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AP Language (MCHS) Flashcards

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4748105455AllegoryThe device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorica meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.0
4748106349AlliterationThe repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in "she sells sea shells"). Although the term is not used frequently in the multiple-choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.1
4748107579AllusionA direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.2
4748107580AmbiguityThe multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.3
4748108302AnadiplosisThe repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clause. "Fear leads to anger; anger leads to hate; hate leads to suffering." Yoda4
4748108303AnalogyA similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.5
4748108580AnaphoraOne of the devices of repetition, in which the same expression (word or words) is repeated at the beginning of two or more lines, clauses, or sentences. "It was the best of times; it was the worst of times."6
4748108962AnecdoteA short narrative detailing particulars of an interesting episode or event. The term most frequently refers to an incident in the life of a person.7
4748109335AntecedentThe word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences.8
4748109337AphorismA terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point.9
4748109720ApostropheA figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: / England hath need of thee."10
4748110532AtmosphereThe emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood.11
4748110533ClauseA grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates one element to the other. You should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.12
4748110707ColloquialThe use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.13
4748110708CoherenceA principle demanding that the parts of any composition be arranged so that the meaning of the whole may be immediately clear and intelligible. Words, phrases, clauses within the sentence; and sentences, paragraphs, and chapters in larger pieces of writing are the units that, by their progressive and logical arrangement, make for coherence.14
4748110709ConceitA fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made.15
4748111028ConnotationThe nonliteral, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.16
4748111029DenotationThe strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color.17
4748111361DictionRelated to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author's diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author's style.18
4748111362DicdaticFrom the Greek, didactic literally means "teaching." Didactic works have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.19
4748111607EpistropheThe opposite of anaphors, repetition at the end of successive clauses. "They saw no evil, they spoke no evil, and they heard no evil."20
4748112350EuphemismFrom the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying "earthly remains" rather than "corpse" is an example of euphemism.21
4748112721ExpositionIn essays, one of the for chief types of composition, the others being argumentation, description, and narration. The purpose of exposition is to explain something. In drama, the exposition is the introductory material, which creates the tone, gives the setting, and introduces the characters and conflict.22
4748112722Extended metaphorA metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.23
4748113003Figurative languageWriting or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid24
4748113327Figure of speechA device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.25
4748113328Generic conventionsThis term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer's work from those dictated by convention.26
4748113329GenreThe major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.27
4748113743HomilyThis term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.28
4748113744HyperboleA figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony.29
4748114140ImageryThe sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses; we refer to visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, or olfactory imagery. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection (It is the highest flower on the Great Chain of Being). An author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP exam, pay attention to how an author creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.30
4748114141InferenceTo draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple- choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it's unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not inferred and is wrong. As we have seen in the multiple-choice selections that we have been trying, you must be careful to note the connotation -- negative or positive -- of the choices.31
4748114427Invectivean emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.32
4748114428IronyThe contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant. The difference between what appears to be and what actually is true. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language; (1) In verbal irony, the words literally state the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) true meaning. (2) In situational irony, events turn out the opposite of what was expected. What the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen. (3) In dramatic irony, facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work. Irony is used for many reasons, but frequently, it's used to create poignancy or humor.33
4748114429Loose sentenceA type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational. Generally loose sentences create loose style.34
4748114599MetaphorA figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.35
4748114600MetonymyA term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name," metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. A news release that claims "the White House declared" rather that "the President declared" is using metonymy. The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact.36
4748114792MoodThis term has two distinct technical meanings in English writing. The first meaning is grammatical and deals with verbal units and a speaker's attitude. The indicative mood is used only for factual sentences. For example, "Joe eats too quickly." The subjunctive mood is used to express conditions contrary to fact. For example, "If I were you, I'd get another job." The imperative mood is used for commands. For example, "Shut the door!" The second meaning of mood is literary, meaning the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. In this usage, mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.37
4748114793NarrativeThe telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.38
4748114794OnomatopoeiaA figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect.39
4748115228OxymoronFrom the Greek for "pointedly foolish," an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness." This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take note of the effect which the author achieves with this term.40
4748115229ParadoxA statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. Macbeth.41
4748115230ParalellismAlso referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning "beside one another." It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. A famous example of parallelism begins Charles Dickens's novel A Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity . . . ." The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.42
4748115473ParodyA work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. As comedy, parody distorts or exaggerates distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to illuminate weaknesses in the original. Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation. Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don't require knowledge of the original.43
4748115474PedanticAn adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.44
4748116086Periodic sentenceA sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. For example: "Ecstatic with my AP score, I let out a loud, joyful shout.!" The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence.45
4748116087PersonificationA figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.46
4748116349Point of viewIn literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point of view and many subdivision within those. (1) the first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, "I," and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a participant (character in a secondary role), or an observer (a character who merely watches the action). (2) the third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, "he," "she," and "it." There are two main subdivisions to be aware of: omniscient and limited omniscient. In the "third person omniscient" point of view, the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters. This all-knowing narrator can reveal what each character feels and thinks at any given moment. The "third person limited omniscient" point of view, as its name implies, presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all remaining characters. This definition applies in questions in the multiple-choice section. However on the essay portion of the exam, the "point of view" carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze the author's point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author's attitude. [For a thorough discussion of point of view, see Story and Structure, the text used by the seniors. In fact, you would be wise to get a copy of it from the thrift store because the introductory sections are wonderful discussions of how literature works.]47
4748116538Predicate adjectiveOne type of subject complement--an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject.48
4748116539ProseOne of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms . In prose the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the length of the line.49
4748116701RepetitionThe duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.50
4748116702RhetorThe speaker who uses elements of rhetoric effectively in oral or written test.51
4748120862RhetoricFrom the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.52
4748121380Rhetorical modesThis flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes and their purposes are as follows: (1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expository topics.. (2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action. (3) The purpose of description is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective. (4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing. These four writing modes are sometimes referred to as modes of discourse.53
4748121574SarcasmFrom the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic, that is, intended to ridicule. When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it's simply cruel.54
4748121575SatireA work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer's goal, but good satire, often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition.55
4748121820SemanticsThe branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.56
4748121821StyleThe consideration of style has two purposes: (1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. Some authors' styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author (or a writer emulating that author's style). Compare, for example, Jonathan Swift to George Orwell or William Faulkner to Ernest Hemingway. We can analyze and describe an author's personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author's purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, or laconic, to name only a few examples. (2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author's style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental or realist movement.57
4748122113Subject complementThe word (with any accompanying phrases) or clauses that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it or (2) describing it. The former is technically a predicate nominative, the latter a predicate adjective. Multiple-choice questions.58
4748122457Subordinate clauseLike all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on a main clause, sometimes called an independent clause, to complete its meaning. Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses--for example: although, because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as, while, who, when, where, how, and that.59
4748139250SyllogismFrom the Greek for "reckoning together," a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called "major" and the second, "minor") that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows: major Premise: All men are mortal. minor premise: Socrates is a man. conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. A Syllogism's conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific idea first ("Socrates") and the general second ("All men").60
4748143751SymbolGenerally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete--such as an object, action, character, or scene--that represents something more abstract. However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols in three categories: (1) Natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to represent ideas commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge). (2) Conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for pirates or the scales of justice for lawyers). (3) Literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are generally recognized. However, a work's symbols may be more complicated as is the whale in Moby Dick and the jungle in Heart of Darkness. On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in representing that abstraction.61
4748143752SyntaxThe way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as the groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiple-choice section, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the essay section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.62
4748143971ThemeThe central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly stated, especially in expository or argumentative writing.63
4748143972ThesisIn expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively ,and throughly a writer has proved the thesis.64
4748143973ToneSimilar to mood, tone describes the author's attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author's tone. Some words describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, and somber.65
4748144068TransitionA word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift from one idea to another. A few commonly used transitional words or phrases are furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly and on the contrary. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of transition. We will discuss these methods later.66
4748144178Tropean artful variation from expected modes of expression of thoughts and ideas., a figure of speech involving a "turn" or change of sense—a use of the word in a sense other than its proper or literal one. Common types of tropes include: metaphor, synecdoche, metonymy, personification, hyperbole, litotes, irony, oxymoron, onomatopoeia, etc.67
4748144179UnderstatementThe ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole.68
4748145398Undertonean attitude that may lie under the ostensible tone of the piece. Under a cheery surface, for example, a work may have threatening undertones. William Blake's "The Chimney Sweeper" from the Songs of Innocence has a grim undertone.69
4748145399Unreliable narratorAn untrustworthy or naïve commentator on events and characters in a story. Huck Finn is on of American literature's most famous of this type.70
4748145627WitIn modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A witty statement is humorous, while suggesting the speaker's verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement. Historically, wit originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed of understanding, and finally (in the early seventeenth century), it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulate an answer that demanded the same quick perception.71
4748145628Zeugmaa trope, one word (usually a noun or main verb) governs two other words not related in meaning. "He maintained a business and his innocence."72
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Ap Flashcards

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6463734395VirtuousComforting to moral and ethical principles0
6463734396Actuateto incite or move to action; impel; motivate1
6463734397Adverseunfavorable or antagonistic in purpose or effect2
6463734398AggregateFormed by the conjunction or collection of particulars into a whole massor sum; total; combined3
6463734399InsuperableIncapable of being passed over, overcome, or surmounted4
6463734400EnsueTo follow as a consequence/result5
6463734401FallibleLiable to err/be erronious or false/not accurate6
6463734402ZealFervore for a person, cause, or object; eager desire or endeavor; diligence; ardor7
6463734403FrivolousLacking seriousness/sense, of little to no weight, worth, or importance8
6463734404AnimosityA feeling of strong dislike, ill will, or enimity that tends to display itself in action9
6463734405DesideratumSomething wanted or needed10
6463734406InducementSomething that induces, motivates, or persuades11
6463734407ContentionA struggling together in opposition12
6463734408DiscernTo distinguish mentally, recognize as distinct or different13
6463734409WealWell-being, prosperity, or happiness14
6463734410CabalA small group of secret plotters15
6463734411PervadeTo become spread throughout all parts of16
6463734412MaladyA disorder/disease17
6463734413SubvertTo overthrow18
6463734414PatentlyObvious19
6463734415CogentConvincing or believable by virtue of forcible20
6463734416SubsumeTo consider or include as part of a more comprehensive one21
6463734417CapriceA tendancy to change one another mind without apparent or aquitive motive22
6463734418ResiquiteRequired or necessary for a particular purpose23
6463734419TranscendTo rise above or go beyond24
6463734420Reconcileto bring into agreement or harmony; make compatible or consistent25
6463734421Caveata warning or caution; admonition26
6463734422Consensusmajority of opinion; general agreement or concord27
6463734423Monolithiccharacterized by massiveness, total uniformity, rigidity, invulnerability,etc.:28
6463734424Affinitya natural liking for or attraction to a person, thing, idea29
6463734425Aspirationa strong desire, longing, or aim; ambition30
6463734426Redeemto make up for; make amends for; offset (some fault, shortcoming, etc.)31
6463734427Obviateto anticipate and prevent or eliminate (difficulties, disadvantages, etc.) by effective measures; render unnecessary32
6463734428Propensitya natural inclination or tendency33
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AP Literature Themes Flashcards

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2532485741Antigone1. how conflicts in the play affect the question of justice (human/divine) 2. the effect of an individual's choices on society 3. the question of whether fate or free will motivates and influences the characters0
2532495489Heart of Darkness1. the juxtaposition of civilization and savagery in the human condition ("darkness in man") and the "darkness" of the unknown and unknowable 2. the superficiality of civilization (to what extent are people "civilized" by their society and environment?) 3. the moral ambiguity of human behavior, the ability to distinguish between "good" and "evil," and the influence and corruption of power 4. the impact of colonialism on both the European colonizers and the African natives1
2532661521Hamlet1. moral corruption and the consequent dysfunction of family and state 2. revenge and the complexity of taking revengeful action 3. appearance and reality and the difficulty of discovering and exposing the truth in a corrupt society 4. mortality and the mystery of death2
2532672296The Stranger1. love vs. indifference 2. freedom vs. imprisonment 3. truth vs. socially condoned dishonesty 4. guilt vs. innocence3
2532686113The Awakening1. the portrayal of an individual who overcomes societal expectations and conventions 2. an individual's search for his or her true self and inner nature 3. the conflict between social roles for women and the individual4
2532692450The Taming of the Shrew1. the role of perceived identity in relationships 2. the importance of class and gender in someone's perceived identity 3. understanding the importance of the inner self 4. expressing transformation and power through language5
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AP LANGUAGE VOCAB LIST #14 Flashcards

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8666604926Adamantforceful; inflexible0
8666604927Brawnymuscular1
8666604928Decathalonan athletic competition with ten events2
8666604929Equivocatespeak ambiguously; avoid telling the truth3
8666604930Hieroglyphicspicture writing; writing which is difficult to read or enigmatic4
8666604931Larcenytheft; robbery; stealing5
8666604932Obsessiona dominating concern6
8666604933Ponderousweighty; slow and heavy7
8666604934Retentionpreservation; withholding8
8666604935Timorouscowardly; fearful9
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AP Flashcards

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7403905554GeopoliticsPolitics, especially international relations, as influenced by geographical factors0
7403905555Wallerstein core - periphery modelWallerstein developed World systems theory and it's three - level hierarchy core, periphery, and semi-periphery. Core countries are dominant capitalist countries that exploit peripheral countries for labor and all materials1
7403905556Two states that are examples of the three levelsCore - Japan and Australia. Periphery - Africa and south east Asia. Semi - periphery - Mexico and Russia2
7403905557Ratzels organic TheoryStates are organic and growing, and represent a temporary snapshot of the allegiance and identity of the people who inhabit a region. Nazis and Japanese expansion was based on the Ratzels organic theory3
7403905558Mackinder heartland theoryHe who controls the heartland/pivotal area (Eastern Europe and central Eurasia) is in practice, set to dominate the world - islands (Eurasia) and then the world4
7403905559Spykman's rimland theoryThe Eurasia rim, not its heart, how are the key to global power and the domination of the coastal fringes of Eurasia would provide the base for world conquest5
7403905560Domino theoryThe political theory that if one nation comes under communist control the neighboring nations will also come under communist control6
7403905561Mahan's sea power theoryThe sea is crucial is determining national supremacy, control the sea and control the world7
7403905562Geo political concerns with ChinaWanting to be the world power economically and military. Currency and trade manipulation, desire to control Taiwan,acquisition of territory in the South China Sea for military base8
7403905563Geo political concerns with RussiaIntended the Ukraine( Crimea peninsula) NATO has turned a blind eye, into vending in Syria joint enemy (ISIS) and also killing our enemies (free Syrian army), and attempts to manipulate democracies around the world9
7403905564Geo political concerns with the radical IslamRadical Islam is a growing threat to Western life and Isys continues to metastasize around the globe10
7403905565Geo political concerns with IranUS nuclear negotiations, alliance with Russia and funding Hesbollah Israel (terrorism)11
7403905566Geopolitical concerns with North KoreaHas developed a hydrogen bomb and increased tension with our allies including Japan and South Korea12
7403905567Geo political concerns with VenezuelaHas moved from and emerge capitalist country of increasing wealth to an authoritarian regimes, the socialist regime can't provide basic necessities, and country is on verge of Civil War13
7403905568Geo political concerns with climate changeConcerns over current emissions has created tension with developed and developing nations. Five major areas of the emissions include China, US, India, Europe and Russia14
7403905569BordersAre lines separating two political or geographical areas15
7403905570United nations law of the sea16
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AP Flashcards

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65273101501st difference (Wallerstein)International trade helps core countries mainly0
65273083551st difference (Rostow)International trade helps countries develop1
65273161092nd difference (Wallerstein)Emphasizes role of imperialism and colonialism2
65273177132nd difference (Rostow)Does not mention imperialism or colonialism3
6527320025TrueWTO formed by countries who conduct majority of international trade4
6527323109FalseWTO seeks to increase import quotas and import quotas and reduce import and export tariffs5
6527327703True 2WTO seeks to eliminate restrictions on the flow of money between countries6
6527332197False 2WTO cannot order remedies only hear accusations7
6527334882Stage 1Primary sector traditional society-limited tech static society8
6527337441Stage 2primary sector preconditions for take off commercial exploitation of agriculture and extractive industry9
6527344831Stage 3secondary sector take off development of a manufacturing sector10
6527347898stage 4Drive to maturity semi periphery skilled labor jobs11
6527351958stage 5high mass consumption tertiary sector12
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AP English Language and Composition Set 7 Flashcards

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7881030156HomilyThis term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.0
7881030157InvectiveAn emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.1
7881030158Metonymya figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it.2
7881030159AnaphoraThe exact repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive lines or sentences.3
7881030160PedanticAn adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish4
7881030161Proseone of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms.5
7881030162SemanticsThe branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words.6
7881030163SyllogismA deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion.7
7881030164SynecdocheA figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole.8
7881030165SynesthesiaWhen one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another.9
7881030166ApologiaA written or spoken defense of one's beliefs and actions.10
7881030167EpigramA brief witty statement.11
7881030168DigressionThe use of material unrelated to the subject of a work.12
7881030169EllipsisThe omission of a word or several words.13
7881030171AnachronismA person, scene, event or other element that fails to correspond with the appropriate time or era.14
7881030172DidacticHaving an instructive purpose; intending to convey information to teach a lesson usually in a dry, pompous manner.15
7881030173FallacyAn incorrect belief or supposition based on faulty data, defective evidence, or false information.16
7881030174HubrisExcessive pride that often brings about one's fall.17
7881030175AlliterationRepetition of consonant sounds, usually at the beginnings of words18
7881030176LitotesA form of understatement in which the negative of the contrary is used to achieve emphasis or intensity.19
7881030177ParadoxA statement or idea that seems contradictory but is in fact true.20
7881030178Non SequiturA statement or idea that fails to follow logically from the one before.21
7881030179AnecdoteA short and amusing or interesting story about a real incident or person.22
7881030180JargonSpecial words or expressions that are used by a particular profession or group.23
7881030181TaciturnNot talking much, reserved; silent, holding back in conversation.24
7881030182DogmaticInclined to lay down principles as incontrovertibly true.25
7881030183PerniciousHaving a harmful effect, especially in a gradual or subtle way.26
7881030184BellicoseDemonstrating aggression and willingness to fight.27
7881030185VoraciousCraving or consuming large quantities of food.28
7881030186ZealousHaving or showing zeal.29
7881030187TacitUnderstood or implied without being stated.30
7881030188InnuendoAn allusive or oblique remark or hint, typically a suggestive or disparaging one.31
7881030189LackadaisicalDisplaying or having a disinclination for physical exertion or effort; slow and relaxed.32
7881030190ConsecrateMake or declare (something, typically a church) sacred; dedicate formally to a religious or divine purpose.33
7881030191ChiasmusA type of parallelism in which elements are reversed. "Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country."34
7881030192Loose SentenceA sentence in which the subject and verb come at the front of the sentence.35
7881030193PetulantChildishly sulky or bad-tempered.36
7881030194Periodic SentenceA sentence in which the subject and verb come toward the end of the sentence.37
7881030195ExhortStrongly encourage or urge someone to do something.38
7881030196CloisteredKept away from the outside world; sheltered.39
7881030197SarcasmCaustic, bitter language--iterally means "to tear the flesh."40
7881030198Independent ClauseA complete sentence.41
7881030199Dependent ClauseIncludes a subordinate conjunction, such as because, while, etc.42
7881030200AllusionA reference to something (e.g., a book, a movie, an historical event) that is presumed to be well known to the audience.43
7881030201SatireA work that pokes fun human vices and follies in order to call attention to a larger problem.44
7881030202ParodyA work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule.45
7881030203Coup de GraceThe "death blow"--the culminating event in a bad situation.46
7881030204Coup d'EtatLiterally "blow to the state"--a violent overthrow.47
7881030205Faux PasA social misstep or inappropriate action.48
7881030206Laissez-FaireLiterally "allow to do"--letting things run their natural course; hands off.49
7881030207En MasseIn a body as a whole; as a group.50
7881030208ProprietaryCharacteristic of an owner of property; constituting property.51
7881030209ProprietyThe quality of behaving in a proper manner; obeying rules and customs.52
7881030210ImminentAbout to happen.53
7881030211EminentFamous, outstanding, distinguished.54
7881030212EgoAccording to Freud, the decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle.55
7881030213SuperegoAccording to Freud, that facet of the psyche that represents the internalized ideals and values of one's parents and society56
7881030214IdLiterally the "It"--our base impulses, driven by selfishness and greed, for example.57
7881030215HamartiaA character's error in judgment that contributes to one's downfall.58
7881030216OrwellianThe manipulation of language and ideas to control and obstruct the truth.59
7881030217AutonomosIndependent, self-governing, not under the control of something or someone else.60
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AP Language and Comp Vocab Flashcards

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7611804754AlliterationThe repetition if consonant sounds at the beginning of words that are close to one another. "Beautiful blossoms blooming..."0
7611819714AllusionA reference to another work or famous figure that is assumed to be well known enough to be recognized by the reader.1
7611830578AnachronismAn event, object, custom, person, or thing that is out of order in time;2
7611847649AnalogyA comparison of two similar but different things, usually to clarify an action or relationship, such as comparing the work of a heart to that of a pump.3
7611860337AnaphoraSpecific type of repetition; word, phrase, or clause repeated at the beginning of two or more sentences in a row. "I had a dream..."4
7611873945AnecdoteA short, simple narrative of an incident; often used for humorous effect or to make a point.5
7611901087AphorismA short, often witty statement of a principle or a truth about life.6
7611910179ApostropheUsually in poetry but sometimes in prose; the device of calling out to an imaginary, dead, or absent person or to a place, thing, or personified abstraction.7
7611926993ArgumentationWriting that attempts to prove the validity of a point of view or an idea by presenting reasoned arguments; persuasive writing is a form of argumentation.8
7611946595AssonanceThe repetition of vowel sounds between different consonants, such as in neigh/fade.9
7611952961AuthoritySupport for an argument that is based on recognized experts in the field.10
7611963611BurlesqueBroad parody; whereas a parody will imitate and exaggerate a specific work. ex. Romeo and Juliet, a burlesque will take an entire style or form, such as myths, and exaggerate it into ridiculousness.11
7611988646CacophonyHarsh, awkward, or dissonant sounds used deliberately in poetry or prose; the opposite of EUPHONY12
7612006767CaricatureDescriptive writing that greatly exaggerates a specific feature of a person's appearance or a facet of personality.13
7612031131ClassicismThe principles and styles admired in the classics of Greek and Roman literature, such as objectivity, sensibility, restraint, and formality.14
7612046415ColloquialismA word or phrase used in everyday conversation and informal writing but that is often inappropriate in formal writing.15
7612064979CoherenceQuality of a piece of writing in which all the parts contribute to the development of the central idea, theme, or organizing.16
7612081562ConceitAn elaborate figure of speech in which two seemingly dissimilar things or situations are compared.17
7612095244ConnotationImplied or suggested meaning of a word because of its association in the reader's mind.18
7612102193ConsananceThe repetition of identical consonant sounds before and after different vowel sounds, as in boost/best; it can be seen within several compound words, such as fulfill and Ping-Pong.19
7612126180ConundrumA riddle whose answer is or involves a pun; it may also be a paradox or difficult problem.20
7612136558DenotationLiteral meaning of a word as defined.21
7612141610DescriptionThe picturing of words of something or someone through detailed observation of color, motion, sound, taste, smell, and touch; one of four modes of discourse.22
7612154431DiscourseSpoken or written language, including literary works; the four traditionally classified modes of discourse are description, exposition, narration, and persuasion.23
7612176796DictionWord choice, an element of style; also called syntax.24
7612186560Dissonanceharsh or grating sounds that do not go together.25
7612192353EpigramA concise, witty saying in poetry or prose that either stands alone or is part of a larger work; it may also refer to a short poem of this type.26
7612205222EuphonyA succession of harmonious sounds used in poetry or prose; the opposite of CACOPHONY27
7612213616ExempumA brief tale used in medieval times to illustrate a sermon or teach a lesson.28
7612227678ExpositionThe immediate revelation to the audience of the setting and other background information necessary for understanding the plot; also, explanation; one of the four modes of discourse.29
7612243150Figurative LanguageLanguage that contains figures of speech, such as similes and metaphors, in order to create associations that are imaginative rather than literal.30
7612260997Figures of SpeechExpression, such as similes, metaphors, and personification that make imaginative, rather than literal, comparisons or associations.31
7612273810FolkloreTraditional stories, songs, dances, and customs that are preserved among a people; folklore usually precedes literature, being passed down orally from generation to generation until recorded by scholars.32
7612292282ForeshodowingThe use of a hint or clue to suggest a larger event that occurs later in the work.33
7612299907GenreA type of literary work, such as a novel or poem; there are also subgenres, such as science fiction or sonnet, within the larger genres.34
7612321624HubrisThe excessive pride or ambition that leads a tragic hero to disregard warnings of impeding doom, eventually causing his or her downfall.35
7612333800HumorAnything that causes laughter or amusement; up until the end Renaissance, humor meant a person's temperament.36
7618676383HyperboleDeliberate exaggeration in order to create humor or emphasis.37
7618682346IdyllA short descriptive narrative, usually a poem about an idealized country life; also called pastoral.38
7618691261ImageryWords or phrases that use a collection of images to appeal to one or more of the five senses in order to create a mental picture39
7618698676Interior MonologueWriting that records the conversation that occurs inside a character's head.40
7618706319InversionReversing the customary orders of elements in a sentence or phrase,it is used effectively in many cases, such as posing a question.41
7618717575IronyA situation or statement in which the actual outcome or meaning is opposite to what was expected.42
7618726926Loose SentenceA sentence that is grammatically complete before its end.43
7618758364MetaphorA figure of speech in which one thing is referred to as another, for example, "My love is fragile as a flower".44
7618771122MetonymyA figure of speech that uses the name of an object, person, or idea to represent something which it is associated, such as using "the crown" to refer to the monarch.45
7618783076ModeThe method or form of a literary work; the manner in which a work of literature is written.46
7618790555MoodSimilar to tone, mood is primary emotional attitude of a work.47
7618794500MotifMain theme or subject of a work that is elaborated on in the development of the piece; a repeated pattern or idea.48
7618801370MythOne story in a system of narrative set in a complete imaginary world that once served to explain the origin of life, religious beliefs, and the forces of nature as supernatural occurrences.49
7618812993NarrationThe telling of a story in a fiction. nonfiction. poetry or drama; one of the four modes of discourse.50
7618822972NaturalismA literary movement that grew out of realism in France, the US, and England in the late-nineteenth and early twentieth century. Portrays humans as having no free will, being driven by the natural forces or heredity, environment, and animalistic urges over which they have no control.51
7618846544ObjectivityAn impersonal presentation of events and characters.52
7618850630OnomatopoeiaThe use of words that sound like what they mean, such as "hiss" and "boom".53
7618874058OxymoronA figure of speech composed of contradictory words or phrases, such as "wise fool".54
7618856042ParableA short tale that teaches a moral; similar to but shorter than an allegory. (Allegory - a story, poem, or picture that can interpreted to reveal a hidden meaning, typically a moral or political meaning.)55
7618882425ParadoxA statement that seems to contradict itself but that turns out to have a rational meaning.56
7618888467ParallelismThe technique of arranging words, phrases, clauses, or larger structures by placing them side by side and making them similar in form.57
7618910007ParodyA work that ridicules the style of another work by imitating and exaggerating its elements.58
7618929055Periodic SentenceA sentence that is not grammatically complete until its last phrase.59
7618933877PersonaA fictional voice that a writer adopts to tell a story, determined by the subject matter and audience.60
7618939242PersonificationThe attribution of human qualities to a nonhuman or inanimate object.61
7618947370PersuasionA form of argumentation, one of the four modes of discourse; language intended to convince through appeals to reason or emotion.62
7618956182Point of ViewThe perspective from which a story is presented. ex. First person (using "I"). second person, and third person.63
7619018753Stream of consciousness narratorLike a first narrator, but instead placing the reader inside the character's head, making the reader privy to the continuous, chaotic flow of disconnected, half-formed thoughts and impressions in the character's mind.64
7619037653Omniscient narratorA third person narrator, referred to as "he", "she", or "they", who is able to see into each character's mind and understands all the action.65
7619060812Limited omniscient narratorA third person narrator who reports the thoughts of only one character and generally only what that one character sees.66
7619071670Objective narratorA third person narrator who only reports what would be visible to a camera; thoughts and feelings are only revealed if a character speaks of them.67
7619084079ProtagonistThe main character of a literary work.68
7619087216RealismA 19th century literary movement, stressed accuracy in the portrayal of life. Focusing on characters with whom middle-class readers could easily identify; it is in direct contrast with romanticism.69
7619097243RhetoricThe art of persuasion, using language effectively. Remember SOAPS (Subject, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Speaker).70
7619116309RegionalismAn element in literature that conveys a realistic portrayal of a specific geographical locale, using the locale and its influences as a major part of the plot.71
7619128277Rhetorical modesExposition, description, narration, argumentation72
7619131075RomanticismA literary, artistic, and philosophical movement that began in the 18th century. Focal points; imagination, emotion, and freedom. Stressing subjectivity, individuality, the love and worship of nature, and a fascination with the past.73
7619146088SarcasmHarsh, caustic personal remarks to or about someone; less subtle than irony.74
7619150344SimileA figure of speech that uses "like" or "as". A direct comparison between two things.75
7619164817SpeakerThe voice of a work; an author may speak as himself/herself or as a fictitious persona.76
7619171502StereotypeA character; who represents a trait that is usually attributed to a particular social or racial group and who lacks individuality.77
7619177504StyleAn author's characteristic manner of expression78
7619180347SubjectivityA personal presentation of events and characters, influenced by the author's feelings and opinions.79
7619188005Suspension of disbeliefThe demand that made the reader accepts the incidents recounted in the literary work.80
7619191278SymbolismThe use of symbols or anything that is meant to be taken both literally and as a representative of a higher and more complex significance.81
7619200767SynecdocheA figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent a whole, such as using "boards" to mean a stage or "wheels" to mean a car.82
7619209465SyntaxWord choice or diction or arrangement of words in a phrase.83
7619215086ThemeThe central idea or "message" of a literary work.84
7619217033ToneThe characteristic emotion or attitude of an author toward the characters, subject, and audience.85
7619221989UnityQuality of a piece of writing... Coherence86
7619224600VoiceThe way a written work conveys an author's attitude.87
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AP Flashcards

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6831104866Period 1 (0-600 BCE) Middle EastSumerian empire, Babylon Empire, Hittite empire, and Egyptian Empire, Assyrian empire0
6831114902Period 1 (0-600 BCE) East AsiaYellow river valley1
6831124521Period 1 (0-600 BCE) South AsiaIndus River Valley2
6831127626Period 1 (0-600 BCE) EuropePhoenician Empire3
6831129740Period 1 (0-600 BCE) Latin AmericaMayans, Chavin Empire4
6831134833Period 2 Classical ( 600 B.C.E. - 600 CE)Persian empires: Achaemenid, Parthian, Sasanian & Hellenistic Kingdoms5
6831156366Classical China Period 2 ( 600 B.C.E.- 600 CE)Qin and Han6
6831162583Classical Mediterranean period 2 (600 B.C.E. - 600 CE)Greeks, Roman Republic's, Roman empire7
6831167563Classical India Period 2 (600 B.C.E.-600 CE)Mauryan and Guptan empires8
6831177326Period 3 postclassical (600 CE - 1450 CE)Islamic Caliphates: Umayyad and Assasid9
6831185295Imperial China Period 3 (600 CE - 1450 CE )Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming10
6831193294Period 3 (600CE-1450CE)Vikings11
6831198125Period 3(600CE-1450CE)Byzantiane Empire12
6831202872South Asia period 3 (600CE-1450CE)Delhi sultanate13
6831209594Latin America period 3(600CE-1450CE)Inca and Aztec empire & Toltecs14
6831218357Early modern period 4( 1450CE-1750CE)Middle East: Safavid empire and Ottoman Empire15
6831225722East Asia period 3(1450-1750) and South AsiaManchu Empire and Mughal empire16
6831229983Europe period 4(1450-1750)Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch and British Empire17
6831235362Period 5 (1750-1900)Middle East: British Egypt and Ottoman Empire18
6831241819Period 5 (1750-1900) East AsiaMachu Empire and Japanese empire19
6831247276Period 5 (1750-1900) EuropeSpanish, Portuguese, Dutch, British, German, Russia20
6831250256Period 5 (1750-1900) South AsiaMughal empire21
6831264703Period 5 (1750-1900) Latin AmericaHaitian and Latin American Revolutions22
6831269044Period 5 (1750-1900) North AmericaAmerican empire and Cherokee nation23
6831273346Period 6 (1900-Present) Middle EastBritish Egypt and Israel, Ottoman Empire24
6831280217Period 6 (1900-Present) East AsiaCommunist China and Japanese Empire25
6831281254Period 6 (1900-Present) EuropeUSSR and British empire26
6831285976Period 6 (1900-Present) AfricaBritish empire, Republic of Ghana, Rwandan genocide27
6831290623Period 6 (1900-Present) South AsiaRepublic of India and Islamic Republic of Pakistan28
6831293241Period 6 (1900-Present) North AmericaAmerican empire29
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AP Flashcards

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7191438668Economics→ a social science that deals with the optimum allocation of scarce resources to satisfy human needs & wants → the branch knowledge concerned with the production, consumption, and transfer of wealth0
7191442488Positive→ the study of "what is" → cause and effects → proven facts and information1
7191448535Normative→ the study of "What should be" → judgement and opinion2
7191458796Safety Needs→ staying well, avoiding being ill → safe circumstances → stability → protection → structure for order, some limits3
7191462369Love and Belongingness (maddie wru)→ friends, romantic relationships, family, even a sense of community4
7191463772Esteem→ Self-respect: confidence, competence, achievement, mastery, independence, and freedom → Self-esteem: the need for the respect of others, the need for status, fame, glory, recognition, attention, reputation, appreciation, dignity, even dominance5
7191466742Self - Actualization→ only a small percentage of the world's population is truly predominantly self-actualizing → knowledge and appreciation of Beauty, goodness, freedom, and a realistic view and acceptance of self and others → Reality - centered: Differentiate what is fake and dishonest from what is real and genuine → problem - centered: treating life's difficulties as problems demanding solutions, and as personal troubles to be railed to and surrendered to6
7191480282Efficiency→ getting the most we(the society) can from scarce resource7
7191481041Equity→ distributing economic prosperity justly among members of society8
7191482047Trade - off→ giving up one thing in place of another9
7191483717Opportunity Cost→ is the forgone value of the next best alternative that is not chosen or the value of the alternative given up10
7191485847Production Possibility Frontier→ Maximum amount of production of 2 goods that an economy can produce given its resource base, technology and economic efficient production11
7191502886Production possibilities curve→ choices and opportunity cost → production within the curve → shifts in the curve12
7191504310Consumption→ refers to the use of goods and services by consumers in order to address their needs and wants13
7191505586Right to basic needs→ dti: oversee products in the market → availability of prime commodities in the market14
7191507509Right to safety→ manufacturers of consumer products to undertake extensive safety and performance testing before selling their products in the market15
7191508925Right to information→ should provide with complete information about the product to be purchased, including its use, ingredients/ chemicals, contents precautions, if any, limitation and expiry date16
7191511534Right to Choose→ a wide array of goods and devices which are offered in the market with diverse brands, sizes, shapes and colors with differences - in the price, quality and use17
7191514061Right to Representation→ Legislators would propose laws that would ensure that the consumers have the chance to live a better life by getting the best value for their hard-earned peso18
7191517747Right to redress→ Manufacturers/ storeowners would replace defective goods pursuant to the provision "No return, No exchange" provided in the DTI's implementing rules and regulations of the republic act 7349, otherwise known as the consumer act of the Philippines19
7191520861Right to consumer education→ Right to know the consumer rights20
7191521895Right to a Healthy Environment→ The government exerting an iron hand regarding the alarming increase in the degradation of the environment, especially forests, dying wildlife[zenon], depleted land fill space and environmental contamination to present further damage21
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