| 9548650599 | . The Legalist Answer | 1. High rewards, high punishments: Advocates of Legalism believed that
humans were self-serving and short-sighted. Thus, to get them to do good,
they had to be sure of high rewards and to keep them from doing wrong,
they had to fear heavy punishments.
2. Qin Shihuangdi: China's first emperor used Legalism to create social
order out of the chaos of the era of warring states. Unfortunately, his brutal
reign discredited Legalism in the eyes of many. | | 0 |
| 9548664672 | The Confucian Answer | 1. Confucius, Analects, & Confucianism: Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) came from an aristocratic family
in northern China and believed to have found the way to create social harmony. While he sought office
where he could put his ideas into effect, he never found such a job and remained a thinker and a teacher.
After his death, his students collected his teachings in a short book called the Analects and later scholars
created a body of thought that came to be called Confucianism.
2. Moral example of superiors: In clear contrast to Legalism, Confucianism taught that the strong moral
example of social superiors should teach others how to behave.
3. Unequal relationships governed by ren: Confucius taught that ren (benevolence, human-heartedness,
and goodness) should be cultivated in all social relationships.
4. Education and state bureaucracy: The Han dynasty rejected the Qin use of Legalism and used
Confucianism as a governing philosophy for the new state bureaucracy. As government service required
an entry test, Confucianism came to dominate the educational system and became central to the world
view of civil servants. As civil servants were an embodiment of social morality, they enjoyed an
esteemed status, while merchants and soldiers were much lower in the social hierarchy.
5. Filial piety and gender expectations: Confucianism stressed filial piety, loyalty to and reverence of
one's parents and ancestors; this loyalty was important in and of itself but also as a model for loyalty to
the emperor. Confucian views of the family were rigidly hierarchical and patriarchic. Female
subordination was justified by the belief that the superior world of the heavens was male and the inferior
material world of the Earth was female.
6. Secular: While Confucius was not an atheist and did not deny religion, the philosophy based on his
teachings focused on establishing social harmony in the material world, not religious or other spiritual
worlds. | | 1 |
| 9548678583 | The Daoist Answer | 1. Laozi's Daodejing and Zhuangzi: A sixth-century B.C.E. archivist, Laozi
penned a short poetic work before leaving society and escaping into China's
wild west. The philosopher Zhuangzi (369-286 B.C.E.) later wrote on
Laozi's work in a more explicit manner.
2. Withdrawal into nature: In sharp contrast to Confucian emphasis on
social engagement, Laozi taught to leave society and enter nature,
appreciating its mysteries, beauty, and truth.
3. Spontaneous natural behavior not rigid education: Also in sharp contrast
to Confucian teachings, Laozi did not value education but encouraged
people to behave in a spontaneous and natural manner.
4. Dao ("The Way"): Laozi spoke of a mysterious force of truth and
goodness that surrounded all things. If one could understand this indefinable
force, one could live a good life.
5. Contradict or complement Confucianism?: While we might see many
obvious contradictions between Confucianism and Daoism, Chinese elites
saw them as a natural complement to each other. Many civil servants might
have used ideas of social hierarchy to govern during the day and withdraw into nature, art, and poetry in the evenings | | 2 |
| 9548701988 | South Asian Religion: From Ritual Sacrifice to Philosophical Speculation | 1. Vedas (1500-600 B.C.E.), Brahmins, and rituals: These early Indian texts
were initially passed down by oral tradition. They give detailed insights into
the early South Asian world, where social hierarchy and religious ritual were
very important.
2. Upanishads (800-400 B.C.E.): As lower classes began to react
increasingly negatively to the elites' emphasis on social status and ritual
obligation, a body of texts by various anonymous authors arose that focused
more on mystical and philosophical issues than on formal rituals.
3. Atman and Brahman: The Upanishads taught that individual human souls,
atman, were part of a greater "world soul," Brahman. The eternal unity of
Brahman was the true reality and the divisions and diversities of the material
world were a mere illusion.
4. Samsara, moksha, and karma: Human souls were trapped in a cycle of
birth, death, and rebirth known as samsara, and their status in life was
governed by the consequences of their actions, karma. Only those who could
rise above the illusions of the material world could break free of the cycles
of samsara, achieving moksha, release from the material world and unity
with the divine great soul of Brahman.
5. Gender and the Laws of Manu: The social implications of this world view
endorsed caste distinctions and hierarchy as well as patriarchy. Women came
to be seen as unclean and dirty and thus inferior. The Laws of Manu
institutionalized these inequalities and promoted young girls to marrying
older men, wives being obedient, and widows never remarrying.
6. Cults and deities as different paths: Hinduism, as the many diverse
traditions of South Asia came to be known, recognized that there were many
paths to the divine. With a huge number of gods and goddess of widely
different character and temperament, various devotional cults developed.
Often they would draw women or lower-class men who felt left out of
practices that emphasized rituals and social hierarchy. | | 3 |
| 9548709904 | The Buddhist Challenge | 1. Siddhartha Gautama (ca. 566-ca. 486 B.C.E.): Buddhism, unlike the collection of
traditions known as Hinduism, has a historical founding figure. This north Indian prince lived
a life of opulence until he encountered examples of sickness, old age, and death. He then went
on a spiritual quest until achieving enlightenment at age 35. He spent the remainder of his life
teaching his message.
2. The Buddha's teachings and nirvana: The Buddha's central teachings were that life is
suffering and that suffering could be ended by ending desire. The enlightened state, or
nirvana, could be achieved by following the Buddha's path, at which point one's individual
identity would fuse with the larger whole and all individual desires and delusions would
vanish. Communities of monks formed to follow his teachings.
3. Relationship to Hinduism: Buddhism stemmed from Hinduism and shard many key
concepts such as the illusion of the material world, rebirth, and karma. Indeed the end goal of
release from individual identity and fusion with the large world soul is shared by both faiths.
While both practice meditation, Buddhism was much less tied (and even hostile to) rituals and
caste. Some might refer to Buddhism as a simplified and more accessible form of Hinduism.
4. Restrictions and opportunities for women: Initially the Buddha did not allow women into
the community of monks. However, after some pressure he allowed them to establish
communities for nuns but they were clearly subordinate to male monks. Nonetheless, many
women found more opportunities for spiritual fulfillment than in male-dominated Hindu
communities.
5. Popular appeal: Eschewing the Hinduism elite language of Sanskrit for the popularly
used Pali, Buddhist teachings were accessible to the less-educated social classes. The
rejection of caste and the establishment of stupas and shrines as sacred sites to visit and
Ashoka's promotion of the faith helped to win many converts and establish the faith as
distinct from Hinduism.
6. Theravada: The original branch of Buddhism, "The Teaching of the Elders," focused on
wisdom passed down through monks. While not denying their existence, there was little talk
of gods. The Buddha was not portrayed as a god.
7. Mahayana's bodhisattvas: Known as "The Greater Vehicle," this branch of Buddhism
began to take on aspects of the supernatural. The Buddha became a godlike figure and there
were believed to be numerous bodhisattvas who had achieved enlightenment but stayed in
the material world to help others achieve enlightenment. These Bodhisattva became the
subject of popular veneration. | | 4 |
| 9548762057 | Hinduism as a Religion of Duty and Devotion | 1. Mahabharata, Bhagavad-Gita, and Ramayana: These texts contained
epic stories of battle and humans interacting with deities that were both
wildly entertaining but more importantly provided a popular communication
of Hindu teachings to the masses. Stories such as that of the warrior Arjuna
and his charioteer Lord Krishna (an incarnation of Vishnu) gave common
people the example of following one's moral obligations in the world as a
path towards fulfilling one's spiritual duty.
2. Bhakti: Meaning "worship," this movement involved intense and
passionate songs, prayers, and rituals towards gods such as Vishnu and Shiva.
Often this form of expression was open to all regardless of caste or gender.
3. Buddhism absorbed back into Hinduism: Buddhism waned in India as it
faced competition from Islam and some concern about the wealth of
monasteries but mostly because Hinduism is a tolerant faith that could
incorporate and absorb Buddhism. The Buddha came to be viewed as the
ninth incarnation of Vishnu, and veneration of the Buddha became similar to
veneration of other deities. | | 5 |
| 9548767962 | Zoroastrianism | 1. Zarathustra (seventh to sixth century B.C.E.): While it is uncertain when
this prophet lived, his ideas took hold later. He sought to stop violence and
cattle raiding amongst the Persians by declaring a single unique god that was
the source of all light and wisdom, Ahura Mazda.
2. Persian state support, Achaemenid Dynasty (558-330 B.C.E.): This
dynasty gave the faith and its priesthood state support.
3. Ahura Mazda versus Angra Mainyu: Zarathustra taught that there was a
constant struggle between the forces of good and evil and that at some point,
a savior would come to help the forces of good defeat evil and there would
be a final judgment for all men with either punishment or rewards in an
afterlife.
4. Human free will, struggle of good versus evil, a savior, and judgment
day: Key elements of Zoroastrianism influenced the Jewish community that
lived in the Persian Empire. While the Zoroastrian faith remained small and
was later damaged by Greek and Islamic invaders, its ideas found new life in
braches of Judaism that would later become Christianity and Islam. A few
Zoroastrians survived in India where they are known as Parsis ("Persians"). | | 6 |
| 9548775702 | Judaism | 1. Migrations and exiles of a small Hebrew community: In contrast to
Zoroastrianism, which developed in a powerful empire, Judaism was the
tribal faith of a very small community that went through several migrations,
exiles, and a few short-lived kingdoms. Rather than state identity holding
these together, it was a shared religious and cultural identity that survived
the centuries-long journey from Mesopotamia to Egypt and onto the
promised land of Canaan before suffering invasion and exile at the hands of
the Assyrians (772 B.C.E.) and Babylonians (586 B.C.E.).
2. One exclusive and jealous God: The first of the laws passed down to the
Hebrews was that there would be no other gods but God; this was difficult in
the polytheistic agrarian world of the ancient Middle East. However, over
time the pro-monotheist priests won out.
3. Loyalty to Yahweh and obedience to his laws: The Jews' relationship with
God was contractual: So long as they kept their faith and obeyed him, they
would be rewarded with a growing population and prosperity. For many, the
link to Yahweh was personal, he was a god that one could appeal to rather
than an abstract force. This religious development laid the foundation for
Christianity and Islam. | | 7 |
| 9548785440 | The Greek Way of Knowing | 1. Questions, not answers: The Greek contribution lay in asking a series of analytic questions about a wide
variety of issues rather than proclaiming authoritative answers.
2. Socrates (469-399 B.C.E.), Plato (429-348 B.C.E.), and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.): Greece's three
greatest thinkers were a succession of teachers and students (Socrates taught Plato who taught Aristotle
who, in turn, tutored the future Alexander the Great as a young boy). Each provided important
contributions to Greek thought in regards to questioning assumptions, defining terms and systems, and
cataloging evidence.
3. Rational and non-religious analysis of the world: Central to the Greek philosophical contribution was
the use of observation and reason to make sense of a complicated world. Their questions, analysis, and
answers did not rely on religion, leaps of faith, or great mysteries. Rather the world was knowable. | | 8 |
| 9548790185 | The Greek Legacy | 1. Alexander the Great, Rome, and the Academy in Athens: Greek thought was spread by Alexander
during his dramatic imperial expansion, embraced by many Romans as that empire united the
Mediterranean world, and preserved in the Academy in Athens, funded by Plato.
2. The loss and recovery of Greece in Europe: With the collapse of Rome and early Medieval
Christianity's hostility toward things pagan, Europe turned its back on Greek learning, only to rediscover
and embrace it after the twelfth century. This rediscovery would contribute to the Renaissance and the
Scientific Revolution.
3. Greek learning in the Islamic world: So if early Christian Europe rejected Greek learning as pagan,
where did it survive? In the cities, libraries, and centers of learning in the Islamic world. Here, at the
geographical crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa, Muslim scholars studied, critiqued, and built upon Greek, Indian, Persian, and other international scholarship. Only when Medieval Europe
engaged with the Muslim world during the Crusades was this wisdom brought back into
Europe proper. | | 9 |
| 9548812109 | The Lives of the Founders | 1. Encounter with a higher level of reality: Jesus and the Buddha came from
very different social backgrounds but both had a very similar and profound
encounter with a higher level of reality and taught a path to personal
salvation.
2. Messages of love: Both taught a message that put love for one's fellow
man (even one's enemies) at the center.
3. Jesus' miracles and dangerous social critique: While the Buddha did not
create a social conflict and did not discuss the issue of gods and the
supernatural, Jesus was said to have performed numerous miracles and gave
sermons that challenged the social injustices and inequalities of the Roman
Empire. | | 10 |
| 9548819345 | The Spread of New Religions | 1. New religions after their deaths: While both the Buddha and Jesus wanted to
reform Hindu and Jewish traditions, the were not trying to create new religions per
se. However, after their death, their followers did exactly this and turned these two
teachers into godlike figures.
2. Paul (10-65 C.E.): St. Paul was central to the spread of the Christian faith as he
sent out envoys, established churches, and oversaw the rules of this new community
of believers.
3. Lower social classes and women: While Paul and others were openly hostile to
women in the church, the new faith provided new opportunities for many women in
the Roman Empire. Jesus' social message attracted many converts from the lower
social orders.
4. Non-European Christianity: While in the modern era Christianity became
synonymous with Europe, in its first few centuries, the faith was strongest in
Southwest Asia and North Africa with churches, monasteries, and other institutions
spread through the Roman infrastructure of cities and roads and beyond into
neighboring lands.
5. Christianity as a Roman religion: While the Roman state was initially suspicious
of and hostile to the faith's monotheism (seen as a form of atheism in its denial of
Roman gods), once Emperor Constantine converted in the early fourth century, the
faith soon became a state religion used to forge unity in a diverse empire. | | 11 |
| 9548826025 | Institutions, Controversies, and Divisions | 1. The exclusion of women from leadership: While in its first few
generations Christianity provided many opportunities for women to assume
positions of leadership, by the fifth century they were being systematically
excluded.
2. Debates over doctrine and texts: The faith was beset by numerous debates
about the teachings and nature of Jesus, as well as which texts to include as
part of the faith and its practice.
3. Council orthodoxy and expulsion: A series of church councils sought to
establish an orthodoxy in regards to teachings, texts, and ritual. Those who
did not adhere to what the councils proclaimed would be expelled from the
Christian community.
4. Roman and Greek cultural traditions: The Roman empire was
characterized by a distinct linguistic and cultural divide between the Latin
west and Greek east. This divide influenced the interpretation and practice of
the Christian faith, creating a profound distinction that survives until today.
5. Diversity in the Buddhist world: Buddhism also experienced a diversity
of traditions and a series of councils that failed to impose unity upon the faith and its practitioners. | | 12 |
