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AP Statistics Chapter 2 Flashcards

6695513117	Percentile	The pth percentile of a distribution is the value with p percent of values lower than it. Calculated by dividing the number of values less than p divided by the total number of values.	0
6695513118	Frequency Graph	A graph showing the counts of each class in a distribution.	1
6695513119	Relative Frequency Graph	A graph showing the percent values of each class from the whole.	2
6695513120	Cumulative Relative Frequency Graph	The cumulative relative frequency of successive class is the relative frequency of that class added to the ones below it. Graphed by plotting a point corresponding to each class at the smallest value of the next class.	3
6695513121	Standardizing	The conversion of observations from original values to standard deviation values. Used to compare observations from different distributions on a common scale.	4
6695513122	Standardized Score	Also known as the z-score. Tells how many standard deviations from the mean an observation is, and in what direction. Calculated using the following formula: (X - Mean) / Standard Deviation	5
6695513123	Transforming Data	Converts the observation from the original units of measurement to a standardized scale.	6
6695513124	Adding/Subtracting a Constant	Affects measures of center, but not shape or spread, shifting them by adding/subtracting the constant to those measures.	7
6695513125	Multiply/Dividing a Constant	Affects measures of center and spread, but not shape, multiplying/dividing these measures by the constant.	8
6695513126	Density Curve	A density curve describes the overall pattern of a distribution. The area under this curve and above any intervals on the axis is the proportion of all observations falling into that interval. Density curves always: 1. Are on or above the horizontal axis 2. Have an area of 1 under the curve.	9
6695513127	Median of Density Curve	The equal-areas point of a density curve, at which area is equal on either side.	10
6695513128	Mean of Density Curve	The balancing point of a density curve, where the curve would balance if made of solid material.	11
6695513129	Normal Distribution	A distribution that is described by a normal density curve, and is completely specified by its mean, μ (mu), and its standard deviation σ (sigma). Abbreviated by N(μ, σ).	12
6695513130	Normal Curve	A symmetric, single-peaked, and bell-shaped curve, that describes a normal distribution. The mean μ is located at the center of the curve, and the standard deviation σ is the distance from the center to the inflection points on either side.	13
6695513132	68-95-99.7 Rule	Formally known as the Empirical Rule, this states that nearly all data in a normal distribution falls within 3 standard deviations of the mean, and that 68% of the observations are in the first standard deviation, 95% in the first two, and 99.7 in the first three.	14
6695513133	Standard Normal Distribution	A normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.	15
6695513134	Standard Normal Table	Also known as Table A, this is a table of the areas underneath a standard normal curve. It gives the area to the left of a specific z-value. The left side of the table represents the first two digits (ones digit and tenths digit) of your z-value, and the top side represents the final digit (hundredths digit), and the value corresponding to that row and column in the table is the desired area.	16
6695513135	normalcdf(	Command used on a TI-83/84 calculator (command is normalCdf( on TI-89) to find the area to the left of a specific z-value on a normal curve, given the following values: normalcdf(lower bound, upper bound, mean, standard deviation)	17
6695513136	invNorm(	Command used on a TI-83/84/89 calculator to find the value corresponding to a given area to the left of that value, given the following values: invNorm(area to the left, mean, standard deviation)	18
6695513137	Normal Probability Plot	Used to assess if a data set follows a normal distribution. Steps for Creating 1. Order each observation smallest to largest, recording the percentile for each observation. 2. Using Table A or invNorm(, find the z-scores for each percentile. 3. Plot each observation x against its expected z-score. If the line created is roughly linear, the distribution is normal. Only pay attention to systematic deviations from the line, not few far away points, which are outliers.	19
6710282108	Pat did better than 73% of the test takers	Suppose 1000 students take a standardized test. Pat earned a score of 63, which placed him at the 73rd percentile. This means...	20

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AP Biology Chapter 26 Flashcards

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9097387893	Phylogeny	Evolutionary history of a species or a group of species.	0
9097387895	Taxonomy	How organisms are named and classified.	1
9097387897	Order of Classification	Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.	2
9097387898	Taxon	Named taxonic unit at any level of hierarchy (ex could be species or classes or families...).	3
9097387899	Phylogenetic Tree	Branching diagram explaining the evolutionary history of a group of organisms.	4
9097387901	Branch Points	Shows where the divergence of two evolutionary organisms are from a common ancestor.	5
9097387902	Sister Taxa	Organisms that share an imidiate common ancestor.	6
9097387906	What can we learn from the phylogenetic trees and what can't we learn?	Only what common ancestor lived first, though not the time of evolvement. Can not answer what evolved from what, only that they share a common ancestor.	7
9097387907	Homologies	Similarities due to shared ancestry. Morphological divergence between related species can be great and their genetic divergence small. (Or vice versa). Ex-eyes of bird and bat	8
9097387908	Analogy	Similarity due to convergent evolution rather than shared ancestry. (Not related, but have similar features.) Ex. A bird's wing and a Bats wing.	9
9097387909	Convergent Evolution	Occurs when similar environmental pressures and Natural selection produce similar (Analogous) adaptation in organisms from different evolutionary divergences.	10
9097387910	Homoplasy (Homoplasies)	Another term for analogous structure that arose independently. "The bird's wing and bats wing are analogous. This is an example of Homoplasy."	11
9097387911	Molecular Systematics	The Discipline that uses DNA and other molecular data to determine evolutionary history.	12
9097387912	Evolutionary Molecular Homologies	If the DNA sequence and length are similar in two species then they are most likely closely related.	13
9097387913	Cladistics	The common ancestry is the primary criterion used to classify organisms. Scientists group species in Clades: each of which includes an ancestral species and all of its transcendence.	14
9097387914	Monophyletic	All descendants and ancestral species, this is the only way a clade can be equivalent with a taxon.	15
9097387915	Paraphyletic	Consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all of its descendants.	16
9097387916	Polyphyletic	includes taxa with different ancestors.	17
9097387918	Shared Ancestral/Primitive Character	A character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon. Ex. All mammals have backbones, but the presence of a backbone doesn't make it a mammal as all vertebrates have backbones.	18
9097387919	Character/Characteristics	Another word for Trait or Traits.	19
9097387920	Shared Derived Character	An evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade. Ex. Mammals have the character of hair which isn't seen in earlier ancestors.	20
9097387921	Ingroup	The species or group of species that is known to have emerged after the outgroup.	21
9097387922	Outgroup	The species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that includes the species that is being studied.	22
9097387923	Maximum Parsimony	"Occam's Razor" The method of investigating the simplest explanation that is consistent to the facts.	23
9097387924	Maximum Likelihood	States that given certain rules about how DNA changes over time, a tree can be found that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events.	24

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AP Psychology Personality Flashcards

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9147308453	Sigmund Freud	Founder of psychoanalysis Originally a medical doctor and found that his patients were suffering from an illness with psycho-logical causes This led him to develop theories of the unconscious mind, psycho-sexual development and Psychoanalysis	0
9147308454	Psychoanalytic Theory	Psychologist: Sigmund Freud Behavior is due to unconscious motives and conflicts Early childhood experiences determine personality	1
9147308455	Unconscious Mind	-foundation for the psychoanalytic theory -controls the phenomena of repressed feelings, automatic skills, subliminal perceptions, thoughts, habits and automatic reactions as well as possibly holding emotional complexes, phobias and desires.	2
9147308456	Id	located in the unconscious present at birth Ruled by the "Pleasure Principle" and has no values, morality, or logic (animal instincts)	3
9147308457	Ego	located in both conscious, & unconscious Developed after birth, the self Ruled by the "Reality Principle" and balances the id and superego by being organized, rational, and postponing gratification	4
9147308458	SuperEgo	located in both conscious, & unconscious developed by age 5 Ruled by the "Morality Principle" and is the opposite of the Id because it is the internal, parental voice with rules and values	5
9147308459	Free Association	A technique used to access the unconscious patient freely exposes his/her ideas, impressions, etc.	6
9147308460	Freudian Slips	Slips of the tongue that expose the unconscious	7
9147308461	Psychosexual Development	- sequential and discontinuous stages with changing erogenous zone and conflict in each stage if conflict is not successful resolved, the result is fixation O.A.P.L.G (Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital)	8
9147308462	Oral stage	Age: 0-1 Erogenous Zone: Mouth Task: Oral Activities (sucking, chewing, biting, etc) Fixation: Smoking, Over-eating	9
9147308463	Anal stage	Age: 1-3 Erogenous Zone: Anus Task: Potty Training Fixation: Anal retentive or Anal Expulsive	10
9147308464	Latency stage	Age: 6 to puberty Erogenous Zone: None Task: develop relationships with same sex peers to strengthen gender identity Fixation: doesn't occur at this stage	11
9147308465	Phallic stage	Age: 3-5 Erogenous Zone: Genitals Task: Gender Identity Fixation: Narcissism, Homosexuality	12
9147308466	Genital stage	Age: Puberty to death Erogenous Zone: Genitals Task: Find a hetero-sexual relationship Fixation: doesn't occur at this stage but old conflicts will arise	13
9147308467	Penis Envy	Freudian theory that girls become upset and scarred because because they don't have a penis and a penis is a key to being successful. Phallic Stage	14
9147308468	Electra Complex	girls sexually desire dad and hate mom but need to resolve this in order to develop a gender identity Phallic Stage of Psycho-sexual Development	15
9147308469	Oedipus Complex	boys sexually desire mom and hate dad but need to resolve this in order to develop a gender identity Phallic Stage of Psycho-sexual Development	16
9147308470	Defense mechanisms	- extreme measures protect the ego from threats; operate unconsciously and deny, falsify, or distinct reality - not successful coping strategies because they do not remove stressors	17
9147308471	Neo-Freudians	Jung, Horney, Adler Believed that Freud put too much emphasis on sex and there needed to be more emphasis on social factors	18
9147308472	Collective unconscious	Psychologist: Carl Jung Defined: A warehouse of "instinctive memories" passed down to each generation and all humans share and is made up of archetypes	19
9147308473	Archetypes	Defined: Inherited universal concepts that create the Collective Unconscious Examples: Anima v. Animus, Mother v. Father, Persona v. Shadow, Hero v. Villain	20
9147308474	Basic Anxiety	Psychologist: Karen Horney anxiety that is created by being born helpless. Most overcome this, those who don't develop neurotic personalities- aggressive, compliant, or withdrawn	21
9147308475	Womb envy	Psychologist: Karen Horney Defined: women do not suffer from "penis envy" but are envious of male's superior status. Men are envious of a women's ability to have children and therefore, they compensate with other forms of achievement.	22
9147308476	Inferiority Complex	Psychologist: Alfred Adler Defined: people who compensate for feelings of inferiority (feeling like they're less than other people, not as good as others, worthless, etc.) by acting ways that make them appear superior.	23
9147308477	Projective Tests	Description: Provide ambiguous stimuli in order to trigger the projection of one's inner dynamics Strengths: Provide lots of information Weaknesses: highly subjective and has low reliability Tests: Rorschach Inkblot Test, & Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Draw a Person test	24
9147308478	Rorschach Inkblot Test	seeks to identify people's inner feelings and conflicts by analyzing their interpretations of 10 inkblots. Critics question the validity and reliability of the tests.	25
9147308479	Thematic Apperception Test	people view ambiguous pictures and then make up stories about them. Presumably, their accounts reflect their interests and inner feelings.	26
9147308480	Humanistic Psychologists	Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow Description: People develop their personality by trying to reach their full potential Strengths: model was built in a therapy setting Weaknesses: concepts are vague and subjective, individualistic and western based and naive because it fails to appreciate the reality of our capacity for evil	27
9147308481	Self-Concept	Psychologist: Carl Rogers Goal: Actualizing Tendency (full potential) Theory: A person has who they are, Real Self, and who they want to be, Ideal Self and a successful persoanlity has congruence People need genuineness (honesty), unconditional positive regard (love), and empathy (understanding) to develop a good persoanlity	28
9147308482	Congruence	A person's Real Self and Ideal Self can merge together Part of Roger's Self-Concept Theory	29
9147308483	Incongruence	When a person's Real Self and Ideal self do not match, causing anxiety. Part of Roger's Self-Concept Theory	30
9147308484	Unconditional positive regard	Defined: receiving acceptance, value, and love from others without requirements Part of Roger's Self-Concept theory in which he says it is necessary to receive from others in order to develop a healthy personality	31
9147308485	Empathy	People will try to understand one's feelings and mirror it back to them Part of Roger's Self-Concept theory in which he says it is necessary to receive from others in order to develop a healthy personality	32
9147308486	Hierarchy of Needs	Psychologist: Abraham Maslow Description: Pyramid	33
9147308487	Trait Theories	Description: focuses on identifying how people typically behave but does NOT explain how personality developed Strengths: based on empirical evidence with factor analysis Weaknesses: people might behave differently based on the situation they are experiencing Tests: 16 Personality Factors (16 PF), 3 Dimensions, and Myers Briggs	34
9147308488	Factor analysis	- a statistical procedure that identifies common factors among groups of items, to simplify a long list of items into a small number of dimensions -used with trait theories	35
9147308489	Self-Report Inventories	Description: a questionnaire which is used to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors Strengths: empirically derived Weaknesses: social desirability-people can lie and manipulate the information Tests: MMPI, CPI, 16 PF	36
9147308490	MMPI	Most extensively researched personality inventory. Used to assess mental health professions (police, nurses, doctors, pilots)	37
9147308491	Big Five Trait Theory	Psychologists: McCrae and Costa Description: OCEAN or CANOE Significance: traits are stable in adulthood, heritability accounts for 50% of personality and can be used to predict other personal attributes	38
9147308492	Openess	characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests	39
9147308493	Conscientiousness	include high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors.	40
9147308494	Extraversion	characterized by excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness and high amounts of emotional expressivenes	41
9147308495	Agreeableness	includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection and other pro-social behaviors.	42
9147308496	Neuroticism	characterized by sadness, moodiness and emotional instability	43
9147308497	Social Cognitive Approach to Personality	Description: Personality is influenced between the interaction of a person's traits (including their thinking) and their social context Strengths: based on empirical evidence Weaknesses: minimizes the importance of one's inner traits, emotions, and unconscious motives Examples: Reciprocal Determinism, Locus of Control Psychologists: Bandura	44
9147308498	Reciprocal determinism	Psychologist: Bandura Defined: Personality is developed by the interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors. How it works: Everyone has a "self-system" of skills abilities and attitudes Self-Efficacy is what can change the system	45
9147308499	External Locus of Control	The perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate Effects: Pessimism and often learned helplesses	46
9147308500	Internal Locus of Control	The perception that you control your own fate Effects: Optimism Optimism leads to longer lives with less illnesses but excessive optimism can also lead us to be blind to risks and overconfidence	47
9147308501	Self- efficacy	Defined: the belief in your own ability to deal with different situations and accomplish specific goals It is NOT self esteem which is your general sense of self worth Consequences: people with high self-efficacy are able to succeed because they have an internal locus of control	48
9147308502	Compensation	Defense Mechanism where people try to overcome feelings of inferiority in one area by striving to be superior in another area Major part of Alfred Adler's theory	49

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AP World 1750-1900 Flashcards

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6252764048	Economic Imperialism	Control of a country's economy by the businesses of another nation. It allowed the home country to govern themselves, but the invading country controlled the trade and business, even access to natural resources. Examples: China and most of Latin America.	0
6252764034	Declaration Of Independence	A document modeled after the political philosophies of John Locke. It altered the natural rights identified by John Locke to include "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." This determined American independance from Britain. Origin: North America Significance: Inspired by enlightenment ideas	1
6252764035	Self-Strengthening Movement	A late nineteenth-century movement in which the Chinese modernized their army and encouraged western investment in factories and railways. It was also influenced by Confucian thought. Timeframe: began in the 1860's Significance: It improved the strength of the Chinese	2
6252764040	Declaration Of The Rights Of Man And Of The Citizen	A statement of political rights adopted by the French National Assembly during the French Revolution. It was a fundamental feature of the French Revolution; defined rights of citizens and estates.	3
6252764041	Declaration Of The Rights Of Women And Of The Female	A statement of the rights of women written by Olympe de Gouges in response to the Declaration of the Rights of Man. It states that women should have the same rights as men in the document of the revolution.	4
6252764042	Communism	An economic or social system based on the holding of all property in common, actual ownership being ascribed to the community as a whole or to the state.	5
6252764043	Classical Liberalism	An Enlightenment philosophy of natural rights, constitutional government, laissez-faire economics, less spending on military and churches	6
6252764044	Guano	Bird droppings used as fertilizer; a major trade item of Peru in the late nineteenth century. It allowed for better plant growth especially for potatoes	7
6252764045	Suez Canal	Canal constructed by Egypt across the Isthmus of Suez in 1869. It allowed for quicker transport between Europe and Asia. ALso, it led to the British conquest in Egypt.	8
6252764050	Spheres Of Influence	Divisions of a country in which a particular foreign nation enjoys economic privileges. Also means influence that surrounds the nation. Example: Britain in China (Any country that had outside influence on other countries)	9
6252764051	Jacobins	Extreme radicals during the French revolution. It is the most famous and influential club in French Revolution. Started Reign of Terror during Revolution	10
6252764053	Theory Of Natural Selection	Idea, first proposed by Charles Darwin, that species survive due to favorable characteristics. It shows that certain characteristics are unfavored and die off.	11
6252764054	Bourgeoisie	In France, the class of merchants and artisans who were members of the Third Estate and initiators of the French Revolution. It was a high class, with a common culture and ownership of capitol. in Marxist theory, a term referring to factory owners.	12
6252764055	Proletarian	In Marxist theory, the class of workers in an industrial society. Marx hoped to make this class less impoverished. In Rome, It meant the lowest class in society.	13
6252764057	Factors Of Production	Land, Labor, Capital, Entrepreneurship, which existed in Britain which allowed it to lead in the Industrial Revolution. Britain was able to gain access to these and industrialize quickly.	14
6252764060	Tanzimat Reforms	Nineteenth century reforms by Muslim Ottoman rulers designed to make government and military more efficient and Westernized. It educated about Western science, railroads etc. The Ottoman empire established trade with Britain with removal of taxes.	15
6252764061	Monroe Doctrine	Policy issued by the United States in which it declared that the Western Hemisphere was off limits to colonization by other powers. President James Monroe established it for security. The US would not intervene with European affairs, so Europe should not interfere with the US	16
6252764062	Indian National Congress	Political party that became the leader of the Indian nationalist movement. They were Western-educated elites that wanted a voice in government; it even won India's independence from Britain.	17
6252764064	Boxer Rebellion	Revolt against foreign residents of China. It failed because of the Western armies in China. It occurred in 1898.	18
6252764065	Sepoy Rebellion	Revolt of Indian soldiers against the British; caused by a military practice in violation of the Muslim and Hindu faiths.(1857) They rebelled because they thought the British violated Indian beliefs. The British removed the British East India company and took complete control of India and made it a colony.	19
6252764066	Natural Rights	Rights that belong to every person and that no government may take away. It gave the person a right to liberty, life, and property. John Locke	20
6252764069	Boers	South Africans of Dutch descent. They saw themselves as racially superior to the indigenous people of South AFrica. Their descendants created the apartheid.	21
6252764070	Sepoys	South Asian soldiers who served in the British army in India. They worked for the British East Indian company.	22
6252764073	Social Darwinism	The application of Darwin's philosophy of natural selection to human society. It suggested that Europeans were superior and had the right to colonize.	23
6252764074	Separation Of Powers	The division of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government. It is used and developed in the United States. Montesquieu	24
6252764076	Imperialism	The establishment of colonial empires. There were types: direct rule (France) and indirect rule(Britain). A country could also only control one factor of society: Political, Economic, and social/cultural.	25
6252764077	Enclosure Movement	The fencing of pasture land in England beginning prior to the Industrial Revolution. It took smaller farms into larger ones to mass produce agriculture, leading to former farmers to move to cities for work	26
6252764078	Bill Of Rights	The first ten amendments to the constitution of the United States. It is a statement of fundamental rights and privileges for people in the United States. Inspired by John Locke and Enlightenment	27
6252764079	Qing Dynasty	The Manchurian invaders who ruled China from 1644 to the early 1900s becoming the last Chinese dynasty after the Ming. Eventually politically weak and unstable after British invasions, rebellions, Opium Wars.	28
6252764080	Berlin Conference 1884	The meeting of European imperialist powers to divide Africa among them. African Scramble. Meant to take over parts of Africa for raw materials to continue industrialization. Destructive to Africa	29
6252764081	Capital	The money and equipment needed to engage in industrialization. It was like an investment for an independent company	30
6252764082	Mary Wollstonecraft	English person who wrote "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792) Advocating rights for women	31
6252764083	Reign Of Terror	The period of the most extreme violence during the French Revolution. It was when the French government executed many French people to show their power.	32
6252764084	Manifest Destiny	The policy in the U.S. that led to its expansion from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It was a policy that showed nationalism, power, and drive to achieve. The US wanted to gain territory from the Pacific to the atlantic.	33
6252764085	Meiji Restoration	1868- After two centuries of self-imposed isolation, Japan begins modernization: abolishes feudalism, remodels military, creates new educational system, starts a railroad, borrows Western ideas about justice and law	34
6252764091	Industrial Revolution	The transition between the domestic system of manufacturing and the mechanization of production in a factory setting. Change from an agricultural to an agricultural society. It mainly started in England.	35
6252764092	Treaty Of Nanking	Treaty ending the' Opium War that ceded Hong Kong to the British. (1842) It allowed the British to come into China during the Qing Dynasty	36
6252764094	Opium War	War between Great Britain and Qing China began with the Qing dynasty's refusal to allow continued opium importation into China; British victory resulted in the Treaty of Nanking.(1839-1842) The British also gained Hong Kong.	37
6252764095	Sino-Japanese War	War between Japan and China, in 1895, over control over Korea. Ultimately, Japan won.	38
6252764096	Russo-Japanese War	War between Russia and Japan over Manchurian territory; resulted in the defeat of Russia by the Japanese Navy. It showed Japanese strength against other major powers.	39
6252764097	Boer War	War between the British and the Dutch over Dutch independence in South Africa; resulted in British victory .(1899-1902) This strengthened the British powers.	40
6294731132	"octopus of imperialism".	Anti-English Imperialism cartoon	41
6294779770	Rudyard Kipling's "White Man's Burden"	demonstates Social Darwanism ideas	42
6297066518	John Stuart Mill	A champion of social reforms of the industrial age, including labor unions, child labor laws. Utilitarianism- seeking the greatest good for the greatest number of people	43
6297082826	Adam Smith	Wrote "Wealth of Nations" in 1776- said if businesses were allowed to operate in their own interests, society in general would benefit. Was against mercantilism- government control of economy including its colonies.	44
6297139351	Otto von Bismarck	In 1871, was able to unify and found the new German Empire. He advocating nationalistic ideas, creating a new Europe superpower	45
6297210591	Cartoon of China after Opium Wars		46
6297371570	Cartoon of the French Revolution		47
6297410355	Cartoon Belgian colonization	Africa's Congo	48
6297429593	Canal Construction-Panama	Roosevelt and industrial transportation	49
6297485063	Simon Bolivar	Latin American creole. Helped lead independence movements for Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador and Peru	50
6297496763	Jamaica Letter	Influenced by Enlightenment ideas. Written by Simon Bolivar. Outlined his goals and concerns for Latin America	51
6297514929	Creole	Born of European parents, in the Americas, well-educated esp. in the Enlightenment.	52
6297531065	Peninsulares	Latin American colonists born in Spain or Portugal. Had more power than the Creoles	53
6297777397	Jean-Jacques Rousseau	He taught parents to take a new interest in their children and to educate them differently not from books but instead should experience the world naturally. Enlightenment thinker	54
6297873855	Nationalism	A feeling of intense loyalty to others who share one's language and culture. The idea that people who share a culture should also share a government, or be allowed to govern themselves	55

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AP Psychology Unit 4 Flashcards

Advanced Placement Psychology
Enterprise High School, Redding, CA
All terms from Myers Psychology for AP (BFW Worth, 2011)

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8050109904	sensation	the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.	0
8050109905	perception	the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.	1
8050109906	bottom-up processing	analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.	2
8050109907	top-down processing	information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.	3
8050109908	selective attention	the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.	4
8050109909	inattentional blindness	failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.	5
8050109910	change blindness	failing to notice changes in the environment.	6
8050109911	psychophysics	the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.	7
8050109912	absolute threshold	the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.	8
8050109913	signal detection theory	a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.	9
8050109914	subliminal	below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness	10
8050109915	priming	the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.	11
8050109916	difference threshold	the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. Also called the just noticeable difference (jnd).	12
8050109917	Weber's law	the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage (rather than a constant amount).	13
8050109918	sensory adaptation	diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.	14
8050109919	transduction	conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.	15
8050109920	wavelength	the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic versions of this vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission.	16
8050109921	hue	the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.	17
8050109922	intensity	the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude.	18
8050109923	pupil	the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.	19
8050109924	iris	a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.	20
8050109925	lens	the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.	21
8050109926	retina	the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.	22
8050109927	accomodation	the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.	23
8050109928	rods	retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.	24
8050109929	cones	retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. These detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.	25
8050109930	optic nerve	the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.	26
8050109931	blind spot	the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye and no receptor cells are located there.	27
8050109932	fovea	the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.	28
8050109933	feature detectors	nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.	29
8050109934	parallel processing	the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.	30
8050109935	Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory	the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.	31
8050109936	opponent-process theory	the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.	32
8050109937	audition	the sense or act of hearing.	33
8050109938	frequency	the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).	34
8050109939	pitch	a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.	35
8050109940	middle ear	the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.	36
8050109941	cochlea	a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses	37
8050109942	inner ear	the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.	38
8050109943	place theory	in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.	39
8050109944	frequency theory	in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.	40
8050109945	conduction hearing loss	hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.	41
8050109946	sensorineural hearing loss	hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.	42
8050109947	cochlear implant	a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.	43
8050109948	kinesthesis	the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.	44
8050109949	vestibular sense	the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.	45
8050109950	gate-control theory	the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.	46
8050109951	sensory interaction	the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.	47
8050109952	gestalt	an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes	48
8050109953	figure-ground	the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).	49
8050109954	grouping	the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.	50
8050109955	depth perception	the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.	51
8050109956	visual cliff	a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.	52
8050109957	binocular cues	depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes.	53
8050109958	retinal disparity	a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.	54
8050109959	monocular cues	depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.	55
8050109960	phi phenomenon	an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.	56
8050109961	perceptual constancy	perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.	57
8050109962	color constancy	perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.	58
8050109963	perceptual adaptation	in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field.	59
8050109964	perceptual set	a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.	60
8050109965	extrasensory perception (ESP)	the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.	61
8050109966	parapsychology	the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis.	62

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AP Biology Chapter 5 Flashcards

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6109371592	macromolecule	a giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a dehydration reaction.	0
6109371593	Four classes of biological macromolecules	Proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids	1
6109371594	polymer	a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds.	2
6109371595	monomer	the subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer.	3
6109371596	dehydration synthesis	a chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule.	4
6109371597	hydrolysis	a chemical reaction that breaks bonds between two molecules by the addition of water; functions in dis-assembly of polymers to monomers.	5
6109371598	protein	a biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three-dimensional structure.	6
6109371599	Functions of proteins	structural support, catalyst, transport, defense, movement, regulation	7
6109371600	amino acid	an organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl and an amino group. The monomers of polypeptides. There are 20 different forms. Distinguished by side chains.	8
6109371601	peptide bond	the covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction.	9
6109371602	Primary structure	the level of protein structure referring to the specific linear sequence of amino acids.	10
6109371603	secondary structure	regions of repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bonding between constituents of the backbone (not the side chains). Helix or pleated sheet.	11
6109371604	B pleated sheet	protein structure with two or more segments of the polypeptide chain link side by side (called B strands) connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of the two parallel segments of the polypeptide backbone.	12
6109371605	tertiary structure	the overall shape of a protein molecule due to interactions of amino acid side chains, including hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges.	13
6109371606	amino acid side chains	types of bonds/interactions in __________ : hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds and disulfide bridges	14
6109371607	quaternary structure	the particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide.	15
6109371608	denaturation	loss of a proteins normal 3D structure; can possibly be caused by pH and temperature which affect the ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds & hydrophilic interactions	16
6109371609	enzyme	a macromolecule serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction. most of them are proteins.	17
6109371610	carbohydrate	a sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides). Primarily C, H and O.	18
6109371611	What are the functions of carbohydrates	function as energy source & structure	19
6109371612	monosaccharide	the simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also called simple sugars, they have formulas that are generally some multiple of CH2O (1:2:1).	20
6109371613	disaccharide	a double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage formed by a dehydration reaction.	21
6109371614	glycosidic linkage	a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.	22
6109371615	polysaccharide	a polymer of many monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions.	23
6109371616	starch	a storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by x glycosidic linkages. Used for energy storage.	24
6109371617	glycogen	an extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.	25
6109371618	cellulose	a structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by B glycosidic linkages. A type of plant starch.	26
6109371619	lipids	any of a group of large biological molecules, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that mix poorly, if at all, with water (hydrophobic). No true monomers.	27
6109371620	What are the three types of lipids?	fats/oils, phospholipids & steroids	28
6109371621	fat/oil	a lipid consisting of three fatty acids lined to one glycerol molecule; also called a triacylglycerol or triglyceride. Function as energy storage.	29
6109371622	saturated	a fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that are attached to the carbon skeleton.	30
6109371623	unsaturated	a faty acid that has one or more double bonds betwen carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.	31
6109371624	fatty acid	a carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain. Vary in length and __________ linked to a glycerol molecule form a fat molecule, also called triglyceride.	32
6109371625	triglyceride	a lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule	33
6109371626	chitin	a structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods.	34
6109371627	trans fat	an unsaturated fat, formed artificially during hydrogenation of oils, containing one or more trans double bonds.	35
6109371628	phospholipid	a lipid made up of glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group. The hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids act as nonpolar hydrophobic tails, while the rest of the molecule acts s a polar, hydrophilic head. They form bilayers that function as biological membrane.	36
6109371629	phospholipid bilayer	function as membranes	37
6109371630	steroid	a type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings with various chemical groups attached. Function as part of membranes or hormones.	38
6109371631	catalyst	a chemical agent that selectively increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.	39
6109371632	hydrophobic	a type of weak chemical interaction caused when molecules that do not mix with water coalesce to exclude water.	40
6109371633	disulfide bridges	a strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer.	41
6109371634	polypeptide	a polymer of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.	42
6109371635	nucleic acid	a polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. the two types are DNA and RNA.	43
6109371636	nucleic acid	functions as storage, transmission & use of genetic material	44
6109371637	nucleotide	the building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and one or more phosphate groups.	45
6109371638	phosphodiester linkage	bond between nucleotides in nucleotide chain to form polynucleotide	46
6109371639	polynucleotide	a polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers in a chain. The nucleotides can be those of DNA or RNA.	47
6109371640	pyrimidine	one of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-membered ring. cytosine (c), thymine (T), and uracil (U)	48
6109371641	purines	one of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring. adenine (a) and guanine (G).	49
6109371642	RNA	transmission of information, consists of monomers with a ribose sugar and nitrogenous bases cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A) & uracil (U). Single stranded.	50
6109371643	DNA	a nucleic acid molecule, usually a double-stranded helix, in which each polynucleotide strand consists of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T); capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins.	51
6109371644	deoxyribose	the sugar component of DNA nucleotides, having one fewer hydroxyl group than ribose, the sugar component of RNA nucleotides.	52
6109371645	ribose	the sugar component of RNA nucleotides.	53
6109371646	double helix	the form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape.	54
6109371647	antiparallel	referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix (they run in opposite 5' -3' directions).	55

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AP Psychology - Personality Flashcards

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8818281907	Sigmund Freud	Founder of psychoanalysis Originally a medical doctor and found that his patients were suffering from an illness with psycho-logical causes This led him to develop theories of the unconscious mind, psycho-sexual development and Psychoanalysis	0
8818281908	Psychoanalytic Theory	Psychologist: Sigmund Freud Behavior is due to unconscious motives and conflicts Early childhood experiences determine personality	1
8818281909	Unconscious Mind	-foundation for the psychoanalytic theory -controls the phenomena of repressed feelings, automatic skills, subliminal perceptions, thoughts, habits and automatic reactions as well as possibly holding emotional complexes, phobias and desires.	2
8818281910	Id	located in the unconscious present at birth Ruled by the "Pleasure Principle" and has no values, morality, or logic (animal instincts)	3
8818281911	Ego	located in both conscious, & unconscious Developed after birth, the self Ruled by the "Reality Principle" and balances the id and superego by being organized, rational, and postponing gratification	4
8818281912	SuperEgo	located in both conscious, & unconscious developed by age 5 Ruled by the "Morality Principle" and is the opposite of the Id because it is the internal, parental voice with rules and values	5
8818281913	Free Association	A technique used to access the unconscious patient freely exposes his/her ideas, impressions, etc.	6
8818281914	Freudian Slips	Slips of the tongue that expose the unconscious	7
8818281915	Psychosexual Development	- sequential and discontinuous stages with changing erogenous zone and conflict in each stage if conflict is not successful resolved, the result is fixation O.A.P.L.G (Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital)	8
8818281916	Oral stage	Age: 0-1 Erogenous Zone: Mouth Task: Oral Activities (sucking, chewing, biting, etc) Fixation: Smoking, Over-eating	9
8818281917	Anal stage	Age: 1-3 Erogenous Zone: Anus Task: Potty Training Fixation: Anal retentive or Anal Expulsive	10
8818281918	Latency stage	Age: 6 to puberty Erogenous Zone: None Task: develop relationships with same sex peers to strengthen gender identity Fixation: doesn't occur at this stage	11
8818281919	Phallic stage	Age: 3-5 Erogenous Zone: Genitals Task: Gender Identity Fixation: Narcissism, Homosexuality	12
8818281920	Genital stage	Age: Puberty to death Erogenous Zone: Genitals Task: Find a hetero-sexual relationship Fixation: doesn't occur at this stage but old conflicts will arise	13
8818281921	Penis Envy	Freudian theory that girls become upset and scarred because because they don't have a penis and a penis is a key to being successful. Phallic Stage	14
8818281922	Electra Complex	girls sexually desire dad and hate mom but need to resolve this in order to develop a gender identity Phallic Stage of Psycho-sexual Development	15
8818281923	Oedipus Complex	boys sexually desire mom and hate dad but need to resolve this in order to develop a gender identity Phallic Stage of Psycho-sexual Development	16
8818281924	Defense mechanisms	- extreme measures protect the ego from threats; operate unconsciously and deny, falsify, or distinct reality - not successful coping strategies because they do not remove stressors	17
8818281925	Neo-Freudians	Jung, Horney, Adler Believed that Freud put too much emphasis on sex and there needed to be more emphasis on social factors	18
8818281926	Collective unconscious	Psychologist: Carl Jung Defined: A warehouse of "instinctive memories" passed down to each generation and all humans share and is made up of archetypes	19
8818281927	Archetypes	Defined: Inherited universal concepts that create the Collective Unconscious Examples: Anima v. Animus, Mother v. Father, Persona v. Shadow, Hero v. Villain	20
8818281928	Basic Anxiety	Psychologist: Karen Horney anxiety that is created by being born helpless. Most overcome this, those who don't develop neurotic personalities- aggressive, compliant, or withdrawn	21
8818281929	Womb envy	Psychologist: Karen Horney Defined: women do not suffer from "penis envy" but are envious of male's superior status. Men are envious of a women's ability to have children and therefore, they compensate with other forms of achievement.	22
8818281930	Inferiority Complex	Psychologist: Alfred Adler Defined: people who compensate for feelings of inferiority (feeling like they're less than other people, not as good as others, worthless, etc.) by acting ways that make them appear superior.	23
8818281931	Projective Tests	Description: Provide ambiguous stimuli in order to trigger the projection of one's inner dynamics Strengths: Provide lots of information Weaknesses: highly subjective and has low reliability Tests: Rorschach Inkblot Test, & Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Draw a Person test	24
8818281932	Rorschach Inkblot Test	seeks to identify people's inner feelings and conflicts by analyzing their interpretations of 10 inkblots. Critics question the validity and reliability of the tests.	25
8818281933	Thematic Apperception Test	people view ambiguous pictures and then make up stories about them. Presumably, their accounts reflect their interests and inner feelings.	26
8818281934	Humanistic Psychologists	Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow Description: People develop their personality by trying to reach their full potential Strengths: model was built in a therapy setting Weaknesses: concepts are vague and subjective, individualistic and western based and naive because it fails to appreciate the reality of our capacity for evil	27
8818281935	Self-Concept	Psychologist: Carl Rogers Goal: Actualizing Tendency (full potential) Theory: A person has who they are, Real Self, and who they want to be, Ideal Self and a successful persoanlity has congruence People need genuineness (honesty), unconditional positive regard (love), and empathy (understanding) to develop a good persoanlity	28
8818281936	Congruence	A person's Real Self and Ideal Self can merge together Part of Roger's Self-Concept Theory	29
8818281937	Incongruence	When a person's Real Self and Ideal self do not match, causing anxiety. Part of Roger's Self-Concept Theory	30
8818281938	Unconditional positive regard	Defined: receiving acceptance, value, and love from others without requirements Part of Roger's Self-Concept theory in which he says it is necessary to receive from others in order to develop a healthy personality	31
8818281939	Empathy	People will try to understand one's feelings and mirror it back to them Part of Roger's Self-Concept theory in which he says it is necessary to receive from others in order to develop a healthy personality	32
8818281940	Hierarchy of Needs	Psychologist: Abraham Maslow Description: Pyramid	33
8818281941	Trait Theories	Description: focuses on identifying how people typically behave but does NOT explain how personality developed Strengths: based on empirical evidence with factor analysis Weaknesses: people might behave differently based on the situation they are experiencing Tests: 16 Personality Factors (16 PF), 3 Dimensions, and Myers Briggs	34
8818281942	Factor analysis	- a statistical procedure that identifies common factors among groups of items, to simplify a long list of items into a small number of dimensions -used with trait theories	35
8818281943	Self-Report Inventories	Description: a questionnaire which is used to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors Strengths: empirically derived Weaknesses: social desirability-people can lie and manipulate the information Tests: MMPI, CPI, 16 PF	36
8818281944	MMPI	Most extensively researched personality inventory. Used to assess mental health professions (police, nurses, doctors, pilots)	37
8818281945	Big Five Trait Theory	Psychologists: McCrae and Costa Description: OCEAN or CANOE Significance: traits are stable in adulthood, heritability accounts for 50% of personality and can be used to predict other personal attributes	38
8818281946	Openess	characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests	39
8818281947	Conscientiousness	include high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors.	40
8818281948	Extraversion	characterized by excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness and high amounts of emotional expressivenes	41
8818281949	Agreeableness	includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection and other pro-social behaviors.	42
8818281950	Neuroticism	characterized by sadness, moodiness and emotional instability	43
8818281951	Social Cognitive Approach to Personality	Description: Personality is influenced between the interaction of a person's traits (including their thinking) and their social context Strengths: based on empirical evidence Weaknesses: minimizes the importance of one's inner traits, emotions, and unconscious motives Examples: Reciprocal Determinism, Locus of Control Psychologists: Bandura	44
8818281952	Reciprocal determinism	Psychologist: Bandura Defined: Personality is developed by the interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors. How it works: Everyone has a "self-system" of skills abilities and attitudes Self-Efficacy is what can change the system	45
8818281953	External Locus of Control	The perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate Effects: Pessimism and often learned helplesses	46
8818281954	Internal Locus of Control	The perception that you control your own fate Effects: Optimism Optimism leads to longer lives with less illnesses but excessive optimism can also lead us to be blind to risks and overconfidence	47
8818281955	Self- efficacy	Defined: the belief in your own ability to deal with different situations and accomplish specific goals It is NOT self esteem which is your general sense of self worth Consequences: people with high self-efficacy are able to succeed because they have an internal locus of control	48
8818281956	Compensation	Defense Mechanism where people try to overcome feelings of inferiority in one area by striving to be superior in another area Major part of Alfred Adler's theory	49