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AP Psychology AP Review Part 1 Flashcards

8439118255	psychology	the study of behavior and mental processes	0
8439118256	psychology's biggest question	Which is more important in determining behavior, nature or nurture?	1
8439118257	psychology's three levels of analysis	biopsychosocial approach (looks at the biological, psychological, and social-cultural approaches together)	2
8439118258	biological approach	genetics, close-relatives, body functions	3
8439118259	evolutionary approach	species - helped with survival (ancestors)	4
8439118260	psychodynamic approach	(Freud) subconscious, repressed feelings, unfulfilled wishes	5
8439118261	behavioral approach	learning (classical and operant) observed	6
8439118262	cognitive approach	thinking affects behavior	7
8439118263	humanistic approach	becoming a better human (behavior, acceptance)	8
8439118264	social-cultural approach	cultural, family, environment	9
8439118265	two reasons of why experiments are important	hindsight bias + overconfidence	10
8439118266	types of research methods	descriptive, correlational, and experimental	11
8439118267	descriptive methods	case study survey naturalistic observation (DON'T SHOW CAUSE/EFFECT)	12
8439118268	case study	studies one person in depth may not be typical of population	13
8439118269	survey	studies lots of people not in depth	14
8439118270	naturalistic observation	observe + write facts without interference	15
8439118271	correlational method	shows relation, but not cause/effect scatterplots show research	16
8439118272	correlation coefficient	+ 1.0 (both increase) 0 (no correlation - 1.0 (one increases, other decreases)	17
8439118273	experimental method	does show cause and effect	18
8439118274	population	type of people who are going to be used in experiment	19
8439118275	sample	actual people who will be used (randomness reduces bias)	20
8439118276	random assignment	chance selection between experimental and control groups	21
8439118277	control group	not receiving experimental treatment receives placebo	22
8439118278	experimental group	receiving treatment/drug	23
8439118279	independent variable	drug/procedure/treatment	24
8439118280	dependent variable	outcome of using the drug/treatment	25
8439118281	confounding variable	can affect dependent variable beyond experiment's control	26
8439118282	scientific method	theory hypothesis operational definition revision	27
8439118283	theory	general idea being tested	28
8439118284	hypothesis	measurable/specific	29
8439118285	operational definition	procedures that explain components	30
8439118286	mode	appears the most	31
8439118287	mean	average	32
8439118288	median	middle	33
8439118289	range	highest - lowest	34
8439118290	standard deviation	how scores vary around the mean	35
8439118291	central tendency	single score that represents the whole	36
8439118292	bell curve	(natural curve)	37
8439118293	ethics of testing on animals	need to be treated humanly basically similar to humans	38
8439118294	ethics of testing on humans	consent debriefing no unnecessary discomfort/pain confidentiality	39
8439118295	sensory neurons	travel from sensory receptors to brain	40
8439118296	motor neurons	travel from brain to "motor" workings	41
8439118297	interneurons	(in brain and spinal cord) connecting motor and sensory neurons	42
8439118298	neuron		43
8439118299	dendrites	receive messages from other neurons	44
8439118300	myelin sheath	protects the axon	45
8439118301	axon	where charges travel from cell body to axon terminal	46
8439118302	neurotransmitters	chemical messengers	47
8439118303	reuptake	extra neurotransmitters are taken back	48
8439118304	excitatory charge	"Let's do it!"	49
8439118305	inhibitory charge	"Let's not do it!"	50
8439118306	central nervous system	brain and spinal cord	51
8439118307	peripheral nervous system	somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system	52
8439118308	somatic nervous system	voluntary movements	53
8439118309	autonomic nervous system	involuntary movements (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems)	54
8439118310	sympathetic nervous system	arousing	55
8439118311	parasympathetic nervous system	calming	56
8439118312	neural networks	more connections form with greater use others fall away if not used	57
8439118313	spinal cord	expressway of information bypasses brain when reflexes involved	58
8439118314	endocrine system	slow uses hormones in the blood system	59
8439118315	master gland	pituitary gland	60
8439118316	brainstem	extension of the spinal cord responsible for automatic survival	61
8439118317	reticular formation (if stimulated)	sleeping subject wakes up	62
8439118318	reticular formation (if damaged)	coma	63
8439118319	brainstem (if severed)	still move (without purpose)	64
8439118320	thalamus	sensory switchboard (does not process smell)	65
8439118321	hypothalamus	basic behaviors (hunger, thirst, sex, blood chemistry)	66
8439118322	cerebellum	nonverbal memory, judge time, balance emotions, coordinate movements	67
8439118323	cerebellum (if damaged)	difficulty walking and coordinating	68
8439118324	amygdala	aggression, fear, and memory associated with these emotions	69
8439118325	amygdala (if lesioned)	subject is mellow	70
8439118326	amygdala (if stimulated)	aggressive	71
8439118327	hippocampus	process new memory	72
8439118328	cerebrum	two large hemispheres perceiving, thinking, and processing	73
8439118329	cerebral cortex	only in higher life forms	74
8439118330	association areas	integrate and interpret information	75
8439118331	glial cells	provide nutrients to myelin sheath marks intelligence higher proportion of glial cells to neurons	76
8439118332	frontal lobe	judgement, personality, processing (Phineas Gage accident)	77
8439118333	parietal lobe	math and spatial reasoning	78
8439118334	temporal lobe	audition and recognizing faces	79
8439118335	occipital lobe	vision	80
8439118336	corpus callosum	split in the brain to stop hyper-communication (eliminate epileptic seizures)	81
8439118337	Wernicke's area	interprets auditory and hearing	82
8439118338	Broca's area	speaking words	83
8439118339	plasticity	ability to adapt if damaged	84
8439118340	sensation	what our senses tell us	85
8439118341	bottom-up processing	senses to brain	86
8439118342	perception	what our brain tells us to do with that information	87
8439118343	top-down processing	brain to senses	88
8439118344	inattentional blindness	fail to "gorilla" because attention is elsewhere	89
8439118345	cocktail party effect	even with tons of stimuli, we are able to pick out our name, etc.	90
8439118346	change blindness	giving directions and person is changed and we don't notice	91
8439118347	choice blindness	when defending the choice we make, we fail to notice choice was changed	92
8439118348	absolute threshold	minimum stimulation needed in order to notice 50% of the time	93
8439118349	signal detection theory	we notice what is more important to us (rather hear a baby crying)	94
8439118350	JND (just noticeable difference)	(Weber's law) difference between different stimuli noticed in proportion	95
8439118351	sensory adaptation	tired of noticing (Brain says, "Been there, done that. Next?"	96
8439118352	rods	night time	97
8439118353	cones	color	98
8439118354	parallel processing	notice color, form, depth, movement, etc.	99
8439118355	Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory	3 corresponding color receptors (RGB)	100
8439118356	Hering's opponent-process theory	after image in opposite colors (RG, YB, WB)	101
8439118357	trichromatic + opponent-process	Young-Helmholtz -> color stimuli Hering -> en route to cortex	102
8439118358	frequency we hear most	human voice	103
8439118359	Helmoltz (hearing)	we hear different pitches in different places in basilar membrane (high pitches)	104
8439118360	frequency theory	impulse frequency (low pitches)	105
8439118361	Helmholtz + frequency theory	middle pitches	106
8439118362	Skin feels what?	warmth, cold, pressure, pain	107
8439118363	gate-control theory	small fibers - pain large fibers - other senses	108
8439118364	memory of pain	peaks and ends	109
8439118365	smell	close to memory section (not in thalamus)	110
8439118366	grouping	Gestalt make sense of pieces create a whole	111
8439118367	grouping groups	proximity similarity continuity connectedness closure	112
8439118368	make assumptions of placement	higher - farther smaller - farther blocking - closer, in front	113
8439118369	perception =	mood + motivation	114
8439118370	consciousness	awareness of ourselves and the environment	115
8439118371	circadian rhythm	daily biological clock and regular cycle (sleep and awake)	116
8439118372	circadian rhythm pattern	- activated by light - light sensitive retinal proteins signal brains SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) - pineal gland decreases melatonin	117
8439118373	What messes with circadian rhythm?	artificial light	118
8439118374	The whole sleep cycle lasts how long?	90 minutes	119
8439118375	sleep stages	relaxed stage (alpha waves) stage 1 (early sleep) (hallucinations) stage 2 (sleep spindles - bursts of activity) (sleep talk) stage 3 (transition phase) (delta waves) stage 4 (delta waves) (sleepwalk/talk + wet the bed) stage 5 (REM) (sensory-rich dreams) (paradoxical sleep)	120
8439118376	purpose of sleep	1. recuperation - repair neurons and allow unused neural connections to wither 2. making memories 3. body growth (children sleep more)	121
8439118377	insomnia	can't sleep	122
8439118378	narcolepsy	fall asleep anywhere at anytime	123
8439118379	sleep apnea	stop breathing in sleep	124
8439118380	night terrors	prevalent in children	125
8439118381	sleepwalking/sleeptalking	hereditary - prevalent in children	126
8439118382	dreaming (3)	1. vivid bizarre intense sensory experiences 2. carry fear/survival issues - vestiges of ancestors' survival ideas 2. replay previous day's experiences/worries	127
8439118383	purpose of dreaming (5 THEORIES)	1. physiological function - develop/preserve neural pathways 2. Freud's wish-fulfillment (manifest/latent content) 3. activation synthesis - make sense of stimulation originating in brain 4. information processing 5. cognitive development - reflective of intelligence	128
8439118384	1. Can hypnosis bring you back in time? 2. Can hypnosis make you do things you wouldn't normally do? 3. Can it alleviate pain? 4. What state are you in during hypnosis? 5. Who is more susceptible?	1. cannot take you back in time 2. cannot make you do things you won't do 3. can alleviate pain 4. fully conscious ((IMAGINATIVE PEOPLE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE))	129
8439118385	depressants	slows neural pathways	130
8439118386	alcohol	((depressant)) disrupts memory formation (REM) lowers inhibition expectancy effect	131
8439118387	barbituates (tranquilizers)	((depressant)) reduce anxiety	132
8439118388	opiates	((depressant)) pleasure reduce anxiety/pain	133
8439118389	stimulants	hypes neural processing	134
8439118390	methamphetamine	((stimulant)) heightens energy euphoria affects dopamine	135
8439118391	caffeine	((stimulant))	136
8439118392	nicotine	((stimulant)) CNS releases neurotransmitters calm anxiety reduce pain affects (nor)epinephrine and dopamine	137
8439118393	cocaine	((stimulant)) euphoria affects dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine	138
8439118394	hallucinogen	excites neural activity	139
8439118395	ecstasy	((hallucinogen)) reuptake is blocked affects dopamine and serotonin	140
8439118396	LSD	((hallucinogen)) affects sensory/emotional "trip" (+/-) affects serotonin	141
8439118397	marijuana	((hallucinogen)) amplify sensory experience disrupts memory formation	142
8439118398	learning	organism changing behavior due to experience (association of events)	143
8439118399	types of learning	classical operant observational	144
8439118400	famous classical psychologists	Pavlov and Watson	145
8439118401	famous operant psychologist	Skinner	146
8439118402	famous observational psychologists	Bandura	147
8439118403	classical conditioning	outside stimulus	148
8439118404	Pavlov's experiment	Step 1: US (food) -> UR (salivation) Step 2: NS (bell) -> US (food) -> UR (salivation) Later... CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)	149
8439118405	Watson's experiment	white rat was given to Little Albert Step 1: US (noise) -> UR (cry) Step 2: NS (rat) -> US (noise) -> UR (cry) Later... CS (rat) -> CR (cry)	150
8439118406	generalization	any small, white fluffy creature will make Albert cry now	151
8439118407	discriminate	any large, white fluffy creature won't make Albert cry	152
8439118408	extinction	stop "treating" with conditioned response	153
8439118409	spontaneous recovery	bring stimulus back after a while	154
8439118410	operant conditioning	control by organism	155
8439118411	Skinner's experiment	operant chamber / Skinner box (lead to shaping)	156
8439118412	shaping	get animal closer to doing what you want them to do	157
8439118413	reinforcers	want to continue behavior (positive reinforcement: give money to do laundry) (negative reinforcement: do to avoid nagging)	158
8439118414	punishments	want to stop behavior (positive reinforcement: smack) (negative reinforcement: take away phone)	159
8439118415	fixed ratio	happens a certain number of times (Starbucks punch card)	160
8439118416	variable ratio	happens an unpredictable number of times (winning the lottery)	161
8439118417	organism must do these (2 times)	fixed ratio and variable ratio	162
8439118418	fixed interval	happens at a certain time (mailman comes to the house at 10:00 AM)	163
8439118419	variable interval	happens at any time (receive texts from friends)	164
8439118420	these things happen regardless (2 times)	fixed interval and variable interval	165
8439118421	Which (fixed/variable) conditions better?	variable	166
8439118422	criticisms of Skinner	doesn't take into account intrinsic motivation	167
8439118423	intrinsic motivation	doing something for yourself, not the reward	168
8439118424	extrinsic motivation	doing something for reward	169
8439118425	Skinner's legacy	use it personally, at school, and at work	170
8439118426	famous observational experiment	Bandura's Bobo doll	171
8439118427	famous observational psychologist	Bandura	172
8439118428	mirror neurons	"feel" what is observed happens in higher order animals	173
8439118429	Bobo doll experiment legacy	violent video games/movies desensitize us see good: do good see evil: do evil	174
8439118430	observational learning	biological behaviors work best	175
8439118431	habituation	get used to it -> stop reacting	176
8439118432	examples for observational learning	lectures and reading	177
8439118433	serotonin involved with memory	speeds the connection between neurons	178
8439118434	LTP	((long-term potentiation)) strengthens potential neural forming (associated with speed)	179
8439118435	CREB	protein that can switch genes on/off with memory and connection of memories	180
8439118436	glutamate involved with memory	neurotransmitter that enhances LTP	181
8439118437	glucose involved with memory	released during strong emotions ((signaling important event to be remembered))	182
8439118438	flashbulb memory	type of memory remembered because it was an important/quick moment	183
8439118439	amygdala (memory)	boosts activity of proteins in memory-forming areas to fight/flight	184
8439118440	cerebellum (memory)	forms and stores implicit memories ((classical conditioning))	185
8439118441	hippocampus (memory)	active during sleep (forming memories) ((information "moves" after 48 hours))	186
8439118442	memory	learning over time contains information that can be retrieved	187
8439118443	processing stages	encoding -> storage -> retrieval	188
8439118444	encoding	information going in	189
8439118445	storage	keeping information in	190
8439118446	retrieval	taking information out	191
8439118447	How long is sensory memory stored?	seconds	192
8439118448	How long is short-term memory stored?	less than a minute	193
8439118449	How many bits of information is stored in short-term memory?	7	194
8439118450	How many chunks of information is stored in short-term memory?	4	195
8439118451	How many seconds of words is stored in short-term memory?	2	196
8439118452	short term memory goes to ______________	working memory	197
8439118453	working memory	make a connection and process information to mean something	198
8439118454	working memory goes to _________________	long-term memory	199
8439118455	How much is stored in long-term memory?	LIMITLESS	200
8439118456	implicit memory	naturally do	201
8439118457	explicit memory	need to explain	202
8439118458	automatic processing	space, time, frequency, well-learned information	203
8439118459	effortful processing	processing that requires effort	204
8439118460	spacing effect	spread out learning over time	205
8439118461	serial position effect	primary/recency effect	206
8439118462	primary effect	remember the first things in a list	207
8439118463	recency effect	remember the last things in a list	208
8439118464	effortful processing (4 things)	1. recency effect 2. spacing effect 3. testing effect 4. serial position effect	209
8439118465	semantic encoding (1) meaning (2) how to	make meaning out of something --- chunk, hierarchy, or connect to you	210
8439118466	if we can't remember a memory...	1. change memory to suit us 2. fill in the blanks with logical story	211
8439118467	misinformation effect	not correct information	212
8439118468	imagination inflation	imagine or visualize something that isn't real	213
8439118469	source amnesia	what is the truth? (is it a dream, story, memory, etc.?)	214
8439118470	priming	association (setting you up)	215
8439118471	context	environment helps with memory	216
8439118472	state-dependency	you may remember something if you go back to the state you were in (go back to high)	217
8439118473	mood-congruency	emotion will bring back similar emotional memories	218
8439118474	forgetting curve	forget after 5 days forget after 5 years	219
8439118475	the forgetting curve was created by	Ebbinghaus	220
8439118476	proactive interference	old information interferes with the new	221
8439118477	retroactive interference	new information interferes with the old	222
8439118478	children can't remember before age __	3	223
8439118479	Loftus	connected to abuse cases/childhood	224
8439118480	prototypes	generalize	225
8439118481	problem-solving (4)	trial + error algorithms heuristic (representative + availability) insight - "AHA!"	226
8439118482	against problem-solving	fixation	227
8439118483	mental set	what has worked in the past	228
8439118484	functional fixedness	only way to do this is with this	229
8439118485	Chomsky (nature or nurture?)	"born with language" (nature)	230
8439118486	Skinner (nature or nurture?)	language is learned (nurture)	231
8439118487	grammar is _________	universal	232
8439118488	phonemes	smallest sound unit	233
8439118489	morphemes	smallest meaning unit	234

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AP Psychology - Vision Flashcards

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5569572044	visual capture	the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses	0
5569572045	visual spectrum	The colors of light that are visible to the human eye.	1
5569572046	additive color mixing	beams of light combine, adding their wavelengths to the mixture, stimulating more cones, and producing a color lighter than the originals	2
5569572047	cornea	transparent dome-shaped window covering the front of the eye	3
5569572048	pupil	adjustale opening in the center of the iris	4
5569572049	iris	colored muscle that surrounds the pupil and controls the amount of light that enters the eye	5
5569572050	lens	a transparent structure behind the iris that focuses light rays onto the retina	6
5569572051	accommodation	the curvature of the lens adjusts to alter visual focus on the retina	7
5569572052	nearsightedness	nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina	8
5569572053	farsightedness	distant objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina	9
5569572054	vitreous humor	the clear, gel-like mass that fills the space between the lens and the retina	10
5569572055	retina	light-sensitive inner surface of the eye	11
5569572056	cones	photoreceptors that are responsible for color vision and visual acuity	12
5569572057	fovea	concentration of cones in the central region of the retina	13
5569572058	Young-Helmholtz Theory of Color Vision	According to this theory of color vision, there are three receptors in the retina that are responsible for the perception of color. One receptor is sensitive to the color green, another to the color blue, and a third to the color red. These three colors can then be combined to form any visible color in the spectrum.	14
5569572059	Opponent-Process Theory	the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.	15
5569572060	afterimages	the firing of cones not used after viewing something steadily in order to bring the visual system back into homeostasis	16
5569572061	rods	photoreceptors that are responsible for vision in dim light, peripheral vision, and black and white vision	17
5569572062	bipolar	cells through which a visual stimulus passes after going through the rods and cones and before going to the ganglion cells	18
5569572063	optic nerve	axons off the ganglion cells (1 million) that carry visual messages to the occipital lobe	19
5569572064	blind spot	location where optic nerve leaves the retina. It contains no rods or cones	20
5569572065	optic chiasma	location where half of the information received from each eye crosses over to the opposite side of the cerebrum; depth perception	21
5569572066	feature detectors	nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement	22
5569572067	figure-ground	the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)	23
5569572068	similarity	stimuli that are similar tend to be grouped together	24
5569572069	continuity	lines tend to be seen as following the smoothest path	25
5569572070	closure	figures with gaps are seen as completed	26
5569572071	Phi Phenomenon	perceived motion when the object is stationary	27
5569572072	relative size	a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the smaller retinal image is farther away	28
5569572073	interposition	monocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one patially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away	29
5569572074	relative clarity	a monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects	30
5569572075	texture gradient	a monocular cue for perceiving depth; a gradual change from a coarse distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance. objects far away appear smaller and more densely packed	31
5569572076	relative height	a monocular cue for perceiving depth; objects higher in our field of vision are perceived as farther away	32
5569572077	relative motion	as we move, objects that are actually stable may appear to move	33
5569572078	linear perspective	a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance	34
5569572079	relative brightness	a monocular cue, objects up close appear brighter than objects farther away	35

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AP Flashcards

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7441482607	Semantik	Ordet stammer fra græsk og betyder 'som har betydning'. Det er en gren inden for sprogvidenskaben som beskæftiger sig med sproglige udtryks betydning og indhold.	0
7441498716	Denotation	Et ords grundbetydning	1
7441492767	Semantisk skema	ord der optræder i en logisk indholdsmæssig sammenhæng, og vores forestillinger om hvilke elementer der hænger sammen, er påvirket af de erfaringer vi har gjort på forskellige områder. Der kan være tale om kulturelle, sociale, aldersbetingede, geografiske, kønsspecifikke og mange andre former for erfaringer.	2
7441500574	Konnotation	Et ords medbetydninger - de associationer, et ord vækker.	3
7441514893	Stilens nulpunkt	Tekst der benytter sig af overvægt af prototypiske ord og af basisniveauord.	4
7441520473	Prototypiske ord	De ord som er upåfaldende, og ord som de fleste mennesker umiddelbart associerer med bestemte semantiske kategorier.	5
7441530487	basisniveauord	Betegner de mest basale ting i vores fysiske omgivelser. De er korte og har konkret betydning, og derfor er det ofte også dem vi først lærer, når vi lærer et sprog. Ord som fx port, lugt, maskine, børn forekommer at være almindelige hverdagsord og kan altså opfattes som basisniveauord.	6
7453564484	Sammenligning	Sammenligner realplan og billedplan ved hjælp af konjunktioner, fx som, ligesom (Du er som en rose).	7
7453572074	Metafor	Sammenligner realplan og billedplan uden at bruge som, som om og ligesom (Du er en rose)	8
7453583013	Personifikation	Abstrakte begreber gøres levende (Sorgen vandrer tungt)	9
7453585623	Besjæling	Konkrete genstande tilføres menneskelige egenskaber (Skovens grønne øjenbryn)	10
7453598433	Elementerne i Ciceros pentagram	Afsender, modtager, emne, situation, sprog & genre, formål	11
7453603141	Informerende sproghandling	meddele, påstå, fortælle, forklare, beskrive, spørge/svare for at give/få information	12
7453605205	Handlingsregulerende sproghandling	Beordre, love, tilbyde, advare, undskylde, tillade, kræve, råde osv.	13
7453608448	Nedtoning	Når fx en ordre formuleres, så den ikke er så kontant/hård	14
7453610603	Optoning	Når opfordringer/krav gøres direkte - virker hårdt/kontant	15
7453617187	Facework	De strategier, vi anvender i en kommunikation for at vi selv eller en anden ikke skal tabe ansigt - eller for at true/krænke en andens ansigt (face).	16

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AP Statistics Flashcards

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9755712771	5 number summary	The minumum value, lower quartile, median, upper quartile, and maximum value for a data set. These five values give a summary of the shape of the distribution and are used to make box plots.	0
9755712772	z score	a measure of how many standard deviations you are away from the norm (average or mean)	1
9755712773	standard deviation	A statistical measure of how far away each value is, on average, from the mean.	2
9755712774	population	the entire aggregation of items from which samples can be drawn	3
9755712775	categorical data	Data that can be placed into categories.	4
9755712776	quantitative data	numerical data	5
9755712777	bar graph	a type of graph in which the lengths of bars are used to represent and compare data in categories	6
9755712778	parameter	something that determines the limits of certain data values	7
9755712779	sample	A relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole.	8
9755712780	random	Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.	9
9755712781	bias	Any systematic failure of a sampling method to represent its population	10
9755712782	Undercoverage	When some groups in the population are left out of the process of choosing the sample	11
9755712783	nonresponse	bias introduced to a sample when a large fraction of those sampled fails to respond	12
9755712784	voluntary response bias	Bias introduced to a sample when individuals can choose on their own whether to participate in the sample.	13
9755712785	statistic	Application of mathematics to describing and analyzing data	14
9755712786	independent	Variable that does not rely on other variables	15
9755712787	histogram	graphical representation of a frequency distribution using vertical bars but bars touch each other to indicate variables are related	16
9755712788	box and whisker plot	A display that shows the distribution of values in a data set seperated into four equal-sized groups. constructed from the five number summary of the data.	17
9755712789	scatterplot		18
9755712790	correlation	A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.	19
9755712791	skewness	The extent to which cases are clustered more at one or the other end of the distribution of a quantitative variable rather than in a symmetric pattern around its center	20
9755712792	variance	standard deviation squared	21
9755712793	statistical significance	A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. When p is less than alpha it is _______	22
9755712794	P-value	A measure of statistical significance. How likely an event is to happen by chance	23
9755712795	68-95-99.7 rule	The rule that gives the approximate % of observations w/in 1 standard deviation, 2 standard deviations and 3 standard deviations of the mean	24
9755712796	lurking variable	A variable that has an important effect on the relationship among the variables in a study but is not one of the explanatory variables studied	25
9755712797	null hypothesis	Hypothesis that predicts NO relationship between variables. The aim of research is to reject this hypothesis	26
9755712798	alternative hypothesis	the hypothesis concluded to be true if the null hypothesis is rejected	27
9755712799	quota sample	A sample deliberately constructed to reflect several of the major characteristics of a given population	28
9755712800	probability	A number with a value from 0 to 1 that describes the likelihood that an event will occur.	29
9755712801	descriptive statistics	Mathematical procedures for organizing collections of data, such as determining the mean, the median, the range, the variance, and the correlation coefficient	30
9755712802	mean	A measure of center in a set of numerical data, computed by adding the values in a list and then dividing by the number of values in the list.	31
9755712803	median	A measure of center in a set of numerical data. The value appearing at the center of a sorted version of the list	32
9755712804	mode	Measure of central tendency that finds the data value that occurs most often	33
9755712805	range	Distance between highest and lowest values in a set of data.	34
9755712806	data	Facts and statistics collected together for reference or analysis	35
9755712807	Q1	A location measure of the data such that has one fourth or 25% of the data is smaller than it. Found by dividing the ordered data set in half (excluding the middle observation if n is odd) and finding the median of the lower half of the data	36
9755712808	Q3	A location to measure when counting data to such as the median where instead of counting 50% it is 75% from the beginning of the sorted data	37
9755712809	minimum	The smallest value in a data set	38
9755712810	outlier	A value much greater or much less than the others in a data set. Found by doing IQR*1.5	39
9755712811	margin of error	In statistical research, the range of outcomes we expect for a population, given the data revealed by a sample drawn from that population	40
9755712812	statistical normal	scoring the middle of the bell-curve; low, moderate, or high scoring	41
9755712813	simple random sample	A sample selected in such a way that every element in the population or sampling frame has an equal probability of being selected	42
9755712814	sampling distribution	A distribution of statistics obtained by selecting all the possible samples of a specific size from a population	43
9755712815	stratified random sample	A method of sampling that involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and taking a simple random sample in each subgroup. a sampling design in which the population is divided into several groups, and random samples are then drawn from each stratum	44
9755712816	systematic sample	A sample drawn by selecting individuals systematically from a sampling frame	45
9755712817	cluster sample	Is obtained by selecting all individuals within a randomly selected collection or group of individuals.	46
9755712818	10% rule	a sample has to be lass than 10% of the whole population	47
9755712819	Interpolation	The estimation of an unknown number between known numbers	48
9755712820	Qualitative	Another word for categorical	49
9755712821	theoretical probability	What should occur or what we expect to happen in an experiment	50
9755712877	experimental probability	Probability based on data from repeating an event (doing an experiment)	51
9755712822	block design	The subjects in an experiment are first divided into groups (called 'blocks') based on some common characteristic (such as gender) that is hypothesised to have an effect on the response. Randomization of treatments then happens within each block (each block is like its own mini-experiment).	52
9755712823	blinding	The practice of concealing group assignment from study subjects, typically in the context of a randomized controlled trial.	53
9755712824	double blind	An experiment in which neither the subjects nor the people who work with them know which treatment the subject is receiving	54
9755712825	placebo	A fake treatment	55
9755712826	least squares regression line	the line with the smallest sum of squared residuals	56
9755712827	type I error	Reject null when null is true	57
9755712828	type II error	Not rejecting null when null is false	58
9755712878	joint frequency	each entry in a two-way table	59
9755712829	matched pairs	an observational technique that involves matching each participant in the experimental group with a specific participant in the control group in order to eliminate the possibility that a third variable (and not the independent variable) caused changes in the dependent variable	60
9755712830	conditional probability	probability given that something else has already occurred	61
9755712831	sample space	Set of all possible outcomes of an experiment	62
9755712832	confounded variable	A variable whose effect on the response variable cannot be separated from the effect of the explanatory variable on the response variable	63
9755712833	marginal frequency	A set of intervals, usually adjacent and of equal width, into which the range of a statistical distribution is divided, each associated with a frequency indicating the number of measurements in that interval.	64
9755712834	coefficient of determination	The statistic or number determined by squaring the correlation coefficient.	65
9755712836	unimodal	having one mode	66
9755712837	bimodal	A type of distribution with two modes	67
9755712838	experiment	A kind of research in which the researcher controls all the conditions and directly manipulates the conditions, including the independent variable.	68
9755712839	law of large numbers	law stating that a large number of items taken at random from a population will (on average) have the population statistics	69
9755712840	extrapolation	calculation of the value of a function outside the range of known values	70
9755712841	snowball	Huyen wanted to conduct market research to find out why students were unhappy with Marketing 431, probably the finest course ever to be offered by a university. In order to do this she needed to find people who were unhappy with the course. Figuring that these people would talk to each other, she used a sampling technique where she found one person who was unhappy with the course and, after asking her research questions, asked this person for the name of another person who was unhappy with the course.	71
9755712842	IQR	Difference between upper and lower quartile of a box and whisker plot	72
9755712843	Confidence interval	Gives an interval of plausible values for a parameter, point estimate +- margin of error	73
9755712844	Standard Error	the standard deviation of a sampling distribution	74
9755712879	Residual	Observed - predicted (y minus y-hat)	75
9755712845	Convenience sample	Sample consisting of individuals that are easy to contact (the first 50 people to step into the building) leading to bias	76
9755712846	simulation	A representation of a situation or problem with a similar but simpler model or a more easily manipulated model in order to determine experimental results.	77
9755712847	degrees of freedom	The number of individual scores that can vary without changing the sample mean. Statistically written as 'N-1' where N represents the number of subjects.	78
9755712848	two way table	describes two categorical variables with row variable and column variables	79
9755712849	spread	The visible variation in a sample distribution	80
9755712850	center	Median or mean	81
9755712880	shape	describes the data distribution; symmetrical, skewed, gaps, clusters and outliers are often used	82
9755712881	discrete random variable	a random variable that can take one of a finite number of distinct outcomes	83
9755712882	central limit theorem	large samples will approximate the normal distribution	84
9755712883	standardized value	z-score	85
9755712884	mutually exclusive	Events that cannot occur at the same time.	86
9755712851	wording bias	Whenever a bias is created in a sample by the way the survey is worded to favor one question	87
9755712885	causation	A cause and effect relationship in which one variable controls the changes in another variable.	88
9755712886	z test	hypothesis testing procedure in which there is a single sample and the population variance is known	89
9755712887	t test	significance test used to compare means	90
9755712852	chi squared goodness of fit		91
9755712853	frequency table	A chart showing the number of times a specific event happens.	92
9755712888	simpsons paradox	when averages are taken across different groups, they can appear to contradict the overall averages.	93
9755712855	contingency table	A two-variable table with cross-tabulated data.	94
9755712856	stem and leaf plot		95
9755712857	multimodal	Describes a graph of quantitative data with more than two clear peaks.	96
9755712858	uniform	A histogram doesn't appear to have any mode and in which all the bars are approximately the same height	97
9755712859	symmetric	When in a normal distribution both sides are identical	98
9755712860	time plot	plots each observation against the time at which it was measured	99
9755712861	se	standard deviation of residuals	100
9755712862	r2	overall measure of how successful the regression is in linearly relating to y and x	101
9755712863	influential point	a point when omitted that will give very different results	102
9755712864	census	When a survey has no sample but instead tests or surveys the entire population	103
9755712890	multistage sample	sampling schemes that combine several sampling methods	104
9755712865	pilot	small trial run of a survey to see if questions are clear	105
9755712867	response bias	anything in a survey design that influences responses	106
9755712868	observational study	A study that observes characteristics of an existing population.	107
9755712869	retrospective study	data are collected from the past by going back in time	108
9755712870	prospective study	an observational study in which subjects are followed to observe future outcomes	109
9755712872	control group	In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.	110
9755712875	trial	A performed experiment based upon the hypothesis you made.	111
9755712876	maximum	The greatest value in a data set	112
9820508318	binomial distribution	the sampling distribution of events that have two equally likely outcomes	113
9820508319	Geometric Distribution	Two possible outcomes but its cumulative (how many are necessary to get success)	114
9820637488	explanatory variable	independent variable (x)	115
9820637489	response variable	dependent variable (y)	116

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AP Gov The Presidency Flashcards

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6045904512	divided government	One party controls the White House and another party controls one or both houses of Congress	0
6045904513	unified government	The same party controls the White House and both houses of Congress	1
6045904514	gridlock	The inability of the government to act because rival parties control different parts of the government	2
6045904515	Electoral College	The people chosen to cast each states votes in a presidential election. Each state can cast one electoral vote for each senator and representative it has. The District of Columbia has three electoral votes, even though it's not elected representative or senator	3
6045904516	pyramid structure	A president's subordinates report to him through a clear chain of command headed by a Chief of Staff.	4
6045904517	circular structure	Several of the president's assistants report directly to him, puts the president at the center of the information.	5
6045904518	ad hoc structure	Several subordinates, cabinet officers, and committees report directly to the president on different matters, flexible but disorganized.	6
6045904519	Cabinet	The heads of the 15 executive branch departments of the federal government	7
6045904520	bully pulpit	The president's use of his prestige and visibility to guide or enthuse the American public	8
6045904521	veto message	The message from the Pres. to Congress stating that he will not sign a bill it has passed. Must be produced within 10 days of those passage.	9
6045904522	pocket veto	A bill fails to become law because the president did not sign it within 10 days before Congress adjourns.	10
6045904523	line-item veto	And executive's ability to block a particular provision in a bill passed the legislature, temporarily granted during the Clinton administration, but found unconstitutional by the Supreme Court	11
6045904524	signing statement	A presidential document that reveals what the president thinks of a new law or how they plan to interpret it	12
6045904525	legislative veto	The authority of Congress to block a presidential action after is taking place. The Supreme Court has held that Congress does not have this power.	13
6045904527	lame duck	A person still in office after he or she has lost a bid for reelection	14
6045953354	chief of staff	the gatekeeper to the president, oversees all information and business, a valuable source of advice and opinion to the president	15
6045955271	commander in chief	the president's role as civilian head of the military	16
6045958834	Executive Office of the President	comprised of advisers and agencies that help the president fulfill their constitutional duties like handling the budget, the economy, national security, and communications	17
6045958835	executive order	empowers the president to carry out a law or administer the government within his authority as head of the executive branch, all are published within the Federal Register	18
6045960922	honeymoon period	the early part of a presidential term where the press and the public get to know the president and family, usually a time the president is given favorable coverage and the focus is on future plans	19
6045962122	impeachment	The House of Reps has the sole responsibility to initiate accusations against the president with a simple majority. The trial is then held by the Senate with the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presiding and the Senate acting as the jury. only 2 presidents have ever been impeached	20
6045962123	imperial presidency	era of powerful presidents and weak Congress, where the president claims or exercises more powers than actually in the Constitution	21
6045964984	inherent powers	powers not specifically listed in the Constitution, but claimed by presidents as within the scope of the presidency	22
6045967992	National Security Council	collects all the president's advisers on national security, intelligence, and war- usually includes the president, VP, director of the CIA, national security adviser, Secretaries of State and Defense	23
6045969210	Office of Management and Budget	Acts as the president's accounting office to manage the budget and advise the president on federal spending and revenue	24
6045970939	Presidential Succession Act (1947)	specifies 18 positions in the line of succession after the vice president if something should happen to the president	25
6045972066	recess appointments	the ability of the president to appoint a person to be a replacement for a position until the Senate reconvenes and votes on a permanent official	26
6045974495	State of the Union	required by the president in the Constitution to update Congress on the status of the US, delivered in written form from John Adams until Woodrow Wilson revived the power of a live address	27
6045974496	stewardship theory	Originated by Teddy Roosevelt, a broad interpretation of presidential powers that claims the executive is only limited by the limits listed in the Constitution (all other powers are claimed by the president)	28
6045977486	Tonkin Gulf Resolution (1964)	Passed to give President Johnson wide latitude to act in Vietnam, Congress gave away much of their war powers and struggled to regain them in the aftermath	29
6045979520	Twelfth Amenddment	Electors must specify their votes for president and vice president	30
6045981225	Twentieth Amendment	Inauguration date moved from March 4 to January 20, shortening the lame duck period	31
6045983333	Twenty-second Amendment	Term limits for president- 2 terms or 10 years maximum	32
6045985692	Twenty-third Amendment	Gave residents of Waahington DC the right to vote for president and the same number of electors as the smallest state	33
6045988882	Twenty-fifth Amendment	Provides for continuity of power in the case of presidential death or disability	34
6045990336	United States v. Nixon (1974)	decision in the wake of the Watergate scandal that determined that the president does not have an absolute right to immunity from prosecution, presidents cannot withhold information while under criminal investigation	35
6045992004	War Powers Act (1973)	passed in the aftermath of Vietnam to limit the president's power over the military- it allows the president to order the military into action, but gives Congress the power to approve or disapprove of that action within 60 days	36
6045993877	White House staff	the president's inner circle- advisers brought to the WH usually long time friends, aides or campaign staff- no official policy making role, so do not need approval of the Senate- usually more influential than the Cabinet	37
6046103157	executive privilege	presidential claim of the right to withhold information or advice received from subordinates- claimed by Nixon as a justification to not turn over tapes from the Oval Office containing discussions about Watergate investigation	38
6046119948	Chief Magistrate	the president's role exercising judicial powers including appointing justices, enforcing the law, granting reprieves & pardons	39
6046128732	Chief Administrator	the president's role as the head of the the executive departments and agencies in the executive branch- they are in charge of millions of employees and trillions of dollars	40
6046128733	Chief of Party	the president's role as the head of and most reconigzable member of their political party- they work to advance party goals and to get party members elected	41
6046134348	Chief Diplomat	The president's role representing the US abroad and powers over foreign policy- making treaties, executive agreements, appointing and receiving dplomats	42
6046137996	Chief Legislator	The president's role to recommend laws they favor or encourage Congress to enact their priorities- through the State of Union address, meetings with Congress, or media attention. The president also exercises lawmaking power by signing or vetoing bills	43
6046606266	executive agreement	A contract between the President and another head of state that does not require the 2/3 vote of the Senate, easier to conclude that treaties which require could be compromised by Senatorial delay or disapproval (but only effective as long as each side is willing and able to keep the agreement)	44

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AP Calculus General Stuff Flashcards

Stuff I should know

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5824941450	Log A + Log B	Log (AB)	0
5824941451	Log A - Log B	Log (A/B)	1
5824941452	k Log A	Log (A^k)	2
5824941453	Point-slope form of a line	y-y1 = m (x-x1)	3
5824941454	Product rule	d/dx (uv) = uv' + vu'	4
5824941455	Quotient rule	d/dx (u/v) = (vu'-uv')/(v^2)	5
5824941456	Rolle's Theorem	Let f be continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a,b) and if f(a)=f(b) then there is at least one number c on (a,b) such that f'(c)=0 (If the slope of the secant is 0, the derivative must = 0 somewhere in the interval).	6
5824941457	Mean Value Theorem	If f is continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a,b), then there exists a number c on (a,b) such that f'(c)=(f(b)-f(a))/(b-a)	7
5867821787	Approximating binomial powers (1+f)^k	(1+f)^k ≈ 1+kf where f is some function	8
6039920360	Maximum profit	Marginal revenue (r') = Marginal cost (c')	9
6039922015	Minimize average cost	Average cost = marginal cost c(x)/x=c'(x)	10
6039931314	Linearization	L(x) = f'(a)(x - a) + f(a)	11
6039936205	Definition of differentials	dy = f'(x) dx	12
6039939750	Absolute change, true	Δf = f(a + Δx) - f(a)	13
6039999167	Absolute change, estimated	Δf ≈ f'(a) Δx	14
6040004272	Relative change, true	Δf/f(a)	15
6040007065	Relative change, estimated	f'(a)/f(a) Δx	16
6040009721	Percentage change, true	Δf/f(a) X100	17
6040011750	Percentage change, estimated	f'(a)/f(a) Δx X100	18
6040021754	Newtons Method for approximating zeroes	Coming soon	19

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AP 3 Flashcards

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6311893203	marching		0
6311895131	palace		1
6384298925	bakery		2
6384301010	trim		3
6384305833	trim	not in danger	4
6384310635		to stop moving fast	5
6384316064	already	an insect that has a long thin body and brightly colored wings	6
6384320829	scared	to spend time in a place	7
6384336969	dark	near in space or time	8
6384340671	sell	a very large number of	9
6384346821	early	to put or spread something over or on something else	10
6384362352	tie	having some heat; not cold	11
6384367460	fish	one of the flat and green parts of a plant	12
6384372417	worry	the conditions outside; raining, hot, or windy	13
6384373798	river	to try to find someone or something	14

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APES Flashcards

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9889387354	First Law of Thermodynamics:	energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another.	0
9889388353	Second Law of Thermodynamics:	when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy (usually heat).	1
9889389562	Ionizing radiation:	radiation w/enough energy to free electrons from atoms forming ions, may cause cancer (ex. gamma, X-rays, UV).	2
9889406107	High Quality Energy: organized & concentrated, can perform useful work (ex. fossil fuels & nuclear).	Low Quality Energy: disorganized, dispersed (ex. heat in ocean or air/wind, solar).	3
9889407745	Natural radioactive decay:	unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha & beta particles (ex. Radon).	4
9889413085	Half-life:	the time it takes for 1⁄2 of the mass of a radioisotope to decay. A radioactive isotope must be stored for approximately 10 half-lives until it decays to a safe level.	5
9889416462	Nuclear Fission:	nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons.	6
9889417213	Nuclear Fusion:	2 isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at high temperatures till they fuse to form a heavier nucleus. Happens in the Sun, very difficult to accomplish on Earth, prohibitively expensive.	7
9889419010	Ore:	a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine.	8
9889424451	Mineral Reserve:	identified deposits currently profitable to extract.	9
9889425125	Surface mining:	cheaper, can remove more minerals, less hazardous to workers.	10
9889425126	Humus:	organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms.	11
9889428117	Leaching:	removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards through soil.	12
9889428943	Loam:	perfect agricultural soil with equal portions of sand, silt, and clay.	13
9889430074	Soil Conservation Methods:	conservation tillage, crop rotation, contour plowing, organic fertilizers.	14
9889431491	Soil Salinization:	in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind. (ex. Fertile crescent, southwestern US)	15
9889432430	Water Logging:	water completely saturates soil starves plant roots of oxygen, rots roots	16
9889434881	Hydrologic Cycle Components:	evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, and infiltration.	17
9889434882	Watershed:	all of the land that drains into a body of water.	18
9889437100	Aquifer:	underground layers of porous rock allow water to move slowly.	19
9889438004	Cone of Depression:	lowering of the water table around a pumping well.	20
9889438971	Salt Water Intrusion:	near the coast, overpumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into the aquifer.	21
9889448945	ENSO:	El Nino Southern Oscillation, trade winds weaken & warm surface water moves toward South America. Diminished fisheries off South America, drought in western Pacific, increased precipitation in southwestern North America, fewer Atlantic hurricanes.	22
9889450291	La Nina:	"Normal" year, easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the West coast of South America.	23
9889451127	Nitrogen Fixation:	because atmospheric N cannot be used directly by plants, it must first be converted into ammonia by bacteria. Ammonification: decomposers covert organic waste into ammonia.	24
9889452022	Nitrification:	ammonia is converted to nitrate ions (NO3-).	25
9889452023	Assimilation:	inorganic N is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids & proteins.	26
9889467394	Denitrification:	bacteria convert ammonia back into N.	27
9889468385	Phosphorus:	does not exist as a gas; released by weathering of phosphate rocks, it is a major limiting factor for plant growth. Phosphorus cycle is slow, and not atmospheric.	28
9889491332	Photosynthesis:	plants convert CO2 (atmospheric carbon) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6).	29
9889491346	Aerobic Respiration:	oxygen consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex organic compounds & convert C back into CO2.	30
9889492243	Biotic:	the living components of an ecosystem.	31
9889493554	Abiotic:	the nonliving components of an ecosystem. Producer/Autotroph: organisms that make their own food—photosynthetic life (plants).	32
9889495219	Trophic Levels:	producers → primary consumer → secondaryconsumer → tertiary consumer.	33
9889495220	Energy Flow through Food Webs:	10% of the usable energy is transferred to the next	34
9889495889	trophic level. Reason:	usable energy lost as heat (2nd law of Thermodynamics), not all biomass is digested & absorbed, predators expend energy to catch prey.	35
9889496608	Primary succession:	development of communities in a lifeless area not recently inhabited by life (ex. lava flow, retreating glacier).	36
9889497679	Secondary succession:	life progresses where soil remains (ex. clear-cut/burned forest, old farm, vacant lot).	37
9889498782	Mutualism:	symbiotic relationship where both organisms benefit.	38
9889507936	Commensalism:	symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits & the other is unaffected.	39
9889509203	Parasitism:	relationship in which one organism (the parasite) obtains nutrients at the expense of the host.	40
9889510819	Carrying Capacity:	the number of individuals that can be sustained in an area.	41
9889510820	r-strategist:	reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce early, bear many small, unprotected offspring (ex. insects, mice).	42
9889513504	K-strategist:	reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce late, bear few, cared for offspring (ex. humans, elephants).	43
9889514335	Natural Selection:	organisms that possess favorable adaptations pass them onto the next generation.	44
9889515065	Thomas Malthus:	"human population cannot continue to increase. Consequences will be war, famine & pestilence (disease)."	45
9889515066	Doubling Time:	(rule of 70) doubling time equals 70 divided by percent growth rate. (ex. a population growing at 5% annually doubles in 70 ÷ 5 = 14 years)	46
9889515815	Replacement Level Fertility:	the number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (averages 2.1 in more developed nations, 2.7 in less developed nations).	47
9889516477	World Population:	a little over 6 billion.	48
9889538229	Demographic Transition Model:	Preindustrial stage, Transitional stage, Industrial stage, Postindustrial stage	49
9889538862	Preindustrial stage:	birth & death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high.	50
9889541545	Transitional stage:	death rate (infant mortality) lower, birth rates remain high, better health care, population grows fast.	51
9889549611	Industrial stage:	decline in birth rate, population growth slows.	52
9889550665	Postindustrial stage:	low birth & death rates.	53
9889551809	Age Structure Diagrams:	broad base → rapid growth; narrow base → negative growth; uniform shape → zero growth	54
9889553331	Most Populous Nations:	(1) China; (2) India; (3) U.S.; (4) Indonesia	55
9889553332	Low Status of Women:	Most important factor keeping population growth rates high.	56
9889554480	Methods to Decrease Birth Rates:	family planning, contraception, economic rewards & penalties.	57
9889555414	Composition of Water on Earth:	97.5% seawater, 2.5% freshwater.	58
9889556387	Aquaculture:	farming aquatic species, commonly salmon, shrimp, tilapia, oysters.	59
9889556388	Point Source:	source from specific location such as pipe or smokestack	60
9889558674	Non-Point Source (Area/Dispersed Source):	source spread over an area such as agricultural/feedlot runoff, urban runoff, traffic.	61
9889558675	Primary Sewage Treatment:	first step of sewage treatment; eliminates most particulate material from raw sewage using grates, screens, and gravity (settling).	62
9889562222	Secondary Sewage Treatment:	second step of sewage treatment; bacteria breakdown organic waste, aeration accelerates the process.	63
9889563659	BOD:	Biological Oxygen Demand, amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials.	64
9889563672	Eutrophication:	rapid algal growth (algal bloom) caused by an excess of nitrogen & phosphorus, blocks sunlight, causing the death/decomposition of aquatic plants, decreasing dissolved oxygen (DO), suffocating fish.	65
9889564683	Hypoxia:	water with very low dissolved oxygen levels, the end result of eutrophication, for example. CAFE standards: Corporate Average Fuel Economy standards enacted into law in 1975, established fuel efficiency standards for passenger cars and light trucks. The fuel economy ratings for a manufacturer's entire line of passenger cars must currently average at least 27.5 mpg for the manufacturer to comply with the standard. Primary Air Pollutants: produced by humans & nature (CO, CO2, SO2, NO, hydrocarbons, particulates).	66
9889566375	Secondary Air Pollutants:	formed by reaction of primary pollutants.	67
9889567072	Particulate Matter:	sources include burning fossil fuels and car exhaust. Effects include reduced visibility, respiratory irritation. Methods of reduction include filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energy).	68
9889568864	Nitrogen Oxides:	(NOx) Major source is auto exhaust. Primary and secondary effects include acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to smog and ozone. Reduced using catalytic converters.	69
9889570959	Equation for acid formation:	NO + O2 → NO2 + H2O → HNO3.	70
9889572405	Ozone:	Secondary pollutant, NO2 + UV → NO + O; O + O2 → O3, with VOCs. Causes respiratory irritation and plant damage. Reduced by reducing NO emissions and VOCs.	71
9889573837	Sulfur Oxides:	(SOx) Primary source is coal burning. Primary and secondary effects include acid deposition, respiratory irritation, plant damage. Reduction methods include: scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuel. Equation for acid formation: SO2 + O2 → SO3 + H2O → H2SO4	72
9889578171	Carbon Dioxide:	(CO2) Sources include the combustion of fossil fuels. Effects: greenhouse gas-contributes to global warming. Reduction accomplished by increased fuel efficiency (gas mileage), mass transit (reduction).	73
9889580769	Carbon Monoxide:	(CO) Sources include incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. Effects: binds to hemoglobin reducing bloods ability to carry O2. Reduction accomplished by catalytic converters, oxygenated fuel, mass transit (reduction).	74
9889581596	Photochemical Smog:	formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO, VOC, O2)	75
9889582193	Acid Deposition:	caused by sulfuric and nitric acids resulting in lowered pH of surface waters	76
9889583237	Greenhouse Gases:	Most significant: H2O, CO2, methane (CH4), CFCs. Trap outgoing infrared energy (heat) causing earth to warm.	77
9889584506	Greenhouse Effect:	a vital process, required for life to exist on Earth. If accelerated, bad, leads to global warming.	78
9889585860	Effects of Global Warming:	rising sea level (due to thermal expansion not melting ice), extreme weather, droughts (famine), and extinctions.	79
9889585884	Ozone Depletion:	caused by CFCs, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, halon, methyl bromide all of which attack stratospheric ozone. Negative effects of ozone depletion include increased UV, skin cancer, cataracts, and decreased plant growth.	80
9889587179	Municipal Solid Waste:	is mostly paper and mostly put into landfills.	81
9889588510	Sanitary Landfill:	problems include leachate, which is solved using a liner with a collection system; methane gas, which may be collected and burned; and the volume of garbage, which may be compacted and/or reduced.	82
9889589513	Incineration:	Advantages-volume of waste reduced by 90% and waste heat can be used. Disadvantages-toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride, dioxin), scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal.	83
9889590831	Best Solution for Waste Problem:	reduce the amount of waste at the source.	84
9889591939	Brownfield:	abandoned industrial sites.	85
9889592621	Keystone Species:	species whose role in an ecosystem is more important than others.	86
9889595177	Indicator Species:	species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged. In Natural Ecosystems: 50-90% of pest species are kept under control by: predators, diseases, parasites.	87
9889597553	Major Insecticide Groups:	chlorinated hydrocarbons—ex. DDT; organophosphates—ex. malathion; carbamates—ex. aldicarb	88
9889599756	Pesticide Pros:	saves lives from insect transmitted disease, increases food supply, and increases profits for farmers. Cons: genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, and biological magnification.	89
9889600704	Natural Pest Control:	better agricultural practices, genetically resistant plants, natural enemies, and biopesticides, sex attractants.	90
9889602454	Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs):	new organisms created by altering the genetic material (DNA) of existing organisms; usually in an attempt to remove undesirable or create desirable characteristics in the new organism.	91
9889605583	Electricity Generation:	steam, from water boiled by fossils fuels or nuclear energy, or falling water is used to turn a generator.	92
9889606698	Petroleum (Crude Oil) Formation:	microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat & pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons.	93
9889607367	Petroleum Pros:	cheap, easily transported, high-quality energy. Cons: reserves depleted soon, pollution during drilling, transport and refining, land subsidence, burning oil produces CO2.	94
9889609838	Coal Formation:	prehistoric plants buried un-decomposed in oxygen-depleted water of swamps/bogs converted by heat and pressure. Ranks of Coal: peat, lignite, bituminous coal, anthracite coal. Nuclear Reactor: consists of a core, control rods, moderator, steam generator, turbine, containment building.	95
9889610632	Alternate Energy Sources:	wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells	96
9889612408	Remediation:	return a contaminated area to its original state.	97
9889613156	LD-50:	the amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals in a test population	98
9889614894	Troposphere:	first layer of atmosphere 0-10 miles above the Earth's surface. Contains weather, greenhouse gases (bad ozone).	99
9889615708	Stratosphere:	second layer of atmosphere 10-30 miles above the Earth's surface. Contains protective ozone layer (good ozone).	100
9889616854	Inversion Layer (Temperature Inversion):	a warm layer of air above a cooler layer traps pollutants close to the Earth's surface.	101
9889617915	Mutagen:	substances that cause changes in DNA; may result in hereditary changes.	102
9889619687	Teratogen:	substances that cause fetus deformities (birth defects).	103
9889620769	Carcinogen:	substances that cause cancer.	104
9889621688	Dioxin:	one of the most toxic human-made chemicals. Stable, long-lived, by-product of herbicide production enters environment as fallout from the incineration of municipal and medical waste and persists for many years.	105
9889622426	PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls):	Stable, long-lived, carcinogenic chlorinated hydrocarbons. Produced by the electronics industry.	106
9889623560	Multiple Use Public Lands:	National Forest & National Resource lands.	107
9889624665	Moderately Restricted Use Public Lands:	National Wildlife Refuges	108
9889625769	Restricted Use Public Lands:	National Parks & National Wilderness Preservation System	109
9889626712	Divergent Plate Boundaries:	tectonic plates spreading apart, new crust being formed (ex. mid-ocean ridges, rift valleys).	110
9889627383	Convergent Plate Boundaries:	tectonic plates with the oldest crustal material on Earth moving together, one moving under another (ex. mid-ocean trenches). Mineral deposits and volcanoes are most abundant at convergent plate boundaries	111
9889628210	Transform Fault:	tectonic plates sliding past one another (ex. San Andreas fault).	112
9889629556	Most Endangered Species:	have a small range, require large territory, have long generations, have a very specialized niche, or live on an island.	113
9889630356	Atlantic Salmon:	interbreeding with and competition from escaped farm-raised salmon from the aquaculture industry threaten the wild salmon population.	114
9889631221	California Condor:	reasons for decline include shootings, poisoning, lead poisoning, collisions with power lines, egg collecting, pesticides, habitat loss, and the decline of large and medium-size native mammals due to encroachments of agriculture and urbanization.	115
9889632426	Delhi Sands Flower-Loving Fly:	a 1-inch long insect currently restricted to only 12 known populations in San Bernardino and Riverside counties. An estimated 98% of its habitat has been converted to residential, agricultural, and commercial use.	116
9889633058	Florida Panther:	hunting and development that resulted in habitat loss and fragmentation.	117
9889633973	Gray Wolf:	subject of predator eradication programs sponsored by the Federal government. Prior to Endangered Species Act (1973), exterminated from the lower 48 states except for a few hundred inhabiting extreme northeastern Minnesota and a small number on Isle Royale, Michigan	118
9889650389	Grizzly Bear:	conflict with humans and development that resulted in habitat loss and fragmentation	119
9889666645	Piping Plover:	predation and human disturbance are thought to be the main causes of the plover's decline. It is listed as endangered in the Great Lakes region and as threatened in the Great Plains and on the Atlantic coast	120
9889668456	Manatee:	initial population decreases resulted from overharvesting for meat, oil, and leather. Today, heavy mortality occurs from accidental collisions with boats and barges, and from canal lock operations.	121
9889669406	Whooping Crane:	drainage of wetlands, conversion of grasslands to agriculture, and hunting for feathers. NOT Endangered Species	122
9889671282	American Alligator:	overhunting and destruction of habitat caused original listing, removed from the list of endangered species by the Fish and Wildlife Service in 1987.	123
9889671283	Bald Eagle:	ingested DDT by eating contaminated fish. The pesticide caused the shells of the bird's eggs to thin and resulted in nesting failures. Loss of nesting habitat and hunting for feathers also contributed to the population decline. Reclassified from endangered to threatened (1995).	124
9889672369	Peregrine Falcon:	ingested DDT by eating smaller birds, which had eaten contaminated prey. The pesticide caused the shells of the bird's eggs to thin and resulted in nesting failures. Removed from the list of endangered species by the Fish and Wildlife Service in August 1999.	125
9889673194	Gray Whale:	the eastern North Pacific stock of gray whale has the distinction of being the first population of a marine mammal species to be removed from the List of Endangered and Threatened Species.	126
9889674322	Biome:	large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants & animals.	127
9889680205	Tropical Rain Forests:	characterized by the greatest diversity of species, believed to include many undiscovered species. Occur near the equator. Soils tend to be low in nutrients. Distinct seasonality: winter is absent, and only two seasons are present (rainy and dry).	128
9889681042	Temperate Forests:	occur in eastern North America, Japan, northeastern Asia, and western and central Europe. Dominated by tall deciduous trees. Well-defined seasons include a distinct winter. Logged extensively, only scattered remnants of original temperate forests remain.	129
9889683363	Boreal Forests or Taiga:	represent the largest terrestrial biome. Dominated by needleleaf, coniferous trees. Found in the cold climates of Eurasia and North America: two-thirds in Siberia with the rest in Scandinavia, Alaska, and Canada. Seasons are divided into short, moist, and moderately warm summers and long, cold, and dry winters. Extensive logging may soon cause their disappearance.	130
9889690643	Temperate Shrub Lands:	occurs along the coast of Southern California and the Mediterranean region. Characterized by areas of Chaparral-miniature woodlands dominated by dense stands of shrubs.	131
9889691494	Savannas:	grassland with scattered individual trees. Cover almost half the surface of Africa and large areas of Australia, South America, and India. Warm or hot climates where the annual rainfall is 20-50 inches per year. The rainfall is concentrated in six or eight months of the year, followed by a long period of drought when fires can occur.	132
9889692649	Temperate Grasslands:	dominated by grasses, trees and large shrubs are absent. Temperatures vary more from summer to winter, and the amount of rainfall is less than in savannas. Temperate grasslands have hot summers and cold winters. Occur in South Africa, Hungary, Argentina, the steppes of the former Soviet Union, and the plains and prairies of central North America.	133
9889693374	Deserts:	covers about one fifth of the Earth's surface and occur where rainfall is less than 50 cm/year. Most deserts occur at low latitudes, have a considerable amount of specialized vegetation, as well as specialized animals. Soils have abundant nutrients, need only water to become productive, and have little or no organic matter. Common disturbances include occasional fires or cold weather, and sudden, infrequent, but intense rains that cause flooding.	134
9889694227	Tundra:	treeless plains that are the coldest of all the biomes. Occur in the arctic and Antarctica. Dominated by lichens, mosses, sedges, and dwarfed shrubs Characterized by extremely cold climate, permanently frozen ground (permafrost) low biotic diversity, simple vegetation structure, limitation of drainage, short season of growth and reproduction.	135
9889695344	Wetlands:	areas of standing water wet all or most of the year that support aquatic plants including marshes, swamps, and bogs. Species diversity is very high. Includes bogs, swamps, sloughs, marshes	136
9889695982	Fresh Water:	defined as having a low salt concentration (less than 1%). Plants and animals are adjusted to the low salt content and would not be able to survive in areas of high salt concentration (i.e., ocean). There are different types of freshwater regions: ponds and lakes, streams and rivers, and estuaries. Oceans: the largest of all the ecosystems. The ocean regions are separated into separate zones: intertidal, pelagic, abyssal, and benthic. All four zones have a great diversity of species. Places to Know	137
9889696816	Chernobyl, Ukraine:	April 26, 1986, unauthorized safety test (irony), leads to fire and explosion at nuclear power plant—millions exposed to unsafe levels of radiation.	138
9889697390	Three-Mile Island, Pennsylvania:	March 29, 1979, nuclear power plant loses cooling water 50% of core melts, radioactive materials escape into atmosphere, near meltdown (disaster).	139
9889698228	Yucca Mountain, Nevada:	controversial as proposed site for permanent storage of high-level nuclear waste, 70-miles northwest of Las Vegas, near volcano and earthquake faults.	140
9889698229	Aral Sea, Uzbekistan/Kazakhstan (former Soviet Union):	large inland sea is drying up as a result of water diversion.	141
9889701889	Love Canal, NY:	chemicals buried in old canal, school and homes built over it led to birth defects and cancers.	142
9889702659	Aswan High Dam, Egypt:	the silt that made the Nile region fertile fills the reservoir. Lack of irrigation controls causes waterlogging and salinization. The parasitic disease schistosomiasis thrives in the stagnant water of the reservoir.	143
9889703650	Three Gorges Dam, China:	world's largest dam on Yangtze River will drown ecosystems, cities, archeological sites, fragment habitats, and displace 2 million people.	144
9889703651	Ogallala Aquifer:	world's largest aquifer; under parts of Wyoming, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Texas (the Midwest). Holds enough water to cover the U.S. with 1.5 feet of water. Being depleted for agricultural and urban use.	145
9889706283	Minamata, Japan:	mental impairments, birth defects, and deaths were caused by mercury dumped in Minamata Bay by factory. Mercury entered humans through their diet (fish).	146
9889707581	Bhopal, India:	December 2,1984, methyl isocyanate released accidentally by Union Carbide pesticide plant kills over 5,000.	147
9889708149	Safe Drinking Water Act:	set maximum contaminant levels for pollutants that may have adverse effects on human health.	148
9889709903	Valdez, Alaska:	March 24, 1989, tanker Exxon Valdez hits submerged rocks in Prince William Sound—worst oil spill in US waters.	149
9889711358	Ocean Dumping Ban Act:	bans ocean dumping of sewage sludge & industrial waste.	150
9889712493	National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act:	protects rivers with due to aesthetic, recreational, wildlife, historical, or cultural reasons.	151
9889712911	Clean Water Act:	set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways. Aim: to make surface waters swimmable and fishable.	152
9889713679	Surface Mining Control & Reclamation Act:	requires coal strip mines to reclaim the land.	153
9889715025	National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA):	Environmental Impact Statements must be done before any project affecting federal lands can be started.	154
9889715984	Clean Air Act:	Set emission standards for cars, and limits for release of air pollutants.	155
9889717146	Kyoto Protocol:	controlling global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for developed countries.	156
9889717725	Montreal Protocol:	phase out of ozone depleting substances.	157
9889717729	Resource Conservation & Recovery Act (RCRA):	controls hazardous waste with a cradle to grave system.	158
9889718551	Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation & Liability Act (CERCLA):	The "Superfund" act, designed to identify and clean up abandoned hazardous waste dumpsites.	159
9889726605	Endangered Species Act:	identifies threatened and endangered species in the US, and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations.	160
9889727477	Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species:	(CITES) lists species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products.	161
9889727478	Lacey Act:	prohibits interstate transport of wild animals dead or alive without federal permit.	162
9889728753	U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act:	prohibits taking marine mammals in U.S. waters and by U.S. citizens, and the importing marine mammals and marine mammal products into the U.S. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act: regulates the effectiveness of pesticides.	163
9889730019	Food Quality Protection Act:	set pesticide limits in food, & all active and inactive ingredients must be screened for estrogenic/endocrine effects.	164
9889731360	Low-Level Radioactive Policy Act:	all states must have facilities to handle low-level radioactive wastes.	165
9889731361	Nuclear Waste Policy Act:	US government must develop a high level nuclear waste site by 2015 (see Yucca Mountain). People to Know	166
9889733045	Rachel Carson:	published Silent Spring in 1962; documented the environmental damage done by DDT and other pesticides. Which heightened public awareness at the start of the modern environmental movement.	167
9889733898	John Muir:	founded Sierra Club in 1892; fought unsuccessfully to prevent the damming of the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite National Park.	168
9889733899	Gifford Pinchot:	first chief of the US Forest Service; advocated managing resources for multiple use using principles of sustainable yield.	169
9889734795	Garrett Hardin:	published "The Tragedy of the Commons" in the journal Science in 1968; argued that rational people will exploit shared resources (commons).	170
9889736810	Aldo Leopold:	wrote A Sand County Almanac published a year after his death in 1948; promoted a "Land Ethic" in which humans are ethically responsible for serving as the protectors of nature.	171
9889736811	Sherwood Rowland & Mario Molina:	in 1974, determine that CFCs destroy stratospheric (good) ozone.	172

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AP Statistics Review of Everything Flashcards

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9689519588	How do you check if there is outliers?	calculate IQR; anything above Q3+1.5(IQR) or below Q1-1.5(IQR) is an outlier	0
9689519589	If a graph is skewed, should we calculate the median or the mean? Why?	median; it is resistant to skews and outliers	1
9689519590	If a graph is roughly symmetrical, should we calculate the median or the mean? Why?	mean; generally is more accurate if the data has no outliers	2
9689519591	What is in the five number summary?	Minimum, Q1, Median, Q3, Maximum	3
9689519592	Relationship between variance and standard deviation?	variance=(standard deviation)^2	4
9689519593	variance definition	the variance is roughly the average of the squared differences between each observation and the mean	5
9689519594	standard deviation	the standard deviation is the square root of the variance	6
9689519595	What should we use to measure spread if the median was calculated?	IQR	7
9689519596	What should we use to measure spread if the mean was calculated?	standard deviation	8
9689519597	What is the IQR? How much of the data does it represent?	Q3-Q1; 50%	9
9689519598	How do you calculate standard deviation?	1. Type data into L1 2. Find mean with 1 Variable Stats 3. Turn L2 into (L1-mean) 4. Turn L3 into (L2)^2 5. Go to 2nd STAT over to MATH, select sum( 6. Type in L3 7. multiply it by (1/n-1) 8. Square root it	10
9689519778	What is the formula for standard deviation?		11
9689519599	Categorical variables vs. Quantitative Variables	Categorical: individuals can be assigned to one of several groups or categories Quantitative: takes numberical values	12
9689519600	If a possible outlier is on the fence, is it an outlier?	No	13
9689519601	Things to include when describing a distribution	Center (Mean or Median), Unusual Gaps or Outliers, Spread (Standard Deviation or IQR), Shape (Roughly Symmetric, slightly/heavily skewed left or right, bimodal, range)	14
9689519602	Explain how to standardize a variable. What is the purpose of standardizing a variable?	Subtract the distribution mean and then divide by standard deviation. Tells us how many standard deviations from the mean an observation falls, and in what direction.	15
9689519603	What effect does standardizing the values have on the distribution?	shape would be the same as the original distribution, the mean would become 0, the standard deviation would become 1	16
9689519604	What is a density curve?	a curve that (a) is on or above the horizontal axis, and (b) has exactly an area of 1	17
9689519605	Inverse Norm	when you want to find the percentile: invNorm (area, mean, standard deviation)	18
9689519606	z	(x-mean)/standard deviation	19
9689519607	pth percentile	the value with p percent observations less than is	20
9689519608	cumulative relative frequency graph	can be used to describe the position of an individual within a distribution or to locate a specified percentile of the distribution	21
9689519609	How to find and interpret the correlation coefficient r for a scatterplot	STAT plot, scatter, L1 and L2 (Plot 1: ON); STAT --> CALC --> 8:LinReg(a+bx) No r? --> 2nd 0 (Catalog) down to Diagnostic ON	22
9689519610	r	tells us the strength of a LINEAR association. -1 to 1. Not resistant to outliers	23
9689519611	r^2	the proportion (percent) of the variation in the values of y that can be accounted for by the least squares regression line	24
9689519612	residual plot	a scatterplot of the residuals against the explanatory variable. Residual plots help us assess how well a regression line fits the data. It should have NO PATTERN	25
9689519613	regression line	a line that describes how a response variable y changes as an explanatory variable x changes. We often use a regression line to predict the value of y for a given value of x.	26
9689519614	residual formula	residual=y-y(hat) aka observed y - predicted y	27
9689519615	What method do you use to check if a distribution or probability is binomial?	BINS: 1. Binary: There only two outcomes (success and failure) 2. Independent: The events independent of one another? 3. Number: There is a fixed number of trials 4. Success: The probability of success equal in each trial	28
9689519616	What method do you use to check if a distribution or probability is geometric?	BITS: 1. Binary: There only two outcomes (success and failure) 2. Independent: The events independent of one another 3. Trials: There is not a fixed number of trials 4. Success: The probability of success equal in each trial	29
9689519617	n	number of trials	30
9689519618	p	probability of success	31
9689519619	k	number of successes	32
9689519620	Binomial Formula for P(X=k)	(n choose k) p^k (1-p)^(n-k)	33
9689519621	Binomial Calculator Function to find P(X=k)	binompdf(n,p,k)	34
9689519622	Binomial Calculator Function for P(X≤k)	binomcdf(n,p,k)	35
9689519623	Binomial Calculator Function for P(X≥k)	1-binomcdf(n,p,k-1)	36
9689519624	mean of a binomial distribution	np	37
9689519625	standard deviation of a binomial distribution	√(np(1-p))	38
9689519626	Geometric Formula for P(X=k)	(1-p)^(k-1) x p	39
9689519627	Geometric Calculator Function to find P(X=k)	geometpdf(p,k)	40
9689519628	Geometric Calculator Function for P(X≤k)	geometcdf(p,k)	41
9689519629	Geometric Calculator Function for P(X≥k)	1-geometcdf(p,k-1)	42
9689519630	Mean of a geometric distribution	1/p=expected number of trials until success	43
9689519631	Standard deviation of a geometric distribution	√((1-p)/(p²))	44
9689519632	What do you do if the binomial probability is for a range, rather than a specific number?	Take binomcdf(n,p,maximum) - binomcdf(n,p,minimum-1)	45
9689519633	how do you enter n choose k into the calculator?	type "n" on home screen, go to MATH --> PRB --> 3: ncr, type "k"	46
9689519634	μ(x+y)	μx+μy	47
9689519635	μ(x-y)	μx-μy	48
9689519636	σ(x+y)	√(σ²x+σ²y)	49
9689519637	What does adding or subtracting a constant effect?	Measures of center (median and mean). Does NOT affect measures of spread (IQR and Standard Deviation) or shape.	50
9689519638	What does multiplying or dividing a constant effect?	Both measures of center (median and mean) and measures of spread (IQR and standard deviation). Shape is not effected. For variance, multiply by a² (if y=ax+b).	51
9689519639	σ(x-y)	√(σ²x+σ²y) --> you add to get the difference because variance is distance from mean and you cannot have a negative distance	52
9689519640	calculate μx by hand	X1P1+X2P2+.... XKPK (SigmaXKPK)	53
9689519641	calculate var(x) by hand	(X1-μx)²p(1)+(X2-μx)²p(2)+.... (Sigma(Xk-μx)²p(k))	54
9689519642	Standard deviation	square root of variance	55
9689519643	discrete random variables	a fixed set of possible x values (whole numbers)	56
9689519644	continuous random variables	-x takes all values in an interval of numbers -can be represented by a density curve (area of 1, on or above the horizontal axis)	57
9689519645	What is the variance of the sum of 2 random variables X and Y?	(σx)²+(σy)², but ONLY if x and y are independent.	58
9689519646	mutually exclusive	no outcomes in common	59
9689519647	addition rule for mutually exclusive events P (A U B)	P(A)+P(B)	60
9689519648	complement rule P(A^C)	1-P(A)	61
9689519649	general addition rule (not mutually exclusive) P(A U B)	P(A)+P(B)-P(A n B)	62
9689519650	intersection P(A n B)	both A and B will occur	63
9689519651	conditional probability P (A \| B)	P(A n B) / P(B)	64
9689519652	independent events (how to check independence)	P(A) = P(A\|B) P(B)= P(B\|A)	65
9689519653	multiplication rule for independent events P(A n B)	P(A) x P(B)	66
9689519654	general multiplication rule (non-independent events) P(A n B)	P(A) x P(B\|A)	67
9689519655	sample space	a list of possible outcomes	68
9689519656	probability model	a description of some chance process that consists of 2 parts: a sample space S and a probability for each outcome	69
9689519657	event	any collection of outcomes from some chance process, designated by a capital letter (an event is a subset of the sample space)	70
9689519658	What is the P(A) if all outcomes in the sample space are equally likely?	P(A) = (number of outcomes corresponding to event A)/(total number of outcomes in sample space)	71
9689519659	Complement	probability that an event does not occur	72
9689519660	What is the sum of the probabilities of all possible outcomes?	1	73
9689519661	What is the probability of two mutually exclusive events?	P(A U B)= P(A)+P(B)	74
9689519662	five basic probability rules	1. for event A, 0≤P(A)≤1 2. P(S)=1 3. If all outcomes in the sample space are equally likely, P(A)=number of outcomes corresponding to event A / total number of outcomes in sample space 4. P(A^C) = 1-P(A) 5. If A and B are mutually exclusive, P(A n B)=P(A)+P(B)	75
9689519663	When is a two-way table helpful	displays the sample space for probabilities involving two events more clearly	76
9689519664	In statistics, what is meant by the word "or"?	could have either event or both	77
9689519665	When can a Venn Diagram be helpful?	visually represents the probabilities of not mutually exclusive events	78
9689519666	What is the general addition rule for two events?	If A and B are any two events resulting from some chance process, then the probability of A or B (or both) is P(A U B)= P(A)+P(B)-P(A n B)	79
9689519667	What does the intersection of two or more events mean?	both event A and event B occur	80
9689519668	What does the union of two or more events mean?	either event A or event B (or both) occurs	81
9689519669	What is the law of large numbers?	If we observe more and more repetitions of any chance process, the proportion of times that a specific outcome occurs approaches a single value, which we can call the probability of that outcome	82
9689519670	the probability of any outcome...	is a number between 0 and 1 that describes the proportion of times the outcome would occur in a very long series of repetitions	83
9689519671	How do you interpret a probability?	We interpret probability to represent the most accurate results if we did an infinite amount of trials	84
9689519672	What are the two myths about randomness?	1. Short-run regularity --> the idea that probability is predictable in the short run 2. Law of Averages --> people except the alternative outcome to follow a different outcome	85
9689519673	simulation	the imitation of chance behavior, based on a model that accurately reflects the situation	86
9689519674	Name and describe the four steps in performing a simulation	1. State: What is the question of interest about some chance process 2. Plan: Describe how to use a chance device to imitate one repetition of process; clearly identify outcomes and measured variables 3. Do: Perform many repetitions of the simulation 4. Conclude: results to answer question of interest	87
9689519675	What are some common errors when using a table of random digits?	not providing a clear description of the simulation process for the reader to replicate the simulation	88
9689519676	What does the intersection of two or more events mean?	both event A and event B occur	89
9689519677	sample	The part of the population from which we actually collect information. We use information from a sample to draw conclusions about the entire population	90
9689519678	population	In a statistical study, this is the entire group of individuals about which we want information	91
9689519679	sample survey	A study that uses an organized plan to choose a sample that represents some specific population. We base conclusions about the population on data from the sample.	92
9689519680	convenience sample	A sample selected by taking the members of the population that are easiest to reach; particularly prone to large bias.	93
9689519681	bias	The design of a statistical study shows ______ if it systematically favors certain outcomes.	94
9689519682	voluntary response sample	People decide whether to join a sample based on an open invitation; particularly prone to large bias.	95
9689519683	random sampling	The use of chance to select a sample; is the central principle of statistical sampling.	96
9689519684	simple random sample (SRS)	every set of n individuals has an equal chance to be the sample actually selected	97
9689519685	strata	Groups of individuals in a population that are similar in some way that might affect their responses.	98
9689519686	stratified random sample	To select this type of sample, first classify the population into groups of similar individuals, called strata. Then choose a separate SRS from each stratum to form the full sample.	99
9689519687	cluster sample	To take this type of sample, first divide the population into smaller groups. Ideally, these groups should mirror the characteristics of the population. Then choose an SRS of the groups. All individuals in the chosen groups are included in the sample.	100
9689519688	inference	Drawing conclusions that go beyond the data at hand.	101
9689519689	margin of error	Tells how close the estimate tends to be to the unknown parameter in repeated random sampling.	102
9689519690	sampling frame	The list from which a sample is actually chosen.	103
9689519691	undercoverage	Occurs when some members of the population are left out of the sampling frame; a type of sampling error.	104
9689519692	nonresponse	Occurs when a selected individual cannot be contacted or refuses to cooperate; an example of a nonsampling error.	105
9689519693	wording of questions	The most important influence on the answers given to a survey. Confusing or leading questions can introduce strong bias, and changes in wording can greatly change a survey's outcome. Even the order in which questions are asked matters.	106
9689519694	observational study	Observes individuals and measures variables of interest but does not attempt to influence the responses.	107
9689519695	experiment	Deliberately imposes some treatment on individuals to measure their responses.	108
9689519696	explanatory variable	A variable that helps explain or influences changes in a response variable.	109
9689519697	response variable	A variable that measures an outcome of a study.	110
9689519698	lurking variable	a variable that is not among the explanatory or response variables in a study but that may influence the response variable.	111
9689519699	treatment	A specific condition applied to the individuals in an experiment. If an experiment has several explanatory variables, a treatment is a combination of specific values of these variables.	112
9689519700	experimental unit	the smallest collection of individuals to which treatments are applied.	113
9689519701	subjects	Experimental units that are human beings.	114
9689519702	factors	the explanatory variables in an experiment are often called this	115
9689519703	random assignment	An important experimental design principle. Use some chance process to assign experimental units to treatments. This helps create roughly equivalent groups of experimental units by balancing the effects of lurking variables that aren't controlled on the treatment groups.	116
9689519704	replication	An important experimental design principle. Use enough experimental units in each group so that any differences in the effects of the treatments can be distinguished from chance differences between the groups.	117
9689519705	double-blind	An experiment in which neither the subjects nor those who interact with them and measure the response variable know which treatment a subject received.	118
9689519706	single-blind	An experiment in which either the subjects or those who interact with them and measure the response variable, but not both, know which treatment a subject received.	119
9689519707	placebo	an inactive (fake) treatment	120
9689519708	placebo effect	Describes the fact that some subjects respond favorably to any treatment, even an inactive one	121
9689519709	block	A group of experimental units that are known before the experiment to be similar in some way that is expected to affect the response to the treatments.	122
9689519710	inference about the population	Using information from a sample to draw conclusions about the larger population. Requires that the individuals taking part in a study be randomly selected from the population of interest.	123
9689519711	inference about cause and effect	Using the results of an experiment to conclude that the treatments caused the difference in responses. Requires a well-designed experiment in which the treatments are randomly assigned to the experimental units.	124
9689519712	lack of realism	When the treatments, the subjects, or the environment of an experiment are not realistic. Lack of realism can limit researchers' ability to apply the conclusions of an experiment to the settings of greatest interest.	125
9689519713	institutional review board	A basic principle of data ethics. All planned studies must be approved in advance and monitored by _____________ charged with protecting the safety and well-being of the participants.	126
9689519714	informed consent	A basic principle of data ethics. Individuals must be informed in advance about the nature of a study and any risk of harm it may bring. Participating individuals must then consent in writing.	127
9689519715	simulation	a model of random events	128
9689519716	census	a sample that includes the entire population	129
9689519717	population parameter	a number that measures a characteristic of a population	130
9689519718	systematic sample	every fifth individual, for example, is chosen	131
9689519719	multistage sample	a sampling design where several sampling methods are combined	132
9689519720	sampling variability	the naturally occurring variability found in samples	133
9689519721	levels	the values that the experimenter used for a factor	134
9689519722	the four principles of experimental design	control, randomization, replication, and blocking	135
9689519723	completely randomized design	a design where all experimental units have an equal chance of receiving any treatment	136
9689519724	interpreting p value	if the true mean/proportion of the population is (null), the probability of getting a sample mean/proportion of _____ is (p-value).	137
9689519725	p̂1-p̂2 center, shape, and spread	center: p1-p2 shape: n1p1, n1(1-p1), n2p2, and n2(1-p2) ≥ 10 spread (if 10% condition checks): √((p1(1-p1)/n1)+(p2(1-p2)/n2)	138
9689519726	probability of getting a certain p̂1-p̂2 (ex. less than .1)	plug in center and spread into bell curve, find probability	139
9689519727	Confidence intervals for difference in proportions formula	(p̂1-p̂2) plus or minus z*(√((p1(1-p1)/n1)+(p2(1-p2)/n2))	140
9689519728	When do you use t and z test/intervals?	t for mean z for proportions	141
9689519779	Significance test for difference in proportions		142
9689519729	What is a null hypothesis?	What is being claimed. Statistical test designed to assess strength of evidence against null hypothesis. Abbreviated by Ho.	143
9689519730	What is an alternative hypothesis?	the claim about the population that we are trying to find evidence FOR, abbreviated by Ha	144
9689519731	When is the alternative hypothesis one-sided?	Ha less than or greater than	145
9689519732	When is the alternative hypothesis two-sided?	Ha is not equal to	146
9689519733	What is a significance level?	fixed value that we compare with the P-value, matter of judgement to determine if something is "statistically significant".	147
9689519734	What is the default significance level?	α=.05	148
9689519735	Interpreting the p-value	if the true mean/proportion of the population is (null), the probability of getting a sample mean/proportion of _____ is (p-value).	149
9689519736	p value ≤ α	We reject our null hypothesis. There is sufficient evidence to say that (Ha) is true.	150
9689519737	p value ≥ α	We fail to reject our null hypothesis. There is insufficient evidence to say that (Ho) is not true.	151
9689519738	reject Ho when it is actually true	Type I Error	152
9689519739	fail to reject Ho when it is actually false	Type II Error	153
9689519740	Power definition	probability of rejecting Ho when it is false	154
9689519741	probability of Type I Error	α	155
9689519742	probability of Type II Error	1-power	156
9689519743	two ways to increase power	increase sample size/significance level α	157
9689519744	5 step process: z/t test	State --> Ho/Ha, define parameter Plan --> one sample, z test Check --> random/normal/independent Do --> find p hat, find test statistic (z), use test statistic to find p-value Conclude --> p value ≤ α reject Ho p value ≥ α fail to reject Ho	158
9689519780	Formula for test statistic (μ)		159
9689519745	Formula for test statistic (p̂) (where p represents the null)	(p̂-p)/(√((p)(1-p))/n)	160
9689519746	probability of a Type II Error?	overlap normal distribution for null and true. Find rejection line. Use normalcdf	161
9689519747	when do you use z tests?	for proportions	162
9689519748	when do you use t tests?	for mean (population standard deviation unknown)	163
9689519749	finding p value for t tests	tcdf(min, max, df)	164
9689519750	Sample paired t test	state--> Ho: μ1-μ2=0 (if its difference) plan --> one sample, paired t test check --> random, normal, independent do --> find test statistic and p value conclude --> normal conclusion	165
9689519751	What does statistically significant mean in context of a problem?	The sample mean/proportion is far enough away from the true mean/proportion that it couldn't have happened by chance	166
9689519752	When doing a paired t-test, to check normality, what do you do?	check the differences histogram (μ1-μ2)	167
9689519753	How to interpret a C% Confidence Level	In C% of all possible samples of size n, we will construct an interval that captures the true parameter (in context).	168
9689519754	How to interpret a C% Confidence Interval	We are C% confident that the interval (_,_) will capture the true parameter (in context).	169
9689519755	What conditions must be checked before constructing a confidence interval?	random, normal, independent	170
9689519756	C% confidence intervals of sample proportions, 4 step process	State: Construct a C% confidence interval to estimate... Plan: one sample z-interval for proportions Check: Norma1 Do: Find the standard error and z, then p hat +/- z (1 sample z-proportions) Conclude: We are C% confident that the interval (_,_) will capture the true parameter (in context).	171
9689519781	What's the z interval standard error formula?		172
9689519757	How do you find z*?	InvNorm(#)	173
9689519758	How do you find the point estimate of a sample?	subtract the max and min confidence interval, divide it by two (aka find the mean of the interval ends)	174
9689519759	How do you find the margin of error, given the confidence interval?	Ask, "What am I adding or subtracting from the point estimate?" So find the point estimate, then find the difference between the point estimate and the interval ends	175
9689519760	Finding sample size proportions: When p hat is unknown, or you want to guarantee a margin of error less than or equal to:	use p hat=.5	176
9689519761	Finding the confidence interval when the standard deviation of the population is known	x bar +/- z*(σ/√n)	177
9689519762	Checking normal condition for z* (population standard deviation known)	starts normal or CLT	178
9689519763	Finding the confidence interval when the standard deviation of the population is unknown (which is almost always true)	x bar +/- t*(Sx/√n)	179
9689519764	degrees of freedom	n-1	180
9689519765	How do you find t*?	t-table	181
9689519766	What is the standard error?	same as standard deviation, but we call it "standard error" because we plugged in p hat for p (we are estimating)	182
9689519767	a point estimator is a statistic that...	provides an estimate of a population parameter.	183
9689519768	Explain the two conditions when the margin of error gets smaller.	Confidence level C decreases, sample size n increases	184
9689519769	Does the confidence level tell us the chance that a particular confidence interval captures the population parameter?	NO; the confidence interval gives us a set of plausible values for the parameter	185
9689519770	Sx and σx: which is which?	Sx is for a sample, σx is for a population	186
9689519771	How do we know when do use a t* interval instead of a z interval?	you are not given the population standard deviation	187
9689519772	Checking normal condition for t* (population standard deviation unknown)	Normal for sample size... -n -n<15: if the data appears closely normal (roughly symmetric, single peak, no outliers)	188
9689519773	How to check if a distribution is normal for t*, population n<15	plug data into List 1, look at histogram. Conclude with "The boxplot looks roughly symmetric, so we should be safe to use the t distribution)	189
9689519774	t* confidence interval, 4 step process	State: Construct a __% confidence interval to estimate... Plan: one sample t interval for a population mean Check: Normal (for Normal, look at sample size and go from there) Do: 1 sample t-interval Conclude: We are __% confident that the interval (_,_) will capture the true parameter (in context).	190
9689519775	margin of error formula	z* or t* (standard error)	191
9689519776	When calculating t interval, what is it and where do you find the data?	x bar plus or minus t* (Sx/√n) -get x bar and Sx using 1 Var Stats -t*=t-table with df -population (n) will be given	192
9689519777	What is it looking for if it asks for the appropriate critical value?	z/t* interval	193

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AP Psychology Important People Flashcards

Important people in AP PSychology

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6466380339	Sigmund Freud	1856-1939; Field: psychoanalytic, personality; Contributions: id/ego/superego, reality and pleasure principles, ego ideal, defense mechanisms (expanded by Anna Freud), psychoanalysis, transference	0
6466380340	Anna Freud	1895-1982; Field: psychoanalysis; Contributions: focused on child psychoanalysis, fully developed defense mechanisms, emphasized importance of the ego and its constant struggle	1
6466380341	Carl Jung	1875-1961; Field: neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; Contributions: people had conscious and unconscious awareness; archetypes; collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; Studies: dream studies/interpretation	2
6466380342	Erik Erikson	1902-1994; Field: neo-Freudian, humanistic; Contributions: created an 8-stage theory to show how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"	3
6466380343	Lawrence Köhlberg	1927-1987; Field: cognition, moral development; Contributions: created a theory of moral development that has 3 levels; focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behavior	4
6466380344	Carol Gilligan	1936-pres; Field: cognition; Contributions: maintained that Köhlberg's work was developed by only observing boys and overlooked potential differences between the habitual moral judgments of boys and girls; girls focus more on relationships than laws and principles	5
6466380345	William James	1842-1910; Field: functionalism; Contributions: studied how humans use perception to function in our environment; Studies: Pragmatism, The Meaning of Truth	6
6466380346	William Wundt	1832-1920; Field: structuralism, voluntarism; Contributions: introspection, basic units of experience; Studies: 1st psychological laboratory in world at University of Leipzig	7
6466380347	BF Skinner	1904-1990; Field: behavioral; Contributions: created techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior; Studies: Skinner box	8
6466380348	John B Watson	1878-1958; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: generalization-inductive reasoning, emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; Studies: Little Albert	9
6466380349	Jean Piaget	1896-1980; Field: cognition; Contributions: created a 4-stage theory of cognitive development, said that two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth (assimilation and accommodation)	10
6466380350	Harry Harlow	1905-1981; Field: development; Contributions: realized that touch is preferred in development; Studies: Rhesus monkeys, studied attachment of infant monkeys (wire mothers v. cloth mothers)	11
6466380351	Carl Rogers	1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person	12
6466380352	Abraham Maslow	1908-1970; Field: humanism; Contributions: hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied, self-actualization, transcendence	13
6466380353	Karen Horney	1885-1952; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends	14
6466380354	Alfred Adler	1870-1937; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: basic mistakes, style of life, inferiority/superiority complexes, childhood influences personality formation; Studies: Birth Order	15
6466380355	Gordon Allport	1897-1967; Field: trait theory of personality; Contributions: list of 11,000 traits, 3 levels of traits-cardinal, central, and secondary	16
6466380356	Hermann Rorschach	1884-1922; Field: personality, psychoanalysis; Contributions: developed one of the first projective tests, the Inkblot test which consists of 10 standardized inkblots where the subject tells a story, the observer then derives aspects of the personality from the subject's commentary	17
6466380357	Solomon Asch	1907-1996; Field: social psychology; Contributions: studied conformity, found that individuals would conform even if they knew it was wrong; Studies: conformity, opinions and social pressures	18
6466380358	Stanley Schachter	1922-present; Field: emotion; Contributions: stated that in order to experience emotions a person must be physically aroused and know the emotion before you experience it	19
6466380359	Stanley Milgram	1933-1984; Field: social psychology; Contributions: wanted to see how the German soldiers in WWII fell to obedience, wanted to see how far individuals would go to be obedient; Studies: Shock Study	20
6466380360	Philip Zimbardo	1933-present; Field: social psychology; Contributions: proved that peoples behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play; Studies: Stanford Prison Study-studied power of social roles to influence people's behavior	21
6466380361	Elizabeth Kübler-Ross	1926-2004; Field: development; Contributions: 5 stages the terminally ill go through when facing death (1. death, 2. anger/resentment, 3. bargaining with God, 4. depression, 5. acceptance)	22
6466380362	Elizabeth Loftus	1944-present; Field: memory; Contributions: expert in eyewitness testimony (false memories or misinformation effect); Studies: Reconstruction of Auto. Destruction, Jane Doe Case (repressed memories of Nicole Taus' sex abuse)	23
6466380363	Robert Sternberg	1949-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative)	24
6466380364	Albert Bandura	1925-present; Field: sociocultural; Contributions: pioneer in observational learning, stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play	25
6466380365	Raymond Cattell	1905-1998; Field: intelligence; Contributions: fluid & crystal intelligence; 3 domains of personality sphere (personality, ability, & motivation), 16 Personality Factors (personality test)	26
6466380366	Aaron Beck	1921-present; Field: cognitive; Contributions: father of Cognitive Therapy, created Beck Scales-depression inventory, hopelessness scale, suicidal ideation, anxiety inventory, and youth inventories	27
6466380367	Noam Chomsky	1928-present; Field: language; Contributions: disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language	28
6466380368	Edward Thorndike	1874-1949; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence; Studies: Law of Effect with cats	29
6466380369	HJ Eysenck	1916-1997; Field: personality; Contributions: asserted that personality is largely determined by genes, used introversion/extroversion	30
6466380370	Mary Ainsworth	1913-1999; Field: development; Contributions: compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; Studies: The Strange Situation-observation of parent/child attachment	31
6466380371	Kenneth Clark	1914-2005; Field: social psychology; Contributions: research evidence of internalized racism caused by stigmatization; Studies: Doll experiments-black children chose white dolls	32
6466380372	Lev Vygotsky	1896-1934; Field: child development; Contributions: investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development, zone of proximal development; play research	33
6466380373	Martin Seligman	1942-present; Field: learning; Contributions: Positive Psychology, learned helplessness; Studies: Dogs demonstrating learned helplessness	34
6466380374	Howard Gardner	1943-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: devised the theory of multiple intelligences (logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic)	35
6466380375	Kurt Lewin	1890-1947; Field: social psychology; Contributions: German refugee who escaped Nazis, proved the democratic style of leadership is the most productive; Studies: Leadership syles-studied effects of 3 leadership styles on children completing activities	36
6466380376	Ivan Pavlov	1891-1951; Field: Gastroenterology; Contributions: developed foundation for classical conditioning, discovered that a UCS naturally elicits a reflexive behavior; Studies: dog salivation	37
6466380377	Hermann Ebbinghaus	1850-1909; Field: memory; Contributions: 1st to conduct studies on forgetting: first, a rapid loss followed by a gradual declining rate of loss; Studies: memory-series of meaningless syllables/words	38
6466380378	Benjamin Whorf	1897-1941; Field: language; Contributions: his hypothesis is that language determines the way we think	39
6466380379	Robert Rosenthal	1933-present; Field: social psychology; Contributions: focus on nonverbal communication, self-fulfilling prophecies; Studies: Pygmalion Effect-effect of teacher's expectations on students	40
6466380380	Judith Langlois	dates ?; Field: developmental; Contributions: social development & processing, effects of appearance on behavior, origin of social stereotypes, sex/love/intimacy, facial expression	41
6466380381	David Rosenhan	dates?; Field: social psychology; Contributions: proved that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, your care would not be very good in a mental health setting; Studies: Hospital experiment-checked into hospital to check diagnosis	42
6466380382	Daniel Goleman	1946-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: emotional intelligence	43
6466380383	Charles Spearman	1863-1945; Field: intelligence; Contributions: found that specific mental talents were highly correlated, concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled 'g' (general ability)	44
6466380384	Albert Ellis	1913-2007; Field: cognitive-behavioral; Contributions: Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET), focuses on altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotions	45
6466380385	Harry Stack Sullivan	1892-1949; Field: psychoanalysis; Contributions: groundwork for enmeshed relationships, developed the Self-System-a configuration of personality traits	46
6466380386	Robert Yerkes	187601956; Field: intelligence, comparative; Contributions: social behavior of gorillas/chimps, Yerkes-Dodson law-level of arousal as related to performance	47
6466380387	Alfred Binet	1857-1911; Field: testing; Contributions: general IQ tests, designed test to identify slow learners in need of remediation-not applicable in the U.S. because too culture-bound (French)	48
6466380388	Little Albert	ca. 1920; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles: Studies: Little Albert-generalization of fear	49
6466380389	Karl Wernicke	1848-1905; Field: perception; Contributions: area of left temporal lobe involved language understanding; Studies: person damaged in this area uses correct words but they do not make sense	50
6466380390	Ernst Weber	1795-1878; Field: perception; Contributions: just-noticeable-difference (JND) that eventually becomes Weber's law; Studies: 1st study on JND	51
6466380391	Gustav Fechner	1801-1887; Field: perception; Contributions: stated that the magnitude of a sensory experience is proportionate to the # of JND's that the stimulus causing the experiences above the absolute threshold	52
6466380392	Mary Cover-Jones	1896-1987; Field: learning; Contributions: systematic desensitization, maintained that fear could be unlearned	53
6466380393	Robert Zajonc	1923-present; Field: motivation; Contributions: believes that we invent explanations to label feelings	54
6466380394	Henry Murray	1893-1988; Field: intelligence, testing; Contributions: devised the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) with Christina Morgan, stated that the need to achieve varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach and evaluate their own performances	55
6466380395	Paul Ekman	1934-present; Field: emotion; Contributions: found that facial expressions are universal	56
6466380396	Clark Hull	1884-1952; Field: motivation; Contributions: maintains that the goal of all motivated behavior is the reduction or alleviation of a drive state, mechanism through which reinforcement operates	57
6466380397	David McClelland	1917-1998; Field: intelligence, testing; Contributions: devised a way to measure Murray's theory (TAT), developed scoring system for TAT's use in assessing achievement motivation, not the TAT	58
6466380398	Francis Galton	1822-1911; Field: differential psychology AKA "London School" of Experimental Psychology; Contributions: behavioral genetics, maintains that personality & ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance; Studies: Twin Studies-compare identical & fraternal twins, Hereditary Genius-used bell curve for normal distribution, & "Law of Errors"-differences in intellectual ability	59
6466380399	Charles Darwin	1809-1882; Field: geology, biology; Contributions: transmutation of species, natural selection, evolution by common descent; Studies: "The Origin of Species" catalogs his voyage on the Beagle	60
6466380400	Lewis Terman	1877-1956; Field: testing; Contributions: revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children	61
6466380401	Phineas Gage	1823-1860; Field: neurobiology; Contributions: 1st person to have a frontal lobotomy (by accident), his accident gave information on the brain and which parts are involved with emotional reasoning	62
6466380402	William Sheldon	1898-1977; Field: personality; Contributions: theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment: endomorphic (large), mesomorphic (average), and ectomorphic (skinny)	63
6466380403	David Weschler	1896-1981; Field: testing; Contributions: established an intelligence test especially for adults (WAIS)	64
6466380404	Walter B. Cannon	1871-1945; Field: motivation; Contributions: believed that gastric activity as in empty stomach, was the sole basis for hunger; Studies: inserted balloons in stomachs	65

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