Flashcards
AP Biology Biotechnology Flashcards
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| 6370473447 | DNA produced by combining DNA from different sources | Recombinant DNA |  | 0 |
| 6370473448 | A form of technology that uses living organisms, usually genes, to modify products, to make or modify plants and animals, or to develop other microorganisms for specific purposes. | Biotechnology |  | 1 |
| 6370473449 | Small rings of DNA found naturally in some bacterial cells in addition to the main bacterial chromosome. Can contain genes for antibiotic resistance, or other "contingency" functions. | Plasmids |  | 2 |
| 6370473450 | The production of multiple copies of a gene. | Gene Cloning |  | 3 |
| 6370473451 | Enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides | Restriction enzymes |  | 4 |
| 6370473452 | A single-stranded end of a double-stranded DNA restriction fragment. | Sticky end |  | 5 |
| 6370473453 | A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain. | DNA Ligase |  | 6 |
| 6370473454 | DNA molecules that can carry foreign DNA into a host cell and replicate there. | Cloning vector |  | 7 |
| 6370473455 | DNA library of only the coding regions of a gene, made from mRNA by reverse transcriptase | Complimentary DNA (cDNA) |  | 8 |
| 6370473456 | A method of producing thousands of copies of DNA segment using the enzyme DNA polymerase | polymerase chain reaction (PCR) |  | 9 |
| 6370473457 | Procedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments by placing a mixture of DNA fragments at one end of a porous gel and applying an electrical voltage to the gel | gel electrophoresis |  | 10 |
| 6370473459 | An enzyme encoded by some viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis. | reverse transcriptase |  | 11 |
| 6370473460 | An individual's unique set of genetic markers, detected most often today by PCR or, previously, by electrophoresis and nucleic acid probes. | Genetic profile |  | 12 |
Ap Government Unit 1 Flashcards
Terms : Hide Images
| 6065261564 | Elite Thoeries | A belief that certain groups hold disproportionate power in a political system | 0 | |
| 6065261565 | Pluralist Theory | A theory of government and politics emphasizing that politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies. Because many groups compete, there is not an elite group that dominates. Compromise is common. | 1 | |
| 6065261566 | Articles of Confederation | 1st Constitution of the U.S. 1781-1788 (weaknesses-no executive, no judicial, no power to tax, no power to regulate trade) Each state retained sovereignty, the ability to act independently of the Confederation. Each state had equal representation in a unicameral (single house) legislature. | 2 | |
| 6065261567 | Shays' rebellion | Rebellion led by farmers in western Massachusetts in 1786-1787, protesting mortgage foreclosures. It highlighted the need for a strong national government just as the call for the Constitutional Convention went out. |  | 3 |
| 6065261568 | Checks and Balances | A system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches in order to prevent abuse of power | 4 | |
| 6065261569 | Separation of powers | A way of dividing the power of government among the legislative, executive, and judicial branch to prevent tyranny. | 5 | |
| 6065261570 | Popular sovereignty | A government in which the people rule by their own consent. | 6 | |
| 6065261571 | Bicameral | A legislature consisting of two parts, or houses with separate rules | 7 | |
| 6065261572 | Federalists | Those who favored a stronger national government and weaker state governments. Supported the ratification of the Constitution. | 8 | |
| 6065261573 | Anti-Federalist | Those who favored strong state governments and a weaker national government. Advocated for a bill of rights to formally address individual and state rights. Concerned about the concentration of power in a central government under the Constitution. | 9 | |
| 6065261574 | Federalism | A system of government in which power and responsibilty is divided between the federal and state governments | 10 | |
| 6065261575 | Supremacy clause | Article VI of the Constitution, which makes the Constitution, national laws, and treaties supreme over state laws when the national government is acting within its constitutional limits. (ex. McCulloch v. Maryland) | 11 | |
| 6065261576 | Virginia Plan | Initial proposal at the Constitutional Convention made by the Virginia delegation for a strong central government with a bicameral legislature dominated by the big states. | 12 | |
| 6065261577 | New Jersey Plan | Proposal at the Constitutional Convention made by William Paterson of New Jersey for a central government with a single-house legislature in which each state would be represented equally. | 13 | |
| 6065261578 | Connecticut or Great Compromise | Compromise agreement by states at the Constitutional Convention for a bicameral legislature with a lower house in which representation would be based on population and an upper house in which each state would have two senators. | 14 | |
| 6065261579 | Republican Democracy | Format chosen by Founding Fathers. People vote for representatives who then make laws. People do not vote directly on legislation. | 15 | |
| 6065261580 | Three fifths clause | slave counted as 3/5 of a person for population counts to determine how many representatives. | 16 | |
| 6065261581 | Federalist Papers | A collection of 85 articles written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison under the name "Publius" to defend the Constitution in detail. | 17 | |
| 6065261582 | Federalist Paper #10 | Written by James Madison to convince people to support the ratification of the constitution. Argued that factions were inevitable but were best controlled by a large republic that employed a Federalist structure. Argued that competition among factions would limit their negative impacts. | 18 | |
| 6065261583 | Bill of Rights | A formal statement of the fundamental rights of the people of the United States, incorporated in the Constitution as Amendments 1-10. Satisfied Anti-federalist concerns. | 19 | |
| 6065261584 | Elastic clause | AKA the "Necessary and Proper Clause" Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, which allows Congress to make all laws that are "necessary and proper" to carry out the powers of the Constitution. Has allowed the federal government to expand its power over time. | 20 | |
| 6065261585 | Commerce clause | The clause in the Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 1) that gives Congress the power to regulate all business activities that cross state lines or affect more than one state or other nations. Has helped the Federal government expand its power over time. | 21 | |
| 6065261586 | Concurrent powers | Powers held jointly by the national and state governments. For example, the powers to tax, pass laws and borrow funds | 22 | |
| 6065261587 | cooperative federalism | A system of government in which powers and policy assignments are shared between states and the national government. | 23 | |
| 6065261588 | Dual Federalism | A system of government in which both the states and the national government remain supreme within their own spheres, each responsible for some policies. | 24 | |
| 6065261589 | Expressed Powers/Enumerated powers | Powers the Constitution specifically granted to one of the branches of the national government. Listed explicitly in the Constitution. Ex: right to coin money, declare war, regulate foreign and interstate trade, tax, etc. | 25 | |
| 6065261590 | Implied powers | Powers not specifically mentioned in the constitution; Powers inferred from the express powers that allow Congress to carry out its functions. Has Constitutional basis in Necessary and Proper/Elastic Clause | 26 | |
| 6065261591 | Inherent powers | powers that exist for the national government because the government is sovereign. Ex: The Louisiana Purchase | 27 | |
| 6065261592 | McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) | The court ruled that the states did not have the power to tax the national bank. Used the backing of the Supremacy Clause to argue that states could not interfere with legitimate federal laws | 28 | |
| 6065261593 | Reserved Powers | belong to the states and the people; Powers not specifically granted to the federal government or denied to the states. Granted by the 10th Amendment. For example, regulating voting and administering elections at the state level. | 29 | |
| 6065261594 | Unitary System | A government that gives all key powers to the national or central government | 30 | |
| 6065261595 | Block grants | Federal money given to the states with limited spending guidelines. Allows the states power to decide how to spend funds within relatively loose guidelines. Ex: funds for transportation and state chooses how to allocate. | 31 | |
| 6065261596 | Categorical Grants | Federal money given to the states with specific spending guidelines. Gives the federal government the power to decide how funds are spent within the state. Ex: funds for highway repairs, cannot be used for other purposes. | 32 | |
| 6065261597 | Devolution Revolution | The transfer of power from a high level political office to a lower level; central government to regional, state, or local governments. Example-Welfare Reform Act of 1996 | 33 | |
| 6065261598 | Gibbons v. Ogden | Commerce clause case (1824). Decision greatly enlarged Congress' interstate commerce clause power by broadly defining the meaning of "commerce" to include virtually all types of economic activity. | 34 | |
| 6065261599 | The 10th Amendment | Reserves powers to the states. Has been used successfully by the states to get the federal courts to strike down federal laws that violate this principle. | 35 | |
| 6065261600 | 1st Amendment | Guarantees many individual rights including the right to expression and freedom of the press, freedom of religion, the right to petition the government, and the right to peaceful assembly. | 36 | |
| 6065261601 | The Motor Voter Law | An example of a mandate, an order given by the federal government that states must follow. | 37 | |
| 6065261602 | The Americans with Disabilities Act | An example of an unfunded mandate, an order given by the federal government that states must follow and pay for | 38 | |
| 6065261603 | Ratification | The Constitutional process by which the states must approve amendments to the Constitution. Three-quarters of the states must approve an amendment before it is ratified and officially becomes part of the Constitution. Another example of federalism in the Constitution's structure. | 39 | |
| 6065261604 | Conditions of Aid | Federal rules attached to the grants that states receive. States must agree to abide by these rules in order to receive the grants. | 40 | |
| 6065261605 | Constitutional Convention | Meeting held in 1787, originally meant to revise the Articles of Confederation but created a new plan of government instead | 41 | |
| 6065261606 | Intrastate commerce | Commerce WITHIN A STATEcommercial activity regulated at the state level | 42 | |
| 6065261607 | Interstate commerce | Commerce between different states, can be regulated by Congress. | 43 | |
| 6065261608 | Welfare Reform Act | An example of devolution, giving states the authority to determine how to implement Welfare Programs and determine eligibility locally. Still use federal money. | 44 | |
| 6065261609 | Political Efficacy | The belief that one's political participation really matters - that one's vote can actually make a difference | 45 | |
| 6065261610 | Political Culture | a set of attitudes and practices held by a people that shapes their political behavior. It includes moral judgments, political myths, beliefs, and ideas about what makes for a good society. | 46 | |
| 6065269350 | Plurality | Winning an election with the most votes, but not necessarily the majority of votes. | 47 | |
| 6065282899 | constituionalism | The Set of arrangements(including checks and balances, federalism, separation of powers, rule o law, due process, and the bill of rights) that require leaders to listen, think, bargain, and explain prior to making laws | 48 | |
| 6065294038 | Statism | Emphasis on the good of the country over the rights of the individual. | 49 | |
| 6065304084 | self-determination (self government) | personal liberty of the people to have popular consent. | 50 | |
| 6065312389 | Three broad Categories for Dividing the Meanings of Democracy | Interacting Values, interrelated political process, and interdependent political structures. | 51 | |
| 6065325229 | L.E.J.S.AP.S.R | Articles of the Constitution 1.Legislative 2.Executive 3.Judicial 4.State relations 5.Amendment Process 6.Supremacy Clause 7. Ratifiation | 52 | |
| 6065340628 | Forms of direct democracy in America | referendum, initiative, direct primaries, recalls, 17th amendment | 53 | |
| 6065367110 | Full Faith and Credit Clause | requires state courts to enforce that civil judgments of the courts of other states and accept their public records and acts as valid. | 54 | |
| 6065376329 | Pragmatist | a person who is guided more by practical considerations than by ideals. Most Americans are pragmatist meaning they are most loyal to which ever level of government will help them out at the time. | 55 |
Flashcards
AP Psychology: Sensation Flashcards
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| 8030192311 | sensation | the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment | 0 | |
| 8030192312 | perception | the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events | 1 | |
| 8030192313 | bottom up processing | analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information | 2 | |
| 8030192314 | top down processing | information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations | 3 | |
| 8030192316 | absolute threshold | the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time; illustrated by our awareness of faint stimuli such as seeing a candle flame atop another mountain 30 miles away or smelling a single drop of perfume in a three-room apartment | 4 | |
| 8030192317 | signal detection theory | a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"); assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue | 5 | |
| 8030192318 | subliminal | below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness | 6 | |
| 8030192319 | priming | the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response | 7 | |
| 8030192320 | difference threshold | the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time; we experience this as a *just noticeable difference* | 8 | |
| 8030192321 | Weber's law | the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) For example, you are more likely to notice the cost of a cheeseburger going from $5 to $6 rather than the price of a car going from $20,000 to $20,001 because the cost of the cheeseburger has a lower difference threshold. | 9 | |
| 8030192322 | sensory adaptation | diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation Ex. Enter a cold pool. Five minutes later you're "used to" the water. | 10 | |
| 8030192323 | transduction | conversion of one form of energy into another; in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret | 11 | |
| 8030192325 | hue | the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, etc. | 12 | |
| 8030192327 | pupil | the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters |  | 13 |
| 8030192328 | iris | a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening |  | 14 |
| 8030192329 | lens | the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina |  | 15 |
| 8030192330 | accommodation | the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina | 16 | |
| 8030192331 | retina | the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information |  | 17 |
| 8030192333 | nearsightedness | a condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina | 18 | |
| 8030192334 | farsightedness | a condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina | 19 | |
| 8030192335 | rods | receptors in the retina that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and night vision, when cones don't respond | 20 | |
| 8030192336 | cones | receptors in the retina that are concentrated near the center of the retina in the fovea, and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; the cones detect fine detail and COLOR | 21 | |
| 8030192337 | optic nerve | the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain | 22 | |
| 8030192338 | blind spot | the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there | 23 | |
| 8030192339 | fovea | the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster |  | 24 |
| 8030192340 | feature detectors | nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement | 25 | |
| 8030192341 | parallel processing | the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions including vision | 26 | |
| 8030192342 | Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory | the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors-- one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue-- which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color | 27 | |
| 8030192343 | opponent process theory | the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision; for example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red (and vice versa) | 28 | |
| 8030192344 | color constancy | perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object | 29 | |
| 8030192345 | audition | the sense or act of hearing | 30 | |
| 8030192347 | pitch | a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency | 31 | |
| 8030192348 | decibel | the measuring unit for sound energy | 32 | |
| 8030192349 | outer ear/Pinna | the visible part of the ear that channels the sound waves through the auditory canal to the eardrum |  | 33 |
| 8030192350 | eardrum | a tight membrane in the inner ear that vibrates with the sound waves |  | 34 |
| 8030192351 | middle ear | the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window |  | 35 |
| 8030192352 | cochlea | a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses |  | 36 |
| 8030192353 | inner ear | the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs |  | 37 |
| 8030192354 | basilar membrane | a structure separating two liquid-filled tubes that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells | 38 | |
| 8030192355 | hair cells | the hairlike sensory receptors for sound, which are embedded in the basilar membrane of the cochlea damage to these accounts for most hearing loss | 39 | |
| 8030192359 | conduction hearing loss | hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea If the eardrum is punctured of if the tiny bones of the middle ear lose their ability to vibrate, the ear's ability to conduct vibrations diminishes. | 40 | |
| 8030192360 | sensorineural hearing loss | hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness causes include: disease, heredity, aging, prolonged exposure, to ear-splitting noise or music | 41 | |
| 8030192361 | cochlear implant | a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea | 42 | |
| 8030192365 | vestibular sense | the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance | 43 | |
| 8030192371 | Gestalt | an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate parts of information into meaningful wholes. Our brain wants to complete images. | 44 | |
| 8036824125 | gate control theory | theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to brain. | 45 |
AP Psych - social psychology Flashcards
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| 7249101476 | Philip Zimbardo | Prison experiment (6 days - the guards became evil and by the end everyone thought it was a real prison), fried grasshopper experiment | 0 | |
| 7249101477 | Solomon Asch | Developed the line test to test for conformity- people conformed 33% of the time | 1 | |
| 7249101478 | Leon Festinger | Proposed the cognitive dissonance theory | 2 | |
| 7249101479 | Stanley Milgram | Student of Asch, shock experiments with the "teacher" and "learner", tested obedience (which varied based on circumstances in each experiment) | 3 | |
| 7249101480 | Social psychology | explore how we think about, influence, and relate to eachother | 4 | |
| 7249101481 | attribution theory | internal disposition or external situations, proposed by Fritz Heider | 5 | |
| 7249101482 | situational attribution | we attribute something to the situation | 6 | |
| 7249101483 | dispositional attribution | we attribute something to our personality | 7 | |
| 7249101484 | fundamental attribution error | we overestimate the influence of personality | 8 | |
| 7249101485 | actor-observer effect | seeing the world from the actor's perception we better appreciate the situation, how we view thing from the outside or n the actor's view | 9 | |
| 7249101486 | self-serving bias | we like to skew our perceptions to make ourselves seem better, like attributing good things to ourselves and bad to the situation | 10 | |
| 7249101487 | central route persuasion | people are analytical and involved with the problem, giving facts, demonstrating, etc. (focus on arguments and respond with favorable thoughts), less superficial | 11 | |
| 7249101488 | peripheral route persuasion | people respond to incidental cues, attractiveness, celebrity endorsement, etc. (faster judgements) | 12 | |
| 7249101489 | foot-in-the-door phenomenon | people agree to a small action and then are more likely to agree to a larger one -Cialdini | 13 | |
| 7249101490 | familiarity effect | being familiar/ recognizing with something and thus being affected by it | 14 | |
| 7249101491 | validity effect | you hear about something often and thus believe it more (ex: I've heard it a lot, so it's probably true) | 15 | |
| 7249101492 | role | the set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave | 16 | |
| 7249101493 | cognitive dissonance theory | when we know our attitudes and actions don't match -Festinger | 17 | |
| 7249101494 | conformity | adjusting behavior and thinking toward a group standard, Chartrand studied the chameleon effect where humans copycat and Asch developed the line test | 18 | |
| 7249101495 | normative social influence | we understand social norms because the price for being different is severe, influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval | 19 | |
| 7249101496 | informational social influence | influence resulting from willingness to accept others' opinions about reality | 20 | |
| 7249101497 | social facilitation | people perform better when competing against others- only in simple tasks. For harder ones, people performed worse when being watched. | 21 | |
| 7249101498 | social loafing | tendency for people to work less in a group | 22 | |
| 7249101499 | deindividuation | abandoning normal restraints to power of group, loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity (ex: KKK, riots, food fights, tribal masks, etc.) | 23 | |
| 7249101500 | group polarization | amplification of group's prevailing tendencies- terrorism! | 24 | |
| 7249101501 | Groupthink | to preserve good feelings dissents are self-censored, desire for harmony in a group- Janis came up with this | 25 | |
| 7249101502 | culture norm | rules for accepted and expected behavior | 26 | |
| 7249101503 | personal space | body buffer zone! (personal bubble please) | 27 | |
| 7249101504 | Prejudice | prejudgement (the attitude, not the action) | 28 | |
| 7249101505 | Stereotype | a trait commonly associated with a type of person (ex: dumb blondes), rationalize inequalities | 29 | |
| 7249101506 | ethnocentrism | people believe their own race is best | 30 | |
| 7249101507 | contact hypothesis | interaction/ contact can help people accept each other | 31 | |
| 7249101508 | discrimination | predisposition to action (the prejudiced beliefs may influence such acts) | 32 | |
| 7249101509 | implicit and explicit attitudes | internal and external attitudes (what we really feel vs. what we show or say on the outside) | 33 | |
| 7249101510 | Implicit Association Test | test what people associate other people with (ex: black names = violence) | 34 | |
| 7249101511 | Ingroup | us | 35 | |
| 7249101512 | Outgroup | them | 36 | |
| 7249101513 | ingroup bias | people like their own group best | 37 | |
| 7249101514 | scapegoat theory | finding someone to blame releases tension | 38 | |
| 7249101515 | other-race effect | tendency to recognize your own race more accurately | 39 | |
| 7249101516 | social identity | we associate ourselves with certain groups and contrast ourselves with others | 40 | |
| 7249101517 | ethnic identity | we associate ourselves with a certain ethnicity and contrast ourselves with others (?) | 41 | |
| 7249101518 | just-world phenomenon | Good behavior is rewarded and bad behavior is punished, believe that other people get what they deserve | 42 | |
| 7249101519 | blaming the victim | people think that the victim is partly to blame for their situation | 43 | |
| 7249101520 | aggression | any physical/verbal behavior intended to destroy | 44 | |
| 7249101521 | frustration-aggression principle | frustration creates anger which may create aggression | 45 | |
| 7249101522 | mere-exposure effect | the more you are around someone or something the more you like it or them | 46 | |
| 7249101523 | passionate love | physical arousal and cognitive appraisal, temporary, beginning of a love relationship | 47 | |
| 7249101524 | companionate love | deep affectionate attachment, comes after passionate stage | 48 | |
| 7249101525 | equity | both partners receive in proportion to what they give | 49 | |
| 7249101526 | self-disclosure | revealing intimate details about ourselves | 50 | |
| 7249101527 | altruism | unselfish regard for welfare of others | 51 | |
| 7249101528 | bystander effect | when more people share the responsibility to help, any single observer is less likely to help | 52 | |
| 7249101529 | diffusion of responsibility | bystander effect, people feel less responsible when in the presence of others | 53 | |
| 7249101530 | social exchange theory | maximize reward and minimize cost | 54 | |
| 7249101531 | reciprocity norm | we help others who have helped us - expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them | 55 | |
| 7249101532 | social-responsibility norm | we help others who need our help, expectation that people will help those dependent upon them | 56 | |
| 7249101533 | conflict | perceived incompatibility of actions, goals or ideas | 57 | |
| 7249101534 | self-fulfilling prophecy | influence makes you act so that it comes true (Ex: You think he hates you, so you act coldly to him. He is offended and thus does hate you) | 58 | |
| 7249101535 | superordinate goals | goals that bring people together to cooperate | 59 | |
| 7249101536 | attitude | feelings that influence our thoughts, actions, etc. | 60 | |
| 7249101537 | Social Psychology | the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. |  | 61 |
| 7249101538 | Attribution Theory | the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition. |  | 62 |
| 7249101539 | Fundamental Attribution Error | the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. |  | 63 |
| 7249101540 | Attitude | feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events. |  | 64 |
| 7249101541 | Central Route Persuasion | attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. |  | 65 |
| 7249101542 | Peripheral Route Persuasion | attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness. |  | 66 |
| 7249101543 | Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon | the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. |  | 67 |
| 7249101544 | Role | a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. |  | 68 |
| 7249101545 | Cognitive Dissonance Theory | the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting discomfort by changing our attitudes. |  | 69 |
| 7249101546 | Conformity | adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. |  | 70 |
| 7249101547 | Normative Social Influence | influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. |  | 71 |
| 7249101548 | Informational Social Influence | influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality. |  | 72 |
| 7249101549 | Social Facilitation | stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. |  | 73 |
| 7249101550 | Social Loafing | the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable. |  | 74 |
| 7249101551 | Deindividuation | the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. |  | 75 |
| 7249101552 | Group Polarization | the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group. |  | 76 |
| 7249101553 | Groupthink | the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. |  | 77 |
| 7249101554 | Culture | the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next |  | 78 |
| 7249101555 | Norm | an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. They prescribe "proper" behavior. |  | 79 |
| 7249101556 | Personal Space | the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies. |  | 80 |
| 7249101557 | Prejudice | an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. It generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action. |  | 81 |
| 7249101558 | Stereotype | a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people. |  | 82 |
| 7249101559 | Discrimination | (Social) unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members. |  | 83 |
| 7249101560 | Ingroup | "Us"—people with whom we share a common identity. |  | 84 |
| 7249101561 | Outgroup | "Them"—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup. |  | 85 |
| 7249101562 | Ingroup Bias | the tendency to favor our own group. |  | 86 |
| 7249101563 | Scapegoat Theory | the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame. |  | 87 |
| 7249101564 | Other-Race Effect | the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias |  | 88 |
| 7249101565 | Just-World Phenomenon | the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. |  | 89 |
| 7249101566 | Aggression | physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone. |  | 90 |
| 7249101567 | Frustration-Aggression Principle | the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression. |  | 91 |
| 7249101568 | Mere Exposure Effect | the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them. |  | 92 |
| 7249101569 | Passionate Love | an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship. |  | 93 |
| 7249101570 | Companionate Love | the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined. |  | 94 |
| 7249101571 | Equity | a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it. |  | 95 |
| 7249101572 | Self-Disclosure | revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others. |  | 96 |
| 7249101573 | Altruism | unselfish regard for the welfare of others. |  | 97 |
| 7249101574 | Bystander Effect | the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present. |  | 98 |
| 7249101575 | Social Exchange Theory | the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. |  | 99 |
| 7249101576 | Reciprocity Norm | an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. |  | 100 |
| 7249101577 | Social-Responsibility Norm | an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them. |  | 101 |
| 7249101578 | Conflict | a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. |  | 102 |
| 7249101579 | Social Trap | a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. |  | 103 |
| 7249101580 | Mirror-Image Perceptions | mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive. |  | 104 |
| 7249101581 | Self Fulfilling Prophecy | a belief that leads to its own fulfillment |  | 105 |
| 7249101582 | Superordinate Goals | shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation. |  | 106 |
| 7249101583 | Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction (GRIT) | Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction—a strategy designed to decrease international tensions. |  | 107 |
| 7249101584 | Diffusion of Responsibility | reduction in feelings of personal burden in the presence of others |  | 108 |
| 7249101585 | Ethnocentricism | evaluation of other cultures according to the standards and customs of one's own culture |  | 109 |
| 7249101586 | Compliance | Conforming to a request or demand |  | 110 |
Ap Government Unit 1 Flashcards
Terms : Hide Images
| 6004559928 | Elite Thoeries | A belief that certain groups hold disproportionate power in a political system | 0 | |
| 6004559929 | Pluralist Theory | A theory of government and politics emphasizing that politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies. Because many groups compete, there is not an elite group that dominates. Compromise is common. | 1 | |
| 6004559930 | Articles of Confederation | 1st Constitution of the U.S. 1781-1788 (weaknesses-no executive, no judicial, no power to tax, no power to regulate trade) Each state retained sovereignty, the ability to act independently of the Confederation. Each state had equal representation in a unicameral (single house) legislature. | 2 | |
| 6004559931 | Shays' rebellion | Rebellion led by farmers in western Massachusetts in 1786-1787, protesting mortgage foreclosures. It highlighted the need for a strong national government just as the call for the Constitutional Convention went out. | | 3 |
| 6004559932 | Checks and Balances | A system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches in order to prevent abuse of power | 4 | |
| 6004559933 | Separation of powers | A way of dividing the power of government among the legislative, executive, and judicial branch to prevent tyranny. | 5 | |
| 6004559934 | Popular sovereignty | A government in which the people rule by their own consent. | 6 | |
| 6004559935 | Bicameral | A legislature consisting of two parts, or houses with separate rules | 7 | |
| 6004559936 | Federalists | Those who favored a stronger national government and weaker state governments. Supported the ratification of the Constitution. | 8 | |
| 6004559937 | Anti-Federalist | Those who favored strong state governments and a weaker national government. Advocated for a bill of rights to formally address individual and state rights. Concerned about the concentration of power in a central government under the Constitution. | 9 | |
| 6004559938 | Federalism | A system of government in which power and responsibilty is divided between the federal and state governments | 10 | |
| 6004559939 | Supremacy clause | Article VI of the Constitution, which makes the Constitution, national laws, and treaties supreme over state laws when the national government is acting within its constitutional limits. (ex. McCulloch v. Maryland) | 11 | |
| 6004559940 | Virginia Plan | Initial proposal at the Constitutional Convention made by the Virginia delegation for a strong central government with a bicameral legislature dominated by the big states. | 12 | |
| 6004559941 | New Jersey Plan | Proposal at the Constitutional Convention made by William Paterson of New Jersey for a central government with a single-house legislature in which each state would be represented equally. | 13 | |
| 6004559942 | Connecticut or Great Compromise | Compromise agreement by states at the Constitutional Convention for a bicameral legislature with a lower house in which representation would be based on population and an upper house in which each state would have two senators. | 14 | |
| 6004559943 | Republican Democracy | Format chosen by Founding Fathers. People vote for representatives who then make laws. People do not vote directly on legislation. | 15 | |
| 6004559944 | Three fifths clause | slave counted as 3/5 of a person for population counts to determine how many representatives. | 16 | |
| 6004559945 | Federalist Papers | A collection of 85 articles written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison under the name "Publius" to defend the Constitution in detail. | 17 | |
| 6004559946 | Federalist Paper #10 | Written by James Madison to convince people to support the ratification of the constitution. Argued that factions were inevitable but were best controlled by a large republic that employed a Federalist structure. Argued that competition among factions would limit their negative impacts. | 18 | |
| 6004559947 | Bill of Rights | A formal statement of the fundamental rights of the people of the United States, incorporated in the Constitution as Amendments 1-10. Satisfied Anti-federalist concerns. | 19 | |
| 6004559948 | Elastic clause | AKA the "Necessary and Proper Clause" Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, which allows Congress to make all laws that are "necessary and proper" to carry out the powers of the Constitution. Has allowed the federal government to expand its power over time. | 20 | |
| 6004559949 | Commerce clause | The clause in the Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 1) that gives Congress the power to regulate all business activities that cross state lines or affect more than one state or other nations. Has helped the Federal government expand its power over time. | 21 | |
| 6004559950 | Concurrent powers | Powers held jointly by the national and state governments. For example, the powers to tax, pass laws and borrow funds | 22 | |
| 6004559951 | cooperative federalism | A system of government in which powers and policy assignments are shared between states and the national government. | 23 | |
| 6004559952 | Dual Federalism | A system of government in which both the states and the national government remain supreme within their own spheres, each responsible for some policies. | 24 | |
| 6004559953 | Expressed Powers/Enumerated powers | Powers the Constitution specifically granted to one of the branches of the national government. Listed explicitly in the Constitution. Ex: right to coin money, declare war, regulate foreign and interstate trade, tax, etc. | 25 | |
| 6004559954 | Implied powers | Powers not specifically mentioned in the constitution; Powers inferred from the express powers that allow Congress to carry out its functions. Has Constitutional basis in Necessary and Proper/Elastic Clause | 26 | |
| 6004559955 | Inherent powers | powers that exist for the national government because the government is sovereign. Ex: The Louisiana Purchase | 27 | |
| 6004559956 | McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) | The court ruled that the states did not have the power to tax the national bank. Used the backing of the Supremacy Clause to argue that states could not interfere with legitimate federal laws | 28 | |
| 6004559957 | Reserved Powers | belong to the states and the people; Powers not specifically granted to the federal government or denied to the states. Granted by the 10th Amendment. For example, regulating voting and administering elections at the state level. | 29 | |
| 6004559958 | Unitary System | A government that gives all key powers to the national or central government | 30 | |
| 6004559959 | Block grants | Federal money given to the states with limited spending guidelines. Allows the states power to decide how to spend funds within relatively loose guidelines. Ex: funds for transportation and state chooses how to allocate. | 31 | |
| 6004559960 | Categorical Grants | Federal money given to the states with specific spending guidelines. Gives the federal government the power to decide how funds are spent within the state. Ex: funds for highway repairs, cannot be used for other purposes. | 32 | |
| 6004559961 | Devolution | The transfer of power from a high level political office to a lower level; central government to regional, state, or local governments. Example-Welfare Reform Act of 1996 | 33 | |
| 6004559962 | Gibbons v. Ogden | Commerce clause case (1824). Decision greatly enlarged Congress' interstate commerce clause power by broadly defining the meaning of "commerce" to include virtually all types of economic activity. | 34 | |
| 6004559963 | The 10th Amendment | Reserves powers to the states. Has been used successfully by the states to get the federal courts to strike down federal laws that violate this principle. | 35 | |
| 6004559964 | 1st Amendment | Guarantees many individual rights including the right to expression and freedom of the press, freedom of religion, the right to petition the government, and the right to peaceful assembly. | 36 | |
| 6004559965 | The Motor Voter Law | An example of a mandate, an order given by the federal government that states must follow. | 37 | |
| 6004559966 | The Americans with Disabilities Act | An example of an unfunded mandate, an order given by the federal government that states must follow and pay for | 38 | |
| 6004559967 | Ratification | The Constitutional process by which the states must approve amendments to the Constitution. Three-quarters of the states must approve an amendment before it is ratified and officially becomes part of the Constitution. Another example of federalism in the Constitution's structure. | 39 | |
| 6004559968 | Conditions of Aid | Federal rules attached to the grants that states receive. States must agree to abide by these rules in order to receive the grants. | 40 | |
| 6004559969 | Constitutional Convention | Meeting held in 1787, originally meant to revise the Articles of Confederation but created a new plan of government instead | 41 | |
| 6004559970 | Intrastate commerce | Commerce WITHIN A STATEcommercial activity regulated at the state level | 42 | |
| 6004559971 | Interstate commerce | Commerce between different states, can be regulated by Congress. | 43 | |
| 6004559972 | Welfare Reform Act | An example of devolution, giving states the authority to determine how to implement Welfare Programs and determine eligibility locally. Still use federal money. | 44 | |
| 6004559973 | Political Efficacy | The belief that one's political participation really matters - that one's vote can actually make a difference | 45 | |
| 6004559974 | Political Culture | a set of attitudes and practices held by a people that shapes their political behavior. It includes moral judgments, political myths, beliefs, and ideas about what makes for a good society. | 46 |
AP Biology Ecology Flashcards
Terms : Hide Images
| 8064790999 | Population | a localized group of individuals of the same species that can interbreed, producing fertile offspring | 0 | |
| 8064791000 | Community | all the organisms that inhabit a particular area; as assemblage of populations of different species living close enough together for potential interaction | 1 | |
| 8064791001 | Ecosystem | all the organisms in a given area as well as the abiotic factors with which they interact | 2 | |
| 8064791002 | Biotic | pertaining to the living organisms in the environment | 3 | |
| 8064791003 | Abiotic | nonliving; referring to physical and chemical properties of an environment | 4 | |
| 8064791004 | Biosphere | the entire portion of earth inhabited by life; the sum of all the planet's ecosystems | 5 | |
| 8064791005 | Niche | the sum of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources in its environment | 6 | |
| 8064791006 | Clumped Distribution | individual aggregated patches, some organisms group together where food is abundant | 7 | |
| 8064791007 | Uniform Distribution | evenly spaced, some organisms maintain evenly distributed spacing to avoid aggressive interactions between neighbors | 8 | |
| 8064791008 | Random Distribution | unpredictable spacing, some plants grow in random groups if their seeds were windblown across an area | 9 | |
| 8064791009 | Population Ecology | the study of populations in relation to their environment, including environmental influences on populations, on population density and distribution, age structure, and variations in population size | 10 | |
| 8064791010 | Birth Rate | rate of annual birth within a population | 11 | |
| 8064791011 | Death Rate | rate of annual death within a population | 12 | |
| 8064791012 | Sex Ratio | ratio of females to males within a population | 13 | |
| 8064791013 | Age Structure | the relative number of individuals of each age in a population | 14 | |
| 8064791014 | Immigration Rate | the rate of influx of new individuals INTO a population from other areas | 15 | |
| 8064791015 | Emigration Rate | the rate of movement of individuals OUT of a population | 16 | |
| 8064791016 | Carrying Capacity | the maximum population size that can be supported by the available resources, (symbolized by K) | 17 | |
| 8064791017 | Density Dependent | any characteristic that varies according to an increase in population density | 18 | |
| 8064791018 | Exponential Growth | growth of a population in an ideal, unlimited environment, (represented by a J-Shaped curve when population size is plotted over time) | 19 | |
| 8064791019 | Logistical Growth | population growth that levels off as population size approaches carrying capacity | 20 | |
| 8064791020 | K-Selected | stabilize around carrying capacity, have fewer offspring later in life, mature later, live longer and invest more parental care | 21 | |
| 8064791021 | R-Selected | reside in unstable environment, have many offspring early in life, mature earlier, shorter life span, no parental care | 22 | |
| 8064791022 | Survivorship Curve | the plot of the proportion or numbers in a cohort still alive at each age | 23 | |
| 8064791023 | Type I Surivorship Curve | low death rates during early/middle life then increase among older age groups (humans) | 24 | |
| 8064791024 | Type II Surviorship Curve | constant death rate over the organism's life span | 25 | |
| 8064791025 | Type III Surviorship Curve | very high death rates for the young and then declines for those few individuals that survive the early period (insects) | 26 | |
| 8064791026 | Symbiosis | an ecological relationship between organisms of two different species that live together in direct and intimate contact | 27 | |
| 8064791027 | Commensalism | a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits but the other is neither helped nor harmed | 28 | |
| 8064791028 | Mutualism | a symbiotic relationship in which both participants benefit | 29 | |
| 8064791029 | Parasitism | a symbiotic relationship in which one organism (the parasite) benefits at the expense of another (the host) by living either within or on its host | 30 | |
| 8064791030 | Intraspecific Competition | interactions between the same species competing for resources | 31 | |
| 8064791031 | Interspecific Competition | competition for resources between individuals of two or more species when resources are in short supply | 32 | |
| 8064791032 | Predation | an interaction between species in which one species (the predator) eats the other (the prey) | 33 | |
| 8064791033 | Aposematic Coloration | the bright coloration of animals with effective physical or chemical defenses that acts as a warning to predators | 34 | |
| 8064791034 | Batesian Mimicry | a type of mimicry in which a harmless species look like a species that is poisonous or harmful to predators | 35 | |
| 8064791035 | Cryptic Coloration | camouflage that makes a potential prey difficult to spot against its background | 36 | |
| 8064791036 | Mullerian Mimicry | a mutual mimicry by two unpalatable species | 37 | |
| 8064791037 | Pioneer Species | the first species to colonize previously disrupted or damaged ecosystems, beginning a chain of ecological succession that ultimately leads to a more biodiverse steady-state ecosystem | 38 | |
| 8064791038 | Climax Community | in a community of organisms in a specific area there is one state of equilibrium controlled solely by climate | 39 | |
| 8064791039 | Succession | the process by which the structure of a biological community evolves over time | 40 | |
| 8064791040 | Primary Succession | a type of ecological succession that occurs in an area where there were originally no organisms present and where soil has not yet formed | 41 | |
| 8064791041 | Secondary Succession | a type of succession that occurs where an existing community has been cleared by some disturbance that leaves the soil or substance intact | 42 | |
| 8064791042 | Photoautotrophs | an organism that harnesses light energy to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from Carbon Dioxide (CO2) | 43 | |
| 8064791043 | Chemoautotrophs | an organism that needs only CO2 as a carbon source but obtains energy by oxidizing inorganic substances | 44 | |
| 8064791044 | Herbivore | an animal that eats mainly plants or algae | 45 | |
| 8064791045 | Carnivore | an animal that mainly eats other animals | 46 | |
| 8064791046 | Detritivore | a consumer that derives its energy and nutrients from nonliving organic material such as corpses, fallen plant material, and the wastes of living organism (a decomposer) | 47 | |
| 8064791047 | Food Chain | the pathway along which food energy is transferred from trophic level to trophic level, beginning with producers | 48 | |
| 8064791048 | Food Web | the interconnected feeding relationships in an ecosystem | 49 | |
| 8064791049 | Trophic Levels | the positions organisms occupy in a food chain |  | 50 |
| 8064791050 | Secondary Consumer | a carnivore that eats herbivores | 51 | |
| 8064791051 | Primary Consumer | a herbivore; an organism that eats plants or other autotrophs | 52 | |
| 8064791052 | Biogeochemical Cycles | any of the various chemical cycles, which involve both biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems | 53 | |
| 8064791053 | Carbon Cycle | forming the framework of organic molecules, photosynthesis & cellular respiration circulate this nutrient | 54 | |
| 8064791054 | Phosphorus Cycle | cycling of this nutrient through geologic processes such as erosion and sedimentation | 55 | |
| 8064791055 | Nitrogen Cycle | this nutrient is converted to compounds that can be assimilated by plants then returned in gas form to the atmosphere; all processes rely on bacteria | 56 | |
| 8064791056 | Nitrogen Fixation | the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia | 57 | |
| 8064791057 | Denitrification | process where bacteria use nitrates in their metabolism instead of oxygen releasing nitrogen gas then into the atmosphere | 58 | |
| 8064791059 | Age Structure Diagrams | a visual representation of the relative number of individuals of each age in a population | 59 | |
| 8064791060 | Competitive Exclusion Principle | the concept that when populations of two similar species compete for the same limited resources, one population will use the resources more efficiently and have a reproductive advantage that will eventually lead to the elimination of the other population | 60 | |
| 8064791061 | Resource Partitioning | the division of environmental resources by coexisting species such that the niche of each species differs by one or more significant factors from the niches of all the coexisting species | 61 | |
| 8064791063 | Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) | the total primary production of an ecosystem | 62 | |
| 8064791064 | Net Primary Productivity (NPP) | the gross primary production of an ecosystem minus the energy used by the producers for respiration | 63 | |
| 8064791065 | Keystone Species | a species that is not necessarily abundant in a community yet experts strong control on community structure by the nature of its ecological role or niche | 64 | |
| 8064791068 | Biological Magnification | a process in which retained substances become more concentrated at each high trophic level in a food chain | 65 | |
| 8064791069 | Decomposers | organisms that absorb nutrients from nonliving organic material such as corpses, fallen plant material, the wastes of living organisms and converts them into inorganic forms; a detritivore | 66 | |
| 8064791070 | Eutrophication | a process by which nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, become highly concentrated in a body of water, leading to increased growth of organisms such as algae or cyanobacteria | 67 | |
| 8064791071 | Fundamental Niche | the niche potentially occupied by that species | 68 | |
| 8064791072 | Realized Niche | the portion of the fundamental niche that a species actually occupies in the environment | 69 | |
| 8064791073 | Invasive Species | a species often introduced by humans, that takes hold outside its native range | 70 | |
| 8064791074 | Altruism | behavior that increases fitness of another individual but decreases their own fitness | 71 | |
| 8064791075 | Kin selection | enhancing the reproductive success of one's relatives | 72 | |
| 8064791076 | Nitrification | ammonia is converted to nitrates and nitrites | 73 | |
| 8064791077 | Ammonification | decomposers convert organic nitrogen to ammonia | 74 | |
| 8064791078 | Classical conditioning | association between neutral stimulus and natural response (ex: dogs salivating to sound of bell ringing) | 75 | |
| 8064791079 | Operant conditioning | trial and error learning; making associations between behavior and a reward or punishment | 76 | |
| 8064791080 | Communication | tactile, visual, auditory and chemical means of relaying messages to other members of ones species | 77 | |
| 8064791081 | Taxis | directed movement towards or away from a stimulus | 78 | |
| 8064791082 | Kinesis | movement in response to a stimulus that is not directional | 79 | |
| 8064791083 | Fixed Action Pattern | a sequence of unlearned actions that are unchangable and often carried to completion | 80 | |
| 8064791084 | Density dependent factor | factor that affects population based on size (disease, predation etc) | 81 | |
| 8064791085 | Density independent factor | factor that affect population regardless of size (weather, humans etc) | 82 | |
| 8064791086 | Species diversity | variety of organisms in a community | 83 |
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