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AP Biology Chapter 5 Flashcards

8555349692	macromolecules	molecules of a large size	0
8555360463	polymer	made up of monomers	1
8555364579	4 main classes of molecules in living things	carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids	2
8555368896	monomers	individual pieces of a larger puzzle (polymer); some have a function of their own	3
8555375986	enzymes	biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions but not used up in the process	4
8555384799	dehydration reactions	a reaction in which 2 molecules are covalently bonded to each other with the loss of a water molecule (1 molecule give a -OH and the other a -H) (synthesizing a polymer)	5
8555394020	polymerization	the making of a polymer via dehydration	6
8555414817	hydrolysis	reverse of dehydration reactions; the bond between monomers is broken by the addition of a water molecule with a H attaching to one monomer and the -OH attaching to the other: i.e. digestion (breaking down a polymer)	7
8555437669	Carbohydrates	include sugars and starches (polymers of sugars)	8
8555442968	monosaccharide	made up of 1 sugar monomer, most common is glucose; used for a source of quick energy	9
8555482656	Identification of Carbohydrates	Ratio of C-1, H-2, O-1	10
8555490217	Disaccharides	molecule made of 2 sugars; i. e. Maltose and Sucrose	11
8555497685	glycosidic linkage	covalent bond formed between 2 monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction (p.69)	12
8555505972	Polysaccharides	macromolecules, polymers with a few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages	13
8555529161	uses for polysaccharides	storage for energy, and building material for cell structures	14
8555538348	starch	polysaccharide that is made up of glucose monomers in PLANTS; stored as granules in plastids (stored energy)	15
8555550190	glycogen	polysaccharide that is made up of glucose in ANIMALS; stored in liver and muscle cells (stored energy)	16
8555642411	cellulose	structural polysaccharide; major component of the tough walls of plant cells; most abundant organic compound on Earth	17
8555650309	Chitin	structural polysaccharide; major component of exoskeletons of arthropods (insects, spiders, crustaceans, and related animals)	18
8555662152	Lipids	large biomolecules lacking in true monomers, not considered macromolecules; HYDROPHOBIC; major function - long term energy storage in adipose tissue	19
8555690132	fat	made up of glycerol and fatty acids	20
8555692696	fatty acid	long C skeleton usually 16-18 C atoms in length	21
8555698048	triacylglyceride	3 fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule	22
8555707937	Saturated fats	compound with no double bonds and is saturated with as many H bonded to C as possible; most are found in animal fat (lard and butter); very flexible	23
8555721173	Unsaturated fats	has one or more double bonds with one fewer H per double bond of C; found in plants and fish; (olive oil and cod liver oil); in nature, double bonds are cis	24
8555830498	trans fat	with trans double bonds; found in baked goods and processed foods; labeled and must be removed from food supply by 2018	25
8555857326	phospholipid	found in cells as a major constituent in cell membranes; glycerol with 2 fatty acids; (glycerol head is hydrophilic and fatty acid tails are hydrophobic)	26
8555878614	steroids	lipids with 4 fused rings in carbon skeleton	27
8555897385	cholesterol	type of steroid; common component of animal cell membranes and is also a precursor for other steroids such as sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone)	28
8555909309	proteins	account for more than 50% of dry mass of most cells and they are instrumental in almost everything organisms do; made of one or more polypeptides each folded and coiled into a specific 3D structure	29
8555949136	polypeptide	polymer of amino acids	30
8555918264	biological catalysts	(enzymes) chemical agents that selectively speed up chemical reactions without being consumed in the reaction	31
8555931898	amino acids	monomers of proteins joined together by peptide bonds; 20 make up all the proteins; made up of an amine group and a carboxyl group, and a R group (side chain)	32
8555991067	enzymatic proteins	selective acceleration of chemical reactions	33
8555992708	storage proteins	storage of amino acids	34
8555995128	hormonal proteins	coordination of an organisms activities	35
8555998838	contractile and motor proteins	movement	36
8555998840	defensive proteins	protection against disease	37
8556000705	transport proteins	transport of substances	38
8556002067	receptor proteins	response of cell to chemical stimuli	39
8556004042	structural proteins	support	40
8556013486	peptide bond	bond between amino acids in the formation of proteins	41
8556021865	protein nature	structure determines function	42
8556026291	4 levels of protein structure	primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary	43
8556030556	primary protein structure	linear chain of amino acids	44
8556040250	secondary protein structure	regions stabilized by H bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone; alpha helix and the beta pleated sheet	45
8556047027	tertiary protein structure	3D shape stabilized by interactions between side chains; hydrophobic interaction; disulfide bridges	46
8556060714	quaternary protein structure	association of two or more polypeptides (some proteins only) i.e. collagen and hemoglobin	47
8556316471	denaturation	physical and/or chemical conditions that cause the protein to change shape, therefore, reducing or ending functionality of the protein	48
8556326298	physical/chemical conditions of denaturation	pH change, temperature change, salt concentration change (other aspects of protein environment)	49
8556340035	renaturation	the ability of a protein to restore innate structure if the denatured protein remains dissolved; conditional	50
8556350242	xray chrystallography	method used to determine the 3D structure of a protein and it depends on the diffraction of an xray beam by the atoms of a crystallized molecule	51
8556363393	intrinsically disordered proteins	may account for 20-30% of mammalian proteins; do not have a specific shape until they react with a target tissue	52
8556382534	gene	unit of inheritance	53
8556383735	nucleic acids	polymers made of monomers, nucleotides	54
8556386170	nucleotides	monomer made up of a 5 C sugar, Phosphate group, and a nitrogen base	55
8556389132	deoxyribonucleic acid	DNA; genetic material inherited by parents	56
8556395695	ribonucleic acid	RNA; synthesized by DNA; allows for gene expression to take place	57
8556397572	gene expression	DNA controls its own replication and directs RNA synthesis and controls protein synthesis; these 3 components make up gene expression; DNA -> RNA-> Proteins	58
8556423370	pyrimidine	family of N base - Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil - that has one six membered ring of Carbon and nitrogen atoms	59
8556437944	purines	family of N base - Adenine and Guanine - they have a six membered ring fused to a five membered ring	60
8556447673	deoxyribose	5 carbon sugar in DNA	61
8556450907	ribose	5 carbon sugar in RNA	62
8556466892	Nucleotide polymers	made up of sugar-phosphate backbone with nitrogen base appendages read from the 5' end to the 3' end	63
8556477605	5' Carbon on the sugar	attached to a phosphate group	64
8556498571	3' Carbon on the sugar	attached to a hydroxyl group	65
8556582130	double helix	2 strands of DNA wound around an imaginary axis	66
8556584508	antiparallel	one side of the double helix is from 5' to 3' and the complementary side is 3' to 5'	67
8556590843	base pairing	A - T; G - C in DNA. A-U; G-C in RNA	68
8556598361	DNA sequencing	determining the sequence of nucleotides along the DNA strand	69
8556604652	bioinformatics	the use of computer software and other computational tools that can handle and analyze these large data sets	70
8556607066	genomics	when biologists analyze large sets of genes or even whole genomes of different species to address problems	71
8556612388	proteomics	similar to genomics instead of looking at datasets of genes, scientists look at datasets of proteins to solve a problem	72
8556618312	molecular geneology	looking at the concept of evolutionary development using genetic evaluations and DNA sequencing	73
8556630940	nucleoside	5 Carbon + N base	74

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AP Government Chapter 1 Flashcards

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6734440569	Government	A system that makes authoritative public policies made for society.	0
6734440570	Politics	The process by which government officials, as well as the policies they pursue, are chosen.	1
6734440571	The Policymaking System		2
6734440572	Linkage Institutions	Political channels through which people's concerns become political issues on the policy agenda. (political parties, elections, interest groups, the media, etc.)	3
6734440573	Policy Agenda	Several issues that capture the serious attention of political officials and other figures in politics at a given time.	4
6734440574	Collective Goods	Goods and services, such as clean water, that by nature cannot be denied to anyone.	5
6734440575	The 5 Basic Duties Each Government Should Perform	1. Maintain a national defense. 2. Provide public goods and services. 3. Preserve order. 4. Socialize the young. 5. Collect taxes.	6
6734440576	Political Culture	An overall set of values widely shared within a society	7
6734440577	Single-Issue Groups	Groups that have a narrow interest on which their members tend to take an uncompromising stance.	8
6734440578	Democracy	A system of selecting policymakers and of organizing government so that policy represents and responds to the public's preferences.	9
6734440579	Traditional Democratic Theory	1. Equality in voting. 2. Effective participation 3. Enlightened. understanding. 4. Citizen control of the agenda. 5. Inclusion	10
6734440580	Pluralism	Democratic theory that states that the government is comprised of several different groups that compete to reach compromise, no one group dominating another.	11
6734440581	Elite and Class Theory	Democratic theory that states that society is divided by class lines, with the upper class elite in power (Policies benefit those with money/power)	12
6734440582	Hyperpluralism	Democratic theory that states that he government is comprised of several groups, all of which are too strong, which leads to muddled policy and gridlock --- the government suffers because of groups	13
6734440583	Challenges to Democracy	Increased complexity of issues, limited participation in government, escalating campaign costs, and diverse political interests.	14
6734440584	5 Elements of American Political Culture	1. Liberty. 2. Egalitarianism. 3. Individualism. 4. Laissez-faire. 5. Populism.	15

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AP Psychology Unit 12 Flashcards

Advanced Placement Psychology
Enterprise High School, Redding, CA
All terms from Myers Psychology for AP (BFW Worth, 2011)

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4215229268	psychological disorder	deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional patterns of thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.	0
4215229269	Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)	a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.	1
4215229270	medical model	the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.	2
4215229271	DSM-IV-TR	the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, updated as a 2000 "text revision"; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.	3
4215229272	anxiety disorders	psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety.	4
4215229273	generalized anxiety disorder	an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.	5
4215229274	panic disorder	an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations.	6
4215229275	phobia	an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation.	7
4215229276	obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)	an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions).	8
4215229277	post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)	an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience.	9
4215229278	post-traumatic growth	positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises.	10
4215229279	somatoform disorder	psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause. (See conversion disorder and hypochondriasis.)	11
4215229280	conversion disorder	a rare somatoform disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found.	12
4215229281	hypochondriasis	a somatoform disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease.	13
4215229282	dissociative disorders	disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings.	14
4215229283	dissociative identity disorder (DID)	rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Formerly called multiple personality disorder.	15
4215229284	mood disorders	psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes. See major depressive disorder, mania, and bipolar disorder.	16
4215229285	major depressive disorder	a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities.	17
4215229286	mania	a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state.	18
4215229287	bipolar disorder	a mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. (Formerly called manic-depressive disorder)	19
4215229288	schizophrenia	a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions.	20
4215229289	delusions	false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders.	21
4215229290	personality disorders	psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning.	22
4215229291	antisocial personality disorder	a personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.	23

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AP Psychology Biology Flashcards

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7538180103	Acetylcholine (ach)	A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction.	0
7538180104	Action potential	A neural impulse: a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon, The action potential is generated by the movement of positively changed atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.	1
7538180105	Adrenal glands	A pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress.	2
7538180106	Agonist	Excite neurons by mimicking natural neurotransmitters or blocking their reuptake to keep more of them in your system. (pretends to be something else)	3
7538180107	Alzheimer's disease	A progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally, physical functioning.	4
7538180108	Amygdala	Two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion.	5
7538180109	Antagonist	Inhibit neural impulses by blocking receptor sites or diminishing their release.	6
7538180110	Aphasia	Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).	7
7538180111	Association areas	Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions: rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.	8
7538180112	Autonomic nervous system	The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses: its parasympathetic division calms.	9
7538180113	Axon	The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons of to muscles or glands.	10
7538180114	Biopsychology (biological psychology)	A branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. (some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior genetics, physiological psychologists, or bio-psychologists.)	11
7538180115	Behavioral genetics	The study of the relative power and limits of genetic ad environmental influences on behavior.	12
7538180116	Brainstem	The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull: the brain-stem is responsible for automatic survival functions.	13
7538180117	Central nervous system (CNS)	The brain and spinal cord.	14
7538180118	Cerebellum	The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brain-stem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.	15
7538180119	Cerebral cortex	The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that cover the cerebral hemispheres: the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.	16
7538180120	Corpus callosum	The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.	17
7538180121	Dendrites	The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.	18
7538180122	Electroencephalogram (EEG)	An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.	19
7538180123	Endocrine system	The body's 'slow" chemical communication system:set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.	20
7538180124	Endorphins	"Morphine within"-natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to plain control and to pleasure.	21
7538180125	Forebrain	The largest and most complex region of the brain, encompassing a variety of structures, including he thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.	22
7538180126	Glial call	Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protects neurons.	23
7538180127	Hindbrain	Includes the cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of the brain-stem, the medulla and pons.	24
7538180128	Hormones	Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and effect another.	25
7538180129	Hypothalamus	A neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus: is directs several maintenance activities (eating,drinking,body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion.	26
7538180130	Interneurons	Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.	27
7538180131	Lesioning	Tissue destruction, a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.	28
7538180132	Limbic system	A doughnut-shaped system of neuronal structures at the border of the brain-stem and cerebral hemispheres: associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and dives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.	29
7538180133	(MRI) Magnetic resonance imaging	A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissues: allows us to see structures within the brain.	30
7538180134	Medulla	The base of the brain-stem: controls heartbeat and breathing.	31
7538180135	FMRI) Functional MRI	A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain actity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy: FMRI scans show brain function.	32
7538180136	Midbrain	The segment of the brain-stem that lies between the hindbrian and forebrain.	33
7538180137	Myelin sheath	A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers pf many neurons: enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.	34
7538180138	Nerves	Neural "cables' containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.	35
7538180139	Neural networks	Interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer stimulation's or neural networks show analogous learning.	36
7538180140	Neuron	A nerve cell: the basic building block of the nervous system	37
7538180141	Neurotransmitters	Chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing weather that neuron will generate a neural impulse.	38
7538180142	Parasympathetic nervous system	The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.	39
7538180143	Peripheral nervous system (PNS)	The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.	40
7538180144	Pituitary gland	The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. Master gland	41
7538180145	Plasticity	The brain's capacity for modification, s evidence in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experiments on brain development.	42
7538180146	(PET) Positron emission tomography	A visual display of the brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.	43
7538180147	Reflex	A simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.	44
7538180148	Resting potential	Neuron is in its normal, resting state. Ions within the cell give the axon a small negative charge, fluid outside is positive charged.	45
7538180149	Reticular Formation	A nerve network in the brain-stem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.	46
7538180150	Somatic nervous system	The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.	47
7538180151	sympathetic nervous system	The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.	48
7538180152	Synapse	The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.	49
7538180153	Synapse cleft	The gap at the junction of the synapse.	50
7538180154	Terminal buttons	Enlarged area at the end of the axon; contains the synaptic vesicle.	51
7538180155	Thalamus	The brains sensory switchboard, located on the top of the brain-stem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.	52
7538180156	Threshold	The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.	53
7538180157	motor neurons	a nerve cell forming part of a pathway along which impulses pass from the brain or spinal cord to a muscle or gland.	54
7538180158	Broca's Area	part of the brain that is responsible for speech production	55
7538180159	wernicke's area	part of the brain that is responsible for understanding spoken language	56
7538180160	split brain patients	corpus collosum is severed, two hemispheres of the brain don't communicate as effectively	57
7538180161	afferent neurons	carries nerve impulses from sensory receptors or sense organs toward the central nervous system.	58
7538180162	efferent neurons	Neurons that send impulses from the central nervous system to your limbs and organs	59
7538180163	neuron firing order	dendrite--soma---axon--terminal bulb	60
7538180164	occipital lobe	The occiptial lobe is important to being able to correctly understand what your eyes are seeing.	61
7538180165	temporal lobe	mainly revolves around hearing and selective listening.	62
7538180166	frontal lobe	decision making	63
7538180167	parietal lobe	processes sensory information	64
7538180168	absolute refractory period	the period immediately following the firing of a nerve fiber when it cannot be stimulated no matter how great a stimulus is applied	65
7538180169	relative refractory period	the period shortly after the firing of a nerve fiber when partial repolarization has occurred and a greater than normal stimulus can stimulate a second response	66
7538180170	all or none principle	states that the strength of a response of a neuron or muscle fiber is not dependent upon the strength of the stimulus. If a stimulus is above a certain threshold, a neuron or muscle fiber will fire.	67

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AP Psychology Unit 4 Flashcards

Advanced Placement Psychology
Enterprise High School, Redding, CA
All terms from Myers Psychology for AP (BFW Worth, 2011)

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6684461177	sensation	the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.	0
6684461178	perception	the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.	1
6684461179	bottom-up processing	analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.	2
6684461180	top-down processing	information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.	3
6684461181	selective attention	the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.	4
6684461182	inattentional blindness	failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.	5
6684461183	change blindness	failing to notice changes in the environment.	6
6684461184	psychophysics	the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.	7
6684461185	absolute threshold	the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.	8
6684461186	signal detection theory	a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.	9
6684461187	subliminal	below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness	10
6684461188	priming	the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.	11
6684461189	difference threshold	the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. Also called the just noticeable difference (jnd).	12
6684461190	Weber's law	the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage (rather than a constant amount).	13
6684461191	sensory adaptation	diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.	14
6684461192	transduction	conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.	15
6684461193	wavelength	the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic versions of this vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission.	16
6684461194	hue	the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.	17
6684461195	intensity	the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude.	18
6684461196	pupil	the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.	19
6684461197	iris	a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.	20
6684461198	lens	the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.	21
6684461199	retina	the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.	22
6684461200	accomodation	the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.	23
6684461201	rods	retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.	24
6684461202	cones	retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. These detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.	25
6684461203	optic nerve	the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.	26
6684461204	blind spot	the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye and no receptor cells are located there.	27
6684461205	fovea	the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.	28
6684461206	feature detectors	nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.	29
6684461207	parallel processing	the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.	30
6684461208	Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory	the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.	31
6684461209	opponent-process theory	the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.	32
6684461210	audition	the sense or act of hearing.	33
6684461211	frequency	the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).	34
6684461212	pitch	a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.	35
6684461213	middle ear	the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.	36
6684461214	cochlea	a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses	37
6684461215	inner ear	the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.	38
6684461216	place theory	in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.	39
6684461217	frequency theory	in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.	40
6684461218	conduction hearing loss	hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.	41
6684461219	sensorineural hearing loss	hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.	42
6684461220	cochlear implant	a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.	43
6684461221	kinesthesis	the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.	44
6684461222	vestibular sense	the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.	45
6684461223	gate-control theory	the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.	46
6684461224	sensory interaction	the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.	47
6684461225	gestalt	an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes	48
6684461226	figure-ground	the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).	49
6684461227	grouping	the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.	50
6684461228	depth perception	the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.	51
6684461229	visual cliff	a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.	52
6684461230	binocular cues	depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes.	53
6684461231	retinal disparity	a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.	54
6684461232	monocular cues	depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.	55
6684461233	phi phenomenon	an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.	56
6684461234	perceptual constancy	perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.	57
6684461235	color constancy	perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.	58
6684461236	perceptual adaptation	in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field.	59
6684461237	perceptual set	a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.	60
6684461238	extrasensory perception (ESP)	the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.	61
6684461239	parapsychology	the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis.	62

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AP Human Geography: Development Flashcards

AP Human Geography

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8307754961	Development	A process of improvement in the material conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology	0
8307754962	Fair trade	Alternative to international trade that emphasizes small businesses and worker owned and democratically run cooperatives and requires employers to pay workers fair wages, permit union organizing, and comply with minimum environmental and safety standards.	1
8307754963	Foreign direct investment (FDI)	Investment made by a foreign company in the economy of another country	2
8307754964	Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)	Compares the ability of women and men to participate in economic and political decision making.	3
8307754965	Gender-Related Development Index (GDI)	Compares the level of development of women with that of both sexes.	4
8307754966	Gross domestic product (GDP)	The value of the total output of goods and services produced in a country in a given time period (normally 1 year).	5
8307754967	Human Development Index (HDI)	Indicator of level of development for each country, constructed by United Nations, combining income, literacy, education, and life expectancy.	6
8307754968	Less Developed Country (LDC)	A country that is at a relatively early stage in the process of economic development.	7
8307754969	Literacy Rate	The percentage of a country's people who can read and write.	8
8307754970	Millennium Development Goals	Eight international development goals that all members of the United Nations have agreed to achieve by 2015	9
8307754971	More Developed Country (MDC)	A country that has progressed relatively far along a continuum of development.	10
8307754972	Primary sector	The portion of the economy concerned with the direct extraction of materials from Earth's surface, generally through agriculture, although sometimes by mining, fishing, and forestry.	11
8307754973	Productivity	The value of a particular product compared to the amount of labor needed to make it.	12
8307754974	Secondary sector	The portion of the economy concerned with manufacturing useful products through processing, transforming, and assembling raw materials.	13
8307754975	Structural adjustment program	Economic policies imposed on less developed countries by international agencies to create conditions encouraging international trade, such as raising taxes, reducing government spending, controlling inflation, selling publicly owned utilities to private corporations, and charging citizens more for services.	14
8307754976	Tertiary sector	The portion of the economy concerned with transportation, communications, and utilities, sometimes extended to the provision of all goods and services to people in exchange for payment.	15
8307754977	Transnational corporation	A company that conducts research, operates factories, and sells products in many countries, not just where its headquarters or shareholders are located.	16
8307754978	Value added	the gross value of the product minus the costs of raw materials and energy.	17

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AP Econ Unit 3 Flashcards

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8754174954	aggregate demand (AD) curve	a curve that shows how a change in the price level will change aggregate expenditures on all goods and services in an economy	0
8754174955	C, I, G, Nx	shift factors of AD	1
8754174956	short run aggregate supply (SRAS) curve	a curve representing the total output and income of a nation produced at a range of price levels in a particular period of time	2
8754174957	changes in input prices, productivity, government regulations/policies, and import costs	shift factors of supply	3
8754174958	long run aggregate supply (LRAS) curve	a curve that shows the long-run relationship between output and price level	4
8754174959	people will buy more products from a place where the money is less valuable than their money	exchange rates	5
8754174960	fixed-wage/sticky wage period	another name for the short run expressing its relation to wages	6
8754174961	labor market rigidities	why don't wages adjust in the short run?	7
8754174962	minimum wages, labor unions, unemployment benefits	what are the labor market rigidities?	8
8754174963	human capital	training/skill set of the labor force	9
8754174964	wages	what is the largest determinant of SRAS?	10
8754174965	supply/demand shock	any unexpected change in the aggregate supply or demand curve	11
8754174966	recession	If the economy is operating at this point, it is experiencing a ________.	12
8754174967	inflationary gap	the space between AD and AD1 is an ______________ _______	13
8754174968	recessionary gap	the space between AD and AD2 is a ____________ _________	14
8754174969	demand-driven	assume the economy is operatint at the intersection of SRAS and AD2. at this level of output, the economy is experiencing a _________ __________ recession	15
8754174970	cost-push	assume the economy is operating at the intersection of SRAS2 and AD. at this point the economy is experiencing ______ _______ inflation.	16
8754174971	demand-pull	assume the economy is operating at the intersection of AD1 and SRAS. at this point, the economy is experiencing _______ ____ inflation	17
8754174972	stagflation	If the SRAS shifts to the left, then the economy experiences ________________	18
8754174973	change in capital stock, technology, population, human capital, or infrastructure	possible LRAS shifters	19
8754174974	full employment	LRAS is situated at the ______ ____________ level of output	20
8754174975	natural rate of unemployment	the amount of frictional unemployment that exists when the economy is at LRAS	21
8754174976	fiscal policy	government intervention in an economy through spending or taxation	22
8754174977	(decrease taxes or increase spending)	If the AD curve on the graph shifted due to fiscal policy, what did the government do? (two possible answers)	23
8754174978	marginal propensity to consume	the amount of change in income people will consume	24
8754174979	MPC = change in consumption/change in income	formula for MPC	25
8754174980	marginal propensity to save	the amount of change in income that will be saved	26
8754174981	MPS = change in saving/change in income	formula for MPS	27
8754174982	multiplier effect	a change in a component of total spending leads to a larger change in GDP	28
8754174983	multiplier = change in real GDP/initial change in spending	formula for spending multiplier (in relation to GDP and spending)	29
8754174984	multiplier = 1/MPS	formula for spending multiplier (in relation to MPS)	30
8754174985	tax multiplier = (1/MPS)-1	formula for tax multiplier	31
8754174986	$20B	If the economy has a recessionary gap of $100B and a marginal propensity to consume of 0.8, how much money do we need to spend to close the gap?	32
8754174987	MPC, multiplier	The higher the _______, the greater a nation's _________ will be	33
8754174988	expansionary	__________ fiscal policy raises GDP	34
8754174989	contractionary	__________ fiscal policy decreases GDP	35
8754174990	automatic stabilizers	economic stabilizers that happen without any action from Congress	36
8754174991	discretionary stabilizers	purposeful decision/acts of Congress; any law or bill that Congress decides will cause a change in the economy	37
8754174992	unemployment insurance, progressive tax rate	give two examples of automatic stabilizers	38
8754174993	inside lag	the time it takes to recognize a problem and decide what to do; could be months for fiscal policy	39
8754174994	outside lag	the time it takes to implement a policy and have it affect the economy; could be just days for fiscal policy	40
8754174995	deficit	the amount of money the government overspends in one year	41
8754174996	surplus	the government is spending less than the country is making	42
8754174997	AD falls, PL falls, output falls	If consumers become less confident, what will happen to the curves AND the price level & output?	43
8754174998	government	what is the only entity large enough to change the AS/AD graph by itself and purposefully?	44
8754174999	AD falls, PL falls, output falls, unemployment rises	If businesses expect consumer spending to decrease in the future, what will happen to the curves AND price level & output AND unemployment?	45
8754175000	SRAS will increase and bring output back to equilibrium	If AD decreases in the short run, what will happen once wages adjust?	46
8754175001	Wait out the fixed-wage period for supply to readjust because consumers do not have any incentive to increase spending in response to a shortage of supply (barring government intervention)	What is the economy's solution to stagflation and why?	47
8754175002	change in government spending	What has a bigger effect on the economy: change in taxes or change in government spending?	48
8754175003	0.4	Your income changes from $300 to $350 and you increase your spending from $170 to $200. What is your marginal propensity to save?	49
8754175004	interest rate effect	when the price level increases, the interest rate increases and consumption decreases	50
8754175005	net export effect	A change in the price level leads to a change in the relative prices of imports and exports	51
8754175006	real balance effect	as the average price level decreases, the purchasing power of people's cash balances increases. this results in an increase in spending.	52
8754175007	automatic stabilizer	As incomes rise, people pay a larger fraction of their income in taxes. This is an example of a(n) ____________________ ________________.	53
8754175008	discretionary stabilizer	The government decides to cut personal income taxes. This is an example of a(n) _____________ ________________.	54

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AP Psychology Unit 8 Flashcards

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8065266786	Yerkes-Dodson Law	Empirical relationship between arousal and performance, it dictates that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point	0
8065266787	Hierarchy of Needs	Maslow's theory of the most important motivations people have	1
8065266788	Glucose	Leads to insulin release and tells body to stop seeking food centers	2
8065266789	Set Point	The point at which one's body tries maintain weight	3
8065266790	Basal Metabolic Rate	An estimate of how much energy (in calories) the body burns when at rest	4
8065266791	Sexual Response Cycle	Its four stages are excitement, plateau, orgasm and resolution	5
8065266792	Refractory Period	Resting time; occurs in both neuron firing and in human sexual response	6
8065266793	Sexual Dysfunction	Any problem relating to sex that interferes with a person's ability to perform sexually	7
8065266794	Estrogen	One of the sex hormones that is necessary for proper female reproductive functioning as well as the development of secondary female characteristics	8
8065266795	Testosterone	Promotes the growth of male sex organs and other male-specific features	9
8065266796	Emotion	A simple definition of emotion is that it is a response by a whole organism, involving (1) physical arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience	10
8065266797	James-Lange Theory	Emotion in which physiological arousal precedes the emotion	11
8065266798	Cannon-Bard Theory	Emotion that says that a stimulus causes simultaneously physiological arousal and the subjective experience of an emotion	12
8065266799	Two-Factor Theory	States that emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive label	13
8065266800	Polygraph	Often called a "lie detector," is a machine that measures human responses to questions	14
8065266801	Facial Feedback Effect	Facial movement and expressions can influence attitude and emotional experience	15
8065266802	Health Psychology	Focuses on the more medical aspects of psychology and applies psychological principles to healing physical illness and medical problems	16
8065266803	Stress	A reaction to a stimulus that disturbs our physical or mental equilibrium, "Fight or Flight"	17
8065266804	General Adaptation Theory	Seyle's concept that the body responds to stress with alarm, resistance and exhaustion	18
8065266805	Tend and Befriend Response	Prompts humans to protect their own children, other children, people who are hurt or vulnerable, and to join humanitarian-oriented social groups that are intended to reduce human suffering	19
8065266806	Psychophysiological Illness	The brain can create illnesses, which include any stress-related physical illnesses like ulcers, headaches and blood pressure	20
8065266807	psychoneuroimmunology	Area of research that studies the interactions between mind and body and how mental and emotional stress can physically effect how the body works	21
8065266808	Lymphocytes	White blood cells that travel in the blood stream and defend the body from abnormal cells, disease-causing bacteria and viruses	22
8065266809	Coronary Heart Disease	Narrowing of the blood vessels that nourish the heart muscle, thus depriving the heart of the necessary blood to function properly	23
8065266810	Type A	Have a sense of time urgency, find it difficult to relax, and often become impatient and angry when they get delayed	24
8065266811	Type B	Better at relaxing without feeling guilty and working without becoming anxious or agitated	25
8065266812	Abraham Maslow 1908-1970	Person associated with Humanism; Contributions: hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied, self-actualization, transcendence	26
8065266813	William Masters 1957-1990	Male person who pioneered research into the nature of human sexual response and the diagnosis and treatment of sexual dysfunctions and disorders-Worked with Virginia Johnson	27
8065266814	Virginia Johnson 1957-1971	Female person who pioneered research into the nature of human sexual response and the diagnosis and treatment of sexual dysfunctions and disorders- worked with William Masters	28
8065266815	William James 1842-1910	Person assiciated with functionalism; Contributions: studied how humans use perception to function in our environment; Studies: Pragmatism, The Meaning of Truth	29
8065266816	Stanley Schechter 1922-present	Person who had a theory on emotion; Contributions: stated that in order to experience emotions a person must be physically aroused and know the emotion before you experience it	30
8065266817	Hans Selye 1936-1992	Person who did a lot of work on Stress	31

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AP Psychology Unit 5 Flashcards

Advanced Placement Psychology
Enterprise High School, Redding, CA
All terms from Myers Psychology for AP (BFW Worth, 2011)

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6684476942	consciousness	our awareness of ourselves and our environment.	0
6684476943	circadian rhythm	the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.	1
6684476944	REM (rapid eye movement) sleep	rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.	2
6684476945	alpha waves	the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.	3
6684476946	sleep	periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.)	4
6684476947	hallucinations	false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.	5
6684476948	delta waves	the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.	6
6684476949	NREM sleep	non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.	7
6684476950	insomnia	recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.	8
6684476951	narcolepsy	a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.	9
6684476952	sleep apnea	a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.	10
6684476953	night terrors	a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, these occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.	11
6684476954	dream	a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. These are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the person 's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.	12
6684476955	manifest content	according to Freud, the story of the dream.	13
6684476956	latent content	according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).	14
6684476957	REM rebound	the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).	15
6684476958	hypnosis	a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.	16
6684476959	posthypnotic suggestion	a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.	17
6684476960	dissociation	a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.	18
6684476961	psychoactive drug	a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.	19
6684476962	tolerance	the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.	20
6684476963	withdrawal	the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.	21
6684476964	physical dependence	a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.	22
6684476965	psychological dependence	a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions.	23
6684476966	addiction	compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences.	24
6684476967	depressants	drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.	25
6684476968	barbiturates	drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.	26
6684476969	opiates	opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.	27
6684476970	stimulants	drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.	28
6684476971	amphetamines	drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.	29
6684476972	methamphetamines	a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.	30
6684476973	Ecstacy (MDMA)	a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.	31
6684476974	hallucinogens	psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.	32
6684476975	LSD	a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide).	33
6684476976	near-death experiences	an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.	34
6684476977	THC	the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.	35