amplify sensory experience disrupts memory formation	142
13617916670	learning	organism changing behavior due to experience (association of events)	143
13617916671	types of learning	classical operant observational	144
13617916672	famous classical psychologists	Pavlov and Watson	145
13617916673	famous operant psychologist	Skinner	146
13617916674	famous observational psychologists	Bandura	147
13617916675	classical conditioning	outside stimulus	148
13617916676	Pavlov's experiment	Step 1: US (food) -> UR (salivation) Step 2: NS (bell) -> US (food) -> UR (salivation) Later... CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)	149
13617916677	Watson's experiment	white rat was given to Little Albert Step 1: US (noise) -> UR (cry) Step 2: NS (rat) -> US (noise) -> UR (cry) Later... CS (rat) -> CR (cry)	150
13617916678	generalization	any small, white fluffy creature will make Albert cry now	151
13617916679	discriminate	any large, white fluffy creature won't make Albert cry	152
13617916680	extinction	stop "treating" with conditioned response	153
13617916681	spontaneous recovery	bring stimulus back after a while	154
13617916682	operant conditioning	control by organism	155
13617916683	Skinner's experiment	operant chamber / Skinner box (lead to shaping)	156
13617916684	shaping	get animal closer to doing what you want them to do	157
13617916685	reinforcers	want to continue behavior (positive reinforcement: give money to do laundry) (negative reinforcement: do to avoid nagging)	158
13617916686	punishments	want to stop behavior (positive reinforcement: smack) (negative reinforcement: take away phone)	159
13617916687	fixed ratio	happens a certain number of times (Starbucks punch card)	160
13617916688	variable ratio	happens an unpredictable number of times (winning the lottery)	161
13617916689	organism must do these (2 times)	fixed ratio and variable ratio	162
13617916690	fixed interval	happens at a certain time (mailman comes to the house at 10:00 AM)	163
13617916691	variable interval	happens at any time (receive texts from friends)	164
13617916692	these things happen regardless (2 times)	fixed interval and variable interval	165
13617916693	Which (fixed/variable) conditions better?	variable	166
13617916694	criticisms of Skinner	doesn't take into account intrinsic motivation	167
13617916695	intrinsic motivation	doing something for yourself, not the reward	168
13617916696	extrinsic motivation	doing something for reward	169
13617916697	Skinner's legacy	use it personally, at school, and at work	170
13617916698	famous observational experiment	Bandura's Bobo doll	171
13617916699	famous observational psychologist	Bandura	172
13617916700	mirror neurons	"feel" what is observed happens in higher order animals	173
13617916701	Bobo doll experiment legacy	violent video games/movies desensitize us see good: do good see evil: do evil	174
13617916702	observational learning	biological behaviors work best	175
13617916703	habituation	get used to it -> stop reacting	176
13617916704	examples for observational learning	lectures and reading	177
13617916705	serotonin involved with memory	speeds the connection between neurons	178
13617916706	LTP	((long-term potentiation)) strengthens potential neural forming (associated with speed)	179
13617916707	CREB	protein that can switch genes on/off with memory and connection of memories	180
13617916708	glutamate involved with memory	neurotransmitter that enhances LTP	181
13617916709	glucose involved with memory	released during strong emotions ((signaling important event to be remembered))	182
13617916710	flashbulb memory	type of memory remembered because it was an important/quick moment	183
13617916711	amygdala (memory)	boosts activity of proteins in memory-forming areas to fight/flight	184
13617916712	cerebellum (memory)	forms and stores implicit memories ((classical conditioning))	185
13617916713	hippocampus (memory)	active during sleep (forming memories) ((information "moves" after 48 hours))	186
13617916714	memory	learning over time contains information that can be retrieved	187
13617916715	processing stages	encoding -> storage -> retrieval	188
13617916716	encoding	information going in	189
13617916717	storage	keeping information in	190
13617916718	retrieval	taking information out	191
13617916719	How long is sensory memory stored?	seconds	192
13617916720	How long is short-term memory stored?	less than a minute	193
13617916721	How many bits of information is stored in short-term memory?	7	194
13617916722	How many chunks of information is stored in short-term memory?	4	195
13617916723	How many seconds of words is stored in short-term memory?	2	196
13617916724	short term memory goes to ______________	working memory	197
13617916725	working memory	make a connection and process information to mean something	198
13617916726	working memory goes to _________________	long-term memory	199
13617916727	How much is stored in long-term memory?	LIMITLESS	200
13617916728	implicit memory	naturally do	201
13617916729	explicit memory	need to explain	202
13617916730	automatic processing	space, time, frequency, well-learned information	203
13617916731	effortful processing	processing that requires effort	204
13617916732	spacing effect	spread out learning over time	205
13617916733	serial position effect	primary/recency effect	206
13617916734	primary effect	remember the first things in a list	207
13617916735	recency effect	remember the last things in a list	208
13617916736	effortful processing (4 things)	1. recency effect 2. spacing effect 3. testing effect 4. serial position effect	209
13617916737	semantic encoding (1) meaning (2) how to	make meaning out of something --- chunk, hierarchy, or connect to you	210
13617916738	if we can't remember a memory...	1. change memory to suit us 2. fill in the blanks with logical story	211
13617916739	misinformation effect	not correct information	212
13617916740	imagination inflation	imagine or visualize something that isn't real	213
13617916741	source amnesia	what is the truth? (is it a dream, story, memory, etc.?)	214
13617916742	priming	association (setting you up)	215
13617916743	context	environment helps with memory	216
13617916744	state-dependency	you may remember something if you go back to the state you were in (go back to high)	217
13617916745	mood-congruency	emotion will bring back similar emotional memories	218
13617916746	forgetting curve	forget after 5 days forget after 5 years	219
13617916747	the forgetting curve was created by	Ebbinghaus	220
13617916748	proactive interference	old information interferes with the new	221
13617916749	retroactive interference	new information interferes with the old	222
13617916750	children can't remember before age __	3	223
13617916751	Loftus	connected to abuse cases/childhood	224
13617916752	prototypes	generalize	225
13617916753	problem-solving (4)	trial + error algorithms heuristic (representative + availability) insight - "AHA!"	226
13617916754	against problem-solving	fixation	227
13617916755	mental set	what has worked in the past	228
13617916756	functional fixedness	only way to do this is with this	229
13617916757	Chomsky (nature or nurture?)	"born with language" (nature)	230
13617916758	Skinner (nature or nurture?)	language is learned (nurture)	231
13617916759	grammar is _________	universal	232
13617916760	phonemes	smallest sound unit	233
13617916761	morphemes	smallest meaning unit	234

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13266873574	HCl	hydrochloric acid	0
13266873575	HBr	hydrobromic acid	1
13266878223	HI	hydroiodic acid	2
13266881275	HNO3	nitric acid	3
13266883488	H2SO4	sulfuric acid	4
13266886404	HClO4	perchloric acid	5
13266889416	HClO3	chloric acid	6
13266895732	HCl	strong acid	7
13266898201	HBr	strong acid	8
13266898202	HI	strong acid	9
13266902041	HNO3	strong acid	10
13266904647	H2SO4	strong acid	11
13266907582	HClO4	strong acid	12
13266910046	HClO3	strong acid	13
13266917018	HF	hydrofluoric acid	14
13266919720	HF	weak acid	15
13266922567	Organic acids are [weak/strong] acids	weak acids	16
13266934012	The oxidation number of a free element is always _____	0	17
13266939609	The oxidation number of a monatomic ion equals _______________________	the charge of the ion	18
13266943898	The oxidation number of H is [a], but it is [b] when combined with less electronegative elements	a) +1 b) -1	19
13266954198	The oxidation number of O in compounds is usually [a], but it is [b] in peroxides	a) -2 b) -1	20
13266961169	Peroxides	compounds with negative charges (O22-)	21
13266964334	The oxidation number of a Group 1 element in a compound is ____	+1	22
13266969786	The oxidation number of a Group 2 element in a compound is ____	+2	23
13266974421	The oxidation number of a Group 17 element in a binary compound is ____	-1	24
13266980834	Binary compound	substance composed of only two different elements	25
13266984462	The sum of the oxidation numbers of all of the atoms in a neutral compound is _____	0	26
13266984463	The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is equal to ____________________	the charge of the ion	27
13266995954	Electronegativity	A measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons	28
13267004187	Electronegativity trend	From fluorine to chlorine to bromine, the valence electrons are further away from the nucleus and are not as attracted to the nucleus.	29
13267176857	Polar Bonds	a covalent bond in which electrons are shared unequally	30
13267181538	an electronegativity difference ≥ 0.5 means the bond is	polar	31
13267196317	Nonpolar Bonds	a covalent bond in which electrons are shared equally	32
13267204552	Tetrahedral	109.5	33
13267209940	Trigonal planar	120	34
13267213049	Square planar	90	35
13267215693	Linear	180	36
13267222989	Dipole-dipole	attractive forces between the positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule When a molecule is polar, it will most likely have dipole-dipole forces	37
13267227030	London dispersion forces	All molecules will have dispersion forces between them Sometimes described as the weakest force, depends on the number of electrons and their polarizability (how spread out they are).	38
13267229926	Hydrogen bonding	Very strong force that bonds together Hydrogen to either Nitrogen, Fluorine, or Oxygen (Hydrogen Bonds are FON)	39
13267237668	Ion-dipole interactions	Attraction between an ion in solution and a polar solvent molecule (such as the sphere of hydration - an ion surrounded by polar molecules like a sphere of hydration)	40
13267245296	Melting points and boiling points are higher with [stronger/weaker] intermolecular forces.	stronger	41
13267249647	Vapor pressures are lower with [stronger/weaker] intermolecular forces.	stronger	42
13267252276	Solubility Rules	All nitrate (NO3-) salts, all salts of Group I Cations (EXCEPT Li occasionally) and ammonium (NH4+)	43
13267278341	Effective nuclear charge	pull of the nucleus on the valence electrons (taking shielding electrons into account)	44
13267289289	Periodic Trend: Effective Nuclear Charge	approximately the same for all elements in a group, increases across the period.	45
13267295782	Principal energy level of valence electrons	in the quantum mechanical model it is the highest coefficient (ex. The 4 in 4s2)	46
13267306640	Periodic Trend: Principal energy level of valence electrons	When it increases (moving down the group), so does the atomic radius.	47
13267306641	Periodic Trend: Atomic radius	Across the period: decreases more protons = a stronger nuclear charge (and same amount of electron shielding) = a stronger pull on the electrons = electrons come closer to nucleus Down the group: increases the principal energy level increases (adding more shells of electrons)	48
13267317935	Periodic Trend: Electronegativity	Across the period: increases the effective nuclear charge increases - they have a stronger pull on their electrons and are more likely to attract new ones. they have more electrons in their valence shell it is easier to fill the shell by gaining rather than losing electrons Down the group: decreases as the principal energy level increases, they do not have as strong of a hold on their electrons and are less likely to attract more (the shell becomes bigger and the valence electrons are farther away from the nucleus). Exceptions: noble gases have a full valence shell and do not tend to attract electrons	49
13267327064	Ionization energy	the energy required to remove a valence electron from an atom	50
13267330113	Periodic trend: Ionization Energy	Across the period: increases the atoms have a greater nuclear charge (a stronger pull on their electrons) so it's harder to remove them Down the group: decreases the atoms have a greater atomic radius and less pull on their electrons so it's easier to remove them	51
13267342341	Electron affinity	the numerical value of the ability of an atom to accept an electron (in KJ/mol) - the energy that is released or absorbed when an electron is added to a neutral atom	52
13267346869	Periodic Trend: Electron affinity	Across the period: increases the atomic radius decreases Down the group: decreases the atomic radius increases	53
13267413482	Ionic Compound: Types of atoms involved	metal and nonmetal	54
13267416863	Covalent Compound: Types of atoms involved	2 nonmetals	55
13267420042	Metallic Compound: Types of atoms involved	2 metals	56
13267424150	Ionic Compound: Melting Point	High	57
13267427085	Covalent Compound: Melting Point	Low (molecules) High (Network Covalent)	58
13267434066	Metallic Compound: Melting Point	Very High	59
13267438660	Ionic Compound: Structure	Crystalline Alternating (+)(-)(+) (-)(+)(-) (+)(-)(+)	60
13267448022	Covalent Compound: Structure	Small molecules (as drawn with Lewis structures) Macromolecules (like proteins) Network of bonds through sharing electrons (eg. allotrope of carbon, silicon dioxide)	61
13267467394	Metallic Compound: Structure	Crystalline Alternating (+)(-)(+) (-)(+)(-) (+)(-)(+)	62
13267472422	Ionic Compound: Coulombic Attraction Between	Cations (+) and Anions (-)	63
13267481001	Covalent Compound: Coulombic Attraction Between	Two nuclei (+) and shared electrons (-)	64
13267486857	Metallic Compound: Coulombic Attraction Between	Cations (+) and the sea of delocalized valence electrons (+)	65
13267500868	Ionic Compound: Bond Strength Increases With	Smaller atomic radius (closer together) and the higher the charge of the cation	66
13267505227	Covalent Compound: Bond Strength Increases With	Smaller atomic radius (closer together) and more shared electrons within the same atoms	67
13267514736	Metallic Compound: Bond Strength Increases With	An increased number of valence electrons	68
13267518511	Ionic Compound: Conductivity	only when molten or dissolved	69
13267522082	Covalent Compound: Conductivity	no conduction (except the sp2 hybrid carbon allotropes ie: graphite/graphene)	70
13267542747	Metallic Compound: Conductivity	Good conduction (electrons can move)	71
13267549339	Ionic Compound: Conducts as solid	no	72
13267549340	Covalent Compound: Conducts as solid	no	73
13267551693	Metallic Compound: Conducts as solid	yes	74
13267551694	Ionic Compound: Conducts as liquid	yes	75
13267554437	Covalent Compound: Conducts as liquid	no	76
13267554438	Metallic Compound: Conducts as liquid	yes	77
13267557322	Ionic Compound: Conducts as a solution	yes	78
13267557323	Metallic Compound: Conducts as a solution	n/a	79
13267559586	Covalent Compound: Conducts as a solution	no	80
13267561895	Ionic Compound: Conducts as a gas	yes	81
13267561897	Covalent Compound: Conducts as a gas	no	82
13267567655	Metallic Compound: Conducts as a gas	yes	83
13267574175	1 mol of any gas is ____L at STP	22.4	84
13267574176	MM =	dRT/P	85
13267586664	0th Law of Thermodynamics	If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are also in thermal equalibrium with each other	86
13267594258	1st Law of Thermodynamics	The energy of the universe is constant	87
13267596371	2nd Law of Thermodynamics	In any spontaneous process there is always an increase in the entropy of the universe, ieΔsuniv>0 for a spontaneous process	88
13267598611	3rd Law of Thermodynamics	The entropy of a perfect crystal at 0 K is zero `	89
13267602969	Metal + Water =	Metal Hydroxide (base) + H2	90
13267602970	Non-metal + Water =	Acid	91
13267605466	Equimolar:	equal concentrations	92

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AP Psychology AP Review Flashcards

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13913373793	psychology	the study of behavior and mental processes	0
13913373794	psychology's biggest question	Which is more important in determining behavior, nature or nurture?	1
13913373795	psychology's three levels of analysis	biopsychosocial approach (looks at the biological, psychological, and social-cultural approaches together)	2
13913373796	biological approach	genetics, close-relatives, body functions	3
13913373797	evolutionary approach	species - helped with survival (ancestors)	4
13913373798	psychodynamic approach	(Freud) subconscious, repressed feelings, unfulfilled wishes	5
13913373799	behavioral approach	learning (classical and operant) observed	6
13913373800	cognitive approach	thinking affects behavior	7
13913373801	humanistic approach	becoming a better human (behavior, acceptance)	8
13913373802	social-cultural approach	cultural, family, environment	9
13913373803	two reasons of why experiments are important	hindsight bias + overconfidence	10
13913373804	types of research methods	descriptive, correlational, and experimental	11
13913373805	descriptive methods	case study survey naturalistic observation (DON'T SHOW CAUSE/EFFECT)	12
13913373806	case study	studies one person in depth may not be typical of population	13
13913373807	survey	studies lots of people not in depth	14
13913373808	naturalistic observation	observe + write facts without interference	15
13913373809	correlational method	shows relation, but not cause/effect scatterplots show research	16
13913373810	correlation coefficient	+ 1.0 (both increase) 0 (no correlation - 1.0 (one increases, other decreases)	17
13913373811	experimental method	does show cause and effect	18
13913373812	population	type of people who are going to be used in experiment	19
13913373813	sample	actual people who will be used (randomness reduces bias)	20
13913373814	random assignment	chance selection between experimental and control groups	21
13913373815	control group	not receiving experimental treatment receives placebo	22
13913373816	experimental group	receiving treatment/drug	23
13913373817	independent variable	drug/procedure/treatment	24
13913373818	dependent variable	outcome of using the drug/treatment	25
13913373819	confounding variable	can affect dependent variable beyond experiment's control	26
13913373820	scientific method	theory hypothesis operational definition revision	27
13913373821	theory	general idea being tested	28
13913373822	hypothesis	measurable/specific	29
13913373823	operational definition	procedures that explain components	30
13913373824	mode	appears the most	31
13913373825	mean	average	32
13913373826	median	middle	33
13913373827	range	highest - lowest	34
13913373828	standard deviation	how scores vary around the mean	35
13913373829	central tendency	single score that represents the whole	36
13913373830	bell curve	(natural curve)	37
13913373831	ethics of testing on animals	need to be treated humanly basically similar to humans	38
13913373832	ethics of testing on humans	consent debriefing no unnecessary discomfort/pain confidentiality	39
13913373833	sensory neurons	travel from sensory receptors to brain	40
13913373834	motor neurons	travel from brain to "motor" workings	41
13913373835	interneurons	(in brain and spinal cord) connecting motor and sensory neurons	42
13913374028	neuron		43
13913373836	dendrites	receive messages from other neurons	44
13913373837	myelin sheath	protects the axon	45
13913373838	axon	where charges travel from cell body to axon terminal	46
13913373839	neurotransmitters	chemical messengers	47
13913373840	reuptake	extra neurotransmitters are taken back	48
13913373841	excitatory charge	"Let's do it!"	49
13913373842	inhibitory charge	"Let's not do it!"	50
13913373843	central nervous system	brain and spinal cord	51
13913373844	peripheral nervous system	somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system	52
13913373845	somatic nervous system	voluntary movements	53
13913373846	autonomic nervous system	involuntary movements (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems)	54
13913373847	sympathetic nervous system	arousing	55
13913373848	parasympathetic nervous system	calming	56
13913373849	neural networks	more connections form with greater use others fall away if not used	57
13913373850	spinal cord	expressway of information bypasses brain when reflexes involved	58
13913373851	endocrine system	slow uses hormones in the blood system	59
13913373852	master gland	pituitary gland	60
13913373853	brainstem	extension of the spinal cord responsible for automatic survival	61
13913373854	reticular formation (if stimulated)	sleeping subject wakes up	62
13913373855	reticular formation (if damaged)	coma	63
13913373856	brainstem (if severed)	still move (without purpose)	64
13913373857	thalamus	sensory switchboard (does not process smell)	65
13913373858	hypothalamus	basic behaviors (hunger, thirst, sex, blood chemistry)	66
13913373859	cerebellum	nonverbal memory, judge time, balance emotions, coordinate movements	67
13913373860	cerebellum (if damaged)	difficulty walking and coordinating	68
13913373861	amygdala	aggression, fear, and memory associated with these emotions	69
13913373862	amygdala (if lesioned)	subject is mellow	70
13913373863	amygdala (if stimulated)	aggressive	71
13913373864	hippocampus	process new memory	72
13913373865	cerebrum	two large hemispheres perceiving, thinking, and processing	73
13913373866	cerebral cortex	only in higher life forms	74
13913373867	association areas	integrate and interpret information	75
13913373868	glial cells	provide nutrients to myelin sheath marks intelligence higher proportion of glial cells to neurons	76
13913373869	frontal lobe	judgement, personality, processing (Phineas Gage accident)	77
13913373870	parietal lobe	math and spatial reasoning	78
13913373871	temporal lobe	audition and recognizing faces	79
13913373872	occipital lobe	vision	80
13913373873	corpus callosum	split in the brain to stop hyper-communication (eliminate epileptic seizures)	81
13913373874	Wernicke's area	interprets auditory and hearing	82
13913373875	Broca's area	speaking words	83
13913373876	plasticity	ability to adapt if damaged	84
13913373877	sensation	what our senses tell us	85
13913373878	bottom-up processing	senses to brain	86
13913373879	perception	what our brain tells us to do with that information	87
13913373880	top-down processing	brain to senses	88
13913373881	inattentional blindness	fail to "gorilla" because attention is elsewhere	89
13913373882	cocktail party effect	even with tons of stimuli, we are able to pick out our name, etc.	90
13913373883	change blindness	giving directions and person is changed and we don't notice	91
13913373884	choice blindness	when defending the choice we make, we fail to notice choice was changed	92
13913373885	absolute threshold	minimum stimulation needed in order to notice 50% of the time	93
13913373886	signal detection theory	we notice what is more important to us (rather hear a baby crying)	94
13913373887	JND (just noticeable difference)	(Weber's law) difference between different stimuli noticed in proportion	95
13913373888	sensory adaptation	tired of noticing (Brain says, "Been there, done that. Next?"	96
13913373889	rods	night time	97
13913373890	cones	color	98
13913373891	parallel processing	notice color, form, depth, movement, etc.	99
13913373892	Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory	3 corresponding color receptors (RGB)	100
13913373893	Hering's opponent-process theory	after image in opposite colors (RG, YB, WB)	101
13913373894	trichromatic + opponent-process	Young-Helmholtz -> color stimuli Hering -> en route to cortex	102
13913373895	frequency we hear most	human voice	103
13913373896	Helmholtz (hearing)	we hear different pitches in different places in basilar membrane (high pitches)	104
13913373897	frequency theory	impulse frequency (low pitches)	105
13913373898	Helmholtz + frequency theory	middle pitches	106
13913373899	Skin feels what?	warmth, cold, pressure, pain	107
13913373900	gate-control theory	small fibers - pain large fibers - other senses	108
13913373901	memory of pain	peaks and ends	109
13913373902	smell	close to memory section (not in thalamus)	110
13913373903	grouping	Gestalt make sense of pieces create a whole	111
13913373904	grouping groups	proximity similarity continuity connectedness closure	112
13913373905	make assumptions of placement	higher - farther smaller - farther blocking - closer, in front	113
13913373906	perception =	mood + motivation	114
13913373907	consciousness	awareness of ourselves and the environment	115
13913373908	circadian rhythm	daily biological clock and regular cycle (sleep and awake)	116
13913373909	circadian rhythm pattern	- activated by light - light sensitive retinal proteins signal brains SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) - pineal gland decreases melatonin	117
13913373910	What messes with circadian rhythm?	artificial light	118
13913373911	The whole sleep cycle lasts how long?	90 minutes	119
13913373912	sleep stages	relaxed stage (alpha waves) stage 1 (early sleep) (hallucinations) stage 2 (sleep spindles - bursts of activity) (sleep talk) stage 3 (transition phase) (delta waves) stage 4 (delta waves) (sleepwalk/talk + wet the bed) stage 5 (REM) (sensory-rich dreams) (paradoxical sleep)	120
13913373913	purpose of sleep	1. recuperation - repair neurons and allow unused neural connections to wither 2. making memories 3. body growth (children sleep more)	121
13913373914	insomnia	can't sleep	122
13913373915	narcolepsy	fall asleep anywhere at anytime	123
13913373916	sleep apnea	stop breathing in sleep	124
13913373917	night terrors	prevalent in children	125
13913373918	sleepwalking/sleeptalking	hereditary - prevalent in children	126
13913373919	dreaming (3)	1. vivid bizarre intense sensory experiences 2. carry fear/survival issues - vestiges of ancestors' survival ideas 2. replay previous day's experiences/worries	127
13913373920	purpose of dreaming (5 THEORIES)	1. physiological function - develop/preserve neural pathways 2. Freud's wish-fulfillment (manifest/latent content) 3. activation synthesis - make sense of stimulation originating in brain 4. information processing 5. cognitive development - reflective of intelligence	128
13913373921	1. Can hypnosis bring you back in time? 2. Can hypnosis make you do things you wouldn't normally do? 3. Can it alleviate pain? 4. What state are you in during hypnosis? 5. Who is more susceptible?	1. cannot take you back in time 2. cannot make you do things you won't do 3. can alleviate pain 4. fully conscious ((IMAGINATIVE PEOPLE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE))	129
13913373922	depressants	slows neural pathways	130
13913373923	alcohol	((depressant)) disrupts memory formation (REM) lowers inhibition expectancy effect	131
13913373924	barbituates (tranquilizers)	((depressant)) reduce anxiety	132
13913373925	opiates	((depressant)) pleasure reduce anxiety/pain	133
13913373926	stimulants	hypes neural processing	134
13913373927	methamphetamine	((stimulant)) heightens energy euphoria affects dopamine	135
13913373928	caffeine	((stimulant))	136
13913373929	nicotine	((stimulant)) CNS releases neurotransmitters calm anxiety reduce pain affects (nor)epinephrine and dopamine	137
13913373930	cocaine	((stimulant)) euphoria affects dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine	138
13913373931	hallucinogen	excites neural activity	139
13913373932	ecstasy	((hallucinogen)) reuptake is blocked affects dopamine and serotonin	140
13913373933	LSD	((hallucinogen)) affects sensory/emotional "trip" (+/-) affects serotonin	141
13913373934	marijuana	((hallucinogen)) amplify sensory experience disrupts memory formation	142
13913373935	learning	organism changing behavior due to experience (association of events)	143
13913373936	types of learning	classical operant observational	144
13913373937	famous classical psychologists	Pavlov and Watson	145
13913373938	famous operant psychologist	Skinner	146
13913373939	famous observational psychologists	Bandura	147
13913373940	classical conditioning	outside stimulus	148
13913373941	Pavlov's experiment	Step 1: US (food) -> UR (salivation) Step 2: NS (bell) -> US (food) -> UR (salivation) Later... CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)	149
13913373942	Watson's experiment	white rat was given to Little Albert Step 1: US (noise) -> UR (cry) Step 2: NS (rat) -> US (noise) -> UR (cry) Later... CS (rat) -> CR (cry)	150
13913373943	generalization	any small, white fluffy creature will make Albert cry now	151
13913373944	discriminate	any large, white fluffy creature won't make Albert cry	152
13913373945	extinction	stop "treating" with conditioned response	153
13913373946	spontaneous recovery	bring stimulus back after a while	154
13913373947	operant conditioning	control by organism	155
13913373948	Skinner's experiment	operant chamber / Skinner box (lead to shaping)	156
13913373949	shaping	get animal closer to doing what you want them to do	157
13913373950	reinforcers	want to continue behavior (positive reinforcement: give money to do laundry) (negative reinforcement: do to avoid nagging)	158
13913373951	punishments	want to stop behavior (positive reinforcement: smack) (negative reinforcement: take away phone)	159
13913373952	fixed ratio	happens a certain number of times (Starbucks punch card)	160
13913373953	variable ratio	happens an unpredictable number of times (winning the lottery)	161
13913373954	organism must do these (2 times)	fixed ratio and variable ratio	162
13913373955	fixed interval	happens at a certain time (mailman comes to the house at 10:00 AM)	163
13913373956	variable interval	happens at any time (receive texts from friends)	164
13913373957	these things happen regardless (2 times)	fixed interval and variable interval	165
13913373958	Which (fixed/variable) conditions better?	variable	166
13913373959	criticisms of Skinner	doesn't take into account intrinsic motivation	167
13913373960	intrinsic motivation	doing something for yourself, not the reward	168
13913373961	extrinsic motivation	doing something for reward	169
13913373962	Skinner's legacy	use it personally, at school, and at work	170
13913373963	famous observational experiment	Bandura's Bobo doll	171
13913373964	famous observational psychologist	Bandura	172
13913373965	mirror neurons	"feel" what is observed happens in higher order animals	173
13913373966	Bobo doll experiment legacy	violent video games/movies desensitize us see good: do good see evil: do evil	174
13913373967	observational learning	biological behaviors work best	175
13913373968	habituation	get used to it -> stop reacting	176
13913373969	examples for observational learning	lectures and reading	177
13913373970	serotonin involved with memory	speeds the connection between neurons	178
13913373971	LTP	((long-term potentiation)) strengthens potential neural forming (associated with speed)	179
13913373972	CREB	protein that can switch genes on/off with memory and connection of memories	180
13913373973	glutamate involved with memory	neurotransmitter that enhances LTP	181
13913373974	glucose involved with memory	released during strong emotions ((signaling important event to be remembered))	182
13913373975	flashbulb memory	type of memory remembered because it was an important/quick moment	183
13913373976	amygdala (memory)	boosts activity of proteins in memory-forming areas to fight/flight	184
13913373977	cerebellum (memory)	forms and stores implicit memories ((classical conditioning))	185
13913373978	hippocampus (memory)	active during sleep (forming memories) ((information "moves" after 48 hours))	186
13913373979	memory	learning over time contains information that can be retrieved	187
13913373980	processing stages	encoding -> storage -> retrieval	188
13913373981	encoding	information going in	189
13913373982	storage	keeping information in	190
13913373983	retrieval	taking information out	191
13913373984	How long is sensory memory stored?	seconds	192
13913373985	How long is short-term memory stored?	less than a minute	193
13913373986	How many bits of information is stored in short-term memory?	7	194
13913373987	How many chunks of information is stored in short-term memory?	4	195
13913373988	How many seconds of words is stored in short-term memory?	2	196
13913373989	short term memory goes to ______________	working memory	197
13913373990	working memory	make a connection and process information to mean something	198
13913373991	working memory goes to _________________	long-term memory	199
13913373992	How much is stored in long-term memory?	LIMITLESS	200
13913373993	implicit memory	naturally do	201
13913373994	explicit memory	need to explain	202
13913373995	automatic processing	space, time, frequency, well-learned information	203
13913373996	effortful processing	processing that requires effort	204
13913373997	spacing effect	spread out learning over time	205
13913373998	serial position effect	primary/recency effect	206
13913373999	primary effect	remember the first things in a list	207
13913374000	recency effect	remember the last things in a list	208
13913374001	effortful processing (4 things)	1. recency effect 2. spacing effect 3. testing effect 4. serial position effect	209
13913374002	semantic encoding (1) meaning (2) how to	make meaning out of something --- chunk, hierarchy, or connect to you	210
13913374003	if we can't remember a memory...	1. change memory to suit us 2. fill in the blanks with logical story	211
13913374004	misinformation effect	not correct information	212
13913374005	imagination inflation	imagine or visualize something that isn't real	213
13913374006	source amnesia	what is the truth? (is it a dream, story, memory, etc.?)	214
13913374007	priming	association (setting you up)	215
13913374008	context	environment helps with memory	216
13913374009	state-dependency	you may remember something if you go back to the state you were in (go back to high)	217
13913374010	mood-congruency	emotion will bring back similar emotional memories	218
13913374011	forgetting curve	forget after 5 days forget after 5 years	219
13913374012	the forgetting curve was created by	Ebbinghaus	220
13913374013	proactive interference	old information interferes with the new	221
13913374014	retroactive interference	new information interferes with the old	222
13913374015	children can't remember before age __	3	223
13913374016	Loftus	connected to abuse cases/childhood	224
13913374017	prototypes	generalize	225
13913374018	problem-solving (4)	trial + error algorithms heuristic (representative + availability) insight - "AHA!"	226
13913374019	against problem-solving	fixation	227
13913374020	mental set	what has worked in the past	228
13913374021	functional fixedness	only way to do this is with this	229
13913374022	Chomsky (nature or nurture?)	"born with language" (nature)	230
13913374023	Skinner (nature or nurture?)	language is learned (nurture)	231
13913374024	grammar is _________	universal	232
13913374025	phonemes	smallest sound unit	233
13913374026	morphemes	smallest meaning unit	234

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13759321521	Bully Pulpit	The president using his power to influence people	0
13759321522	War Powers Resolution	Report to congress within 48 hours of deploying troops, and must bring them home within 60 days	1
13759321523	executive agreement	a pact between the president and the head of a foreign state (no senate approval needed)	2
13759321524	Census	the official count of a population done every 10 years	3
13759321525	Apportionment	Distribution of representatives among the states based on the population of each state	4
13759321526	gerrymander	to divide an area into voting districts in a way that favors a political party	5
13759321527	Casework	Different issues that Congress members help their constituents on	6
13759321528	pork barrel	legislation that gives tangible benefits to constituents in several districts or states in the hope of winning their votes in return	7
13759321529	earmark	a congressional directive that funds should be spent on a specific project.	8
13759321530	Logrolling	The exchange between politicians of political support on one issue for political support on another.	9
13759321531	concurrent resolution	settles housekeeping and procedural matters that affect both houses	10
13759321532	joint resolution	Proposing an amendment to the US constitution	11
13759321533	simple resolution	passed by either house, used to establish rules on how each house operates	12
13759321534	multiple referral	a bill is referred to several committees simultaneously	13
13759321535	sequential referral	a speaker may send a bill to a second committee after the first is finished acting	14
13759321536	Rider	An addition to a bill	15
13759321537	Christmas tree bill	a bill with many riders	16
13759321538	standing committee	A permanent committee established in a legislature, usually focusing on a policy area	17
13759321539	select committee	A temporary legislative committee established for a limited time period and for a special purpose.	18
13759321540	joint committee	legislative committee composed of members of both houses	19
13759321541	lame duck	A person still in office after he or she has lost a bid for reelection	20
13759321542	House Rules Committee	the committee that determines how and when debate on a bill will take place	21
13759321543	House Ways and Means Committee	House committee that handles tax bills	22
13759321544	House Appropriations Committee	Committee in charge of setting the specific expenditures of money by the government of the United States.	23
13759321545	prior restraint	government censorship of information before it is published or broadcast	24
13759321546	exclusionary rule	improperly gathered evidence may not be introduced in a criminal trial	25
13759321547	eminent domain	Power of a government to take private property for public use.	26
13759321548	Civil Rights Act of 1964	outlawed discrimination in public places and employment based on race, religion, or national origin	27
13759321549	Civil rights act of 1965	prohibits racial discrimination in voting	28
13759321550	Federal Voting Rights Act	Outlaws all voting barriers (literacy test, grandfather clause)	29
13759321551	Americans with Disabilities Act	Ends discrimination to those with disabilities in public places	30
13759321552	Incrementalism	The belief that the best predictor of this year's budget is the last year's budget, plus a little bit more.	31
13759321553	Office of Management and Budget (OMB)	Creates a budget for the president to approve	32
13759321554	Congressional Budget Office	federal agency within the legislative branch that provides budget and economic information to Congress	33
13759321555	Bureaucracy	Complex group of people who were under the president	34
13759321556	527c's	Non-profit organizations created to influence selection of a candidate, and election	35
13759321557	soft money	Campaign contributions unregulated by federal or state law, usually given to parties and party committees to help fund general party activities.	36
13759321558	hard money	campaign contributions donated directly to candidates	37
13759321559	Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act	the act or law that banned soft money	38
13759321560	Dealignment	Weakening of partisan preferences that points to a rejection of both major parties and a rise in the number of independents.	39
13759321561	Caucus	A meeting of local party members to choose party officials or candidates for public office and to decide the platform.	40
13759321562	Frontloading	The recent tendency of states to hold primaries early in the calendar in order to capitalize on media attention.	41
13759321563	Shay's Rebellion	A 1787 rebellion in which ex-Revolutionary War soldiers attempted to prevent foreclosures of farms as a result of high interest rates and taxes	42
13759321564	concurrent powers	powers shared by the national and state governments	43
13759321565	delegated powers	Those powers, expressed, implied, or inherent, granted to the National Government by the constitution	44
13759321566	reserved powers	Powers given to the state government alone	45
13759321567	Mandates	terms set by the national government that states must meet whether or not they accept federal grants	46
13759321568	unfunded mandates	Programs that the Federal government requires States to implement without Federal funding.	47
13759321569	Underfunded Mandate	program mandated by Congress and administered by the states but only paticially funded by the federal gov.	48
13759321570	block grants	federal grants-in-aid that allow states considerable discretion in how the funds are spent	49
13759321571	categorical grants	Federal grants for specific purposes, such as building an airport	50
13759321572	Filibuster	A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator refuses to relinquish the floor and thereby delays proceedings and prevents a vote on a controversial issue.	51
13759321573	Necessary and Proper Clause	constitutional authorization for Congress to make any law required to carry out its powers	52
13759321574	Bureaucratic Rulemaking	The process in which the bureaucracy decides what the laws passed by Congress mean and how they should be carried out.	53
13759321575	Political Action Committee (PAC)	a private group that raises and distributes funds for use in election campaigns	54
13759321576	linkage institutions	Institutions that connect citizens to government.	55
13759321577	Iron Triangle	A close relationship between an agency, a congressional committee, and an interest group	56
13759321578	conference committee	special joint committee created to reconcile differences in bills passed by the House and Senate	57
13759321579	pro tempore	Takes Vice President's place in senate during an absence	58
13759321580	Quorum	The number of senate members that must be present to do business	59
13759321581	cloture rule	A Senate rule offering a means for stopping a filibuster	60
13759321582	closed rule	A bill that can not be changed or amended	61
13759321583	Open rule	A bill that can be debated on and changed in congress	62
13759321584	Malapportionment	The creation of electoral districts	63
13759321585	marginal districts	political districts in which candidates elected to the house of representatives win in close elections, typically by less than 55 percent of the vote	64
13759321586	budget	The government spending plan for a given year	65
13759321587	Patronage	Making appointments to political office based on prior relationships	66
13759321588	regulatory agency	a governmental agency that regulates businesses in the public interest	67
13759321589	Rule of Propinquity	power is held by the people in the room when the decision is made	68
13759321590	senatorial courtesy	a custom whereby presidential appointments are confirmed only if there is no objection to them by the senators from the appointee's state, especially from the senior senator of the president's party from that state.	69
13759321591	writ of certiorari	An order by a higher court directing a lower court to send up a case for review	70
13759321592	Plaintiff	a person who brings a case against another in a court of law.	71
13759321593	Rule of 4	At least four justices of the Supreme Court must vote to consider a case before it can be heard	72
13759321594	writ of mandamus	written order from a court to enforce the performance of some public duty	73
13759321595	class action lawsuit	a case brought by a group of individuals on behalf of themselves and others in the general public who are in similar circumstances	74
13759321596	solicitor general	Justice Department officer who argues the government's cases before the Supreme Court	75
13759321597	bill of attainder	a law that declares a person, without a trial, to be guilty of a crime	76
13759321598	Case and Controversy	the requirement that there must be an actual dispute for the supreme court to accept a case for consideration	77
13759321599	Centralized Federalism	The relationship between the national and state governments whereby the national government imposes its policy preferences on state governments.	78
13759321600	Competitive Federalism	A form of federalism in which states compete to attract businesses and jobs through the policies they adopt.	79
13759321601	conditions of aid	Federal rules attached to the grants that states receive. States must agree to abide by these rules in order to receive the grants.	80
13759321602	continuous body	governing unit whose seats are never all up for election at the same time	81
13759321603	Cooperative Federalism	system in which both federal government and state governments cooperate in solving problems	82
13759321604	critical election	an election that signals a party realignment through voter polarization around new issues and personalities	83
13759321605	Dual Federalism	A system of government in which both the states and the national government remain supreme within their own spheres, each responsible for some policies.	84
13759321606	Due Process	following established legal procedures	85
13759321607	Due Process Clause	part of the 14th Amendment which guarantees that no state deny basic rights to its people	86
13759321608	elite democracy	a theory of democracy that limits the citizens' role to choosing among competing leaders	87
13759321609	ex post facto	a law that would allow a person to be punished for an action that was not against the law when it was committed	88
13759321610	Extradition	A legal process whereby a state surrenders a person charged with a crime to the state in which the crime is alleged to have been committed.	89
13759321611	Equal Protection Clause	Constitutional guarantee that everyone be treated equally-14th amendment	90
13759321612	Fiscal Federalism	Federal government using money (grants) to influence & control states.	91
13759321613	Formula grant	Federal categorical grants distributed according to a formula specified in legislation or in administrative regulations.	92
13759321614	free rider	An individual who does not to join a group representing his or her interests yet receives the benefit of the group's influence.	93
13759321615	Full Faith and Credit Clause	Constitution's requirement that each state accept the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state	94
13759321616	Grants	money given by the national government to the states	95
13759321617	grants-in-aid	programs through which Congress provides money to state and local governments on the condition that the funds be employed for purposes defined by the federal government	96
13759321618	gubernatorial	anything relating to a governor	97
13759321619	high crimes and misdemeanors	Circumstances under which the president can by impeached by the House and removed from office by the Senate.	98
13759321620	Hyperpluralism	A state in which many groups or factions are so strong that a government is unable to function.	99
13759321621	juristiction	The authority of a court to hear a case	100
13759321622	Limited Government	A principle of constitutional government; a government whose powers are defined and limited by a constitution.	101
13759321623	majority rule	the principle that the greater number should exercise greater power.	102
13759321624	matching grant	A grant of money given by the federal government to a state government for which the federal government provides matching funds, usually between one and two dollars, for every dollar the state spends in some area.	103
13759321625	Natural Law	A doctrine that society should be governed by certain ethical principles that are part of nature and, as such, can be understood by reason.	104
13759321626	Natural Rights	"Life, Liberty, and Property"	105
13759321627	original jurisdiction	The jurisdiction of courts that hear a case first, usually in a trial. These are the courts that determine the facts about a case.	106
13759321628	party platform	A document drawn up at each national convention, outlining the policies, positions, and principles of the party.	107
13759321629	plurality election	a type of election in which the candidate with the most votes wins the election	108
13759321630	police power	power reserved to the state government to regulate the health, safety, and morals of its citizens	109
13759321631	political efficacy	The belief that one's political participation makes a difference.	110
13759321632	political socialization	the process by which people gain their political attitudes and opinions	111
13759321633	precedent	How similar cases have been decided in the past.	112
13759321634	Project grant	one type of federal grants-in-aid; made for specific projects to States, localities, and private agencies who apply for them	113
13759321635	Public monies	money from federal government used to match presidential campaigning	114
13759321636	random sample	method of selecting from a population in which each person has an equal probability of being selected	115
13759321637	Recall	A procedure for submitting to popular vote the removal of officials from office before the end of their term.	116
13759321638	revenue sharing	the distribution of a portion of federal tax revenues to state and local governments.	117
13759321639	single-member district	An electoral district in which voters choose one representative or official.	118
13759321640	Social Contract Theory	The belief that people are free and equal by natural right, and that this in turn requires that all people give their consent to be governed; espoused by John Locke and influential in the writing of the declaration of independence.	119
13759321641	Spoils System	A system of public employment based on rewarding party loyalists and friends.	120
13759321642	unitary system	A government that gives all key powers to the national or central government	121

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