| 2124996446 | Warring States | Time of disunity for China (403-221 B.C.E.); many independent states adopted Legalist philosophies as
the basis for their rule.
Legalism helped the State of Qin to gain control and unify China.
Development of three significant schools of thought -Confucianism, Legalism, Daoism. This period is
also referred to as the Hundred Schools of Thought. | | 0 |
| 2124997696 | Olmecs | Olmecs (means "rubber people") are named after trees from the region in which they flourished.
Authoritarian rule led to the creation of extensive public work projects, including altars, temples, pyramids, and tombs.
Famous sculpture: gigantic human heads. | | 1 |
| 2124999145 | Mayan Civilization | Society located in present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador; classical Maya ruled from c. 300-900 C.E.
Terrace farming was developed to capture rainwater and silt to increase soil fertility and hence agricultural production: cotton, maize, cacao.
Achievements: elaborate system of writing, accurate calendar (365.242 days), and the concept of zero.
Solar year (365 days) set agricultural patterns, ritual year (260 days) set daily activities and divided the
year into 13 months with 20 days each. | | 2 |
| 2125002097 | Mayan Culture | Built eighty large ceremonial centers, which included pyramids, palaces, and temples; large centers included Palenque, Chichén Itzá, and Tikal, the latter with a population of approximately 40,000 people and the Temple of the Jaguar.
Approximately 800 C.E. people abandoned their cities, possibly as a result of civil war, internal divisions, invasions, or natural disasters. | | 3 |
| 2125002976 | Teotihuacán | City built in central Mexico because of the abundant supplies of fish; developed agriculture by 500 B.C.E., rapid expansion after 200 B.C.E.
At height (approximately 400-600 C.E.) 200,000 people.
Two most important monuments: colossal pyramids of the sun and the moon. | | 4 |
| 2125004307 | Achaemenid Empire | Included the Medes and the Persians, both people of sizable military power and equestrian skills,
Cyrus, an Achaemenid (reigned 558-530 B.C.E.), founded Persian imperial empire - at height, it spread from India to the borders of Egypt.
Darius (reigned 521-486 B.C.E.), younger kinsmen of Cyrus, extended the empire from the Indus River in the east to the Aegean Sea in the west, from Armenia in the north to the fist waterfall of the Nile River in the south.
Darius was more important as an administrator than a conqueror because of the size of the empire he managed. He also established a new capital, Persepolis, which became the center of the Persian Empire. | | 5 |
| 2125004796 | Achaemenid Administration | Government relied on a balance between central administration and locally appointed governors.
Darius divided the empire into twenty-three satrapies - administrative and taxation districts governed by satraps - in which he regularized tax levies and standardized laws (he did not push direct rule on the subjects).
To ensure local provinces did not become too powerful, each satrapy was assigned a group of military officers and tax collectors who checked the satrap's power and independence; imperial spies, trained as watchdogs for the king, conducted surprise audits.
Darius built extensive roads: Persian Royal Road (1,600 miles) -from Ephesus on the Aegean to Sardis in Anatolia to Susa in Iran-facilitated trade.
Organized a courier service and built postal stations approximately every 25-30 miles the Royal Road. | | 6 |
| 2125005150 | Persian Wars | Fought between Greeks and Achaemenids (500-479 B.C.E.) - led to demise of the empire; began when Ionian Greeks cities revolted against their governors.
Greeks believed the Persians were uncivilized.
Herodotus (born c. 484 B.C.E.), the great source of knowledge of the history of the wars.
Persian use if unlimited manpower and resources earned then the reputation as one of the greatest militaries in history.
Delian League (led by Athens) formed to discourage future Persian aggression.
Darius put down rebellions and reasserted Achaemenid power but ultimately lost to the Athenian army of 10,000 men at Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.E.). | | 7 |
| 2125006557 | Society in Classical Persia | In the cities the free classes include priests, priestesses, artisans, craftsmen, merchants, and low-ranking civil servants.
Women worked in textile production and received rations of wine, beer, and sometimes meant for their labor.
Slaves were acquired through one of two sources: prisoners of war or civilians who tried to rebel against the imperial government. Either way, slave status deprived individual of personal freedom. | | 8 |
| 2125009279 | Government in Classical Persia | Sophisticated government led to the development of a new class of educated bureaucrats who played an important role in the daily affairs of the empire.
State owned slaves provided labor for large-scale construction projects: roads, irrigation systems,
city walls, and palaces | | 9 |
| 2125010032 | Economics of Classical Persia | Agriculture was the foundation of the Persian economy-surpluses were necessary to support military
forces, government administrators, and residents in the cities
Empire controlled fertile land in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, and northern India
Imperial court consumed almost 800,000 liters of grain per year, in addition to vegetables, fruits,
meat, poultry, fish, oil, beer, wine, and textiles
Persian Royal Road and sea routes through the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Arabian Sea assisted in
trade throughout the empire
Markets in large cities, such as Babylon, also housed banks and companies that invested capital in
commercial ventures | | 10 |
| 2125015389 | Zoroastrianism | A religion based on the teachings of Zarathustra, who left his family at the age of twenty in search of wisdom; after ten years he proclaimed that visions revealed to him the supreme god, who he called Ahura Mazda ("wise lord"); this supreme being had chosen him to be his prophet and spread his
message
Major belief: the material world is a blessing; teachings of Ahura Mazda allow enjoyment of everything the world has to offer (wealth, sexual pleasure, and social status)-but in moderation
Influence of Zoroastrian religion can be found in Judaism and Christianity; for example, the concept of good and evil and the concept of Heaven and Hell as reward or punishment | | 11 |
| 2125018130 | Confucius | Lived in China during the Warring States period and sought to restore order to China
A strong-willed man, he often disagreed with the Chinese government
Left province of Lu in search of a chance at promotion, traveled for ten years; returned fruitless and died five years later
An educator and a political adviser
Students recorded his teachings in the Analects, which has had a large impact on Chinese government and culture
Believed in five constant relationships-between ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, and friend and friend. Each person in the relationship had a responsibility to the other; one was superior and the other inferior | | 12 |
| 2125018571 | Confucianism | One of the major philosophies that emerged from the Hundred Schools of Thought, it attempts to create social order through loyalty and respect
Does not address philosophical or religious questions or the structure of the state. Just wanted to end the Warring States period by finding a balance
The best way to promote good government is to hire people who are well-educated and conscientious-focused on the formation of Junzi ("superior individuals"); Junzi looks at public affairs from many different angles with unclouded judgment and, thereby, would be able to bring order and
stability to society
According to Confucius, Junzi possessed personal qualities such as ren, li, and xiao
Ren- courteousness, respectfulness, diligence, loyalty; li-a sense of propriety, traditionally appropriate behavior; and xiao-filial piety, respect by children for parents and other elders
Learning was important, but Confucius also stressed the importance of moral integrity and fair judgment | | 13 |
| 2125026749 | Daoism | Daoism came up with an alternative solution to end the Warring States period-contrary to Confucian beliefs, Daoists reflected on natural principles that govern the world to achieve harmony with nature
Central concept; dao ("the way" or "the way of nature" or "the way of the cosmos")-like water, it is soft yet can also erode the strongest rocks
Humans should stop trying to achieve personal goals and live very simply in order to achieve harmony with nature
Wuwei: Important moral trait whereby people remove themselves from worldly affairs-translates in political affairs as "less is more"
Ideal societal structure would consist of tiny, self-sufficient communities | | 14 |
| 2125047362 | Legalism | One of the major philosophies that emerged from the Hundred Schools of Thought during the Warring States period
Based on the goal of expanding and strengthening the state at all costs-it is described as ruthless and efficient
Strict laws with harsh punishments lessen the number and severity of crimes
Notable people: Shang Yang (contributor to The Book of Lord Shang) and Han Feizi
Government strength lies in its agriculture and military-therefore, these two areas demand the highest number of recruits; government should discourage other career paths (merchants, educators, poets, philosophers)
Community has a collective responsibility for the law-people should watch each other closely
Used by the Qin dynasty, led by Shi Huangdi, to end Warring States period | | 15 |
| 2125048465 | Qin Dynasty | Used Legalist philosophy to restore order and stability to China and end the Warring States period
Gave peasants land rights to farm remote territories, a practice that weakened traditional social hierarchy
Centralized bureaucracy ruled the state
Qin empire expands, attacking one province at a time and unifying China
Great achievements: standardized weights and measures, scriptwriting
Short-lived because of strict laws and harsh punishments | | 16 |
| 2125049433 | Shi Huangdi | Self-proclaimed "first emperor" of China-reigned fourteen years; established centralized rule through large-scale political organization
Central bureaucracy-run fro capital at Xianyang-was divided into administrative provinces and districts, each headed by and officer appointed by the emperor
To centralize power, disarmed local military forces; built roads to enhance and expedite communication and movement of armies; standardized laws, currencies, weights and measures, and Chinese script; and built defensive walls, including linking sections of the Great Wall
Executed anyone who criticized his regime-burned 460 Confucian scholars alive for their critical comments
Forced millions of laborers to work on public works projects, including palaces, roads, bridges, irrigation systems, defensive walls, and a tomb for himself | | 17 |
| 2125054797 | Early Han Dynasty | Claiming the "mandate of heaven," Liu Bang centralized rule using persistence and methodical
planning; started the longest lasting Chinese dynasty-the Han (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.)
Emperors ruled from Chang'an, with its imperial palace, busy markets, and parks
Han Wudi, the "martial emperor," ruled the Han from 141 to 87 B.E.C. with two goals: to centralize
governmental power and to expand the empire. He used Legalist principles as the guidelines for his
government
Wudi appointed imperial officers in provinces to enforce laws and levy taxes on agriculture, trade,
and craft industries
Demand for Chinese silk in India, Persia, Mesopotamia, and the Roman Empire led to development
of trade routes (the silk roads)
Wudi exercised tremendous government control over the building of roads and canals to increase
trade and communication. Government also controlled production of essential goods: iron, salt, and
liquor | | 18 |
| 2125056723 | Emperor Wudi | Han emperor who had a problem recruiting qualified people for government posts because there
was no uniform system of public education
Established an imperial university to educate government officials in 124 B.C.E
Although the government was based on Legalists principles, the university focused its instruction on
Confucianism out of necessity-it was the only Chinese belief system developed enough to establish a
curriculum
Enrollment began at 3,000 students and rode to more than 30,000 students during the later Han
Dynasty
Policy of imperial expansion led to invasions of northern Vietnam and Korea (which then had to pay
tribute to Han China) and battles with the Xiongnu, nomads from Asia
The Han conquered everyone they challenged | | 19 |
| 2125057500 | Later Han Dynasty | Separated from the former Han, as a result of a temporary loss of power from 9 to 23 C.E., the later
Han lasted from 25 to 220 C.E.
Moved capital from Chang'an east to Luoyang.
Ignoring the problem of inequitable land distribution led to increased banditry and rebellions led by
disgruntled peasants.
In the Yellow Turban uprising (rebels wore yellow headgear), government used the military to
suppress rebellions but the collective efforts of peasants weakened the Han dynasty- factions
developed in courts that affected the central government.
This internal weakness led to the downfall of the empire, which was divided into several large
kingdoms. | | 20 |
| 2125062276 | Fall of Han Dynasty | Divisions within the ruling elite limited the effectiveness of the government, leading to its collapse.
Issues: land distribution, private armies, unrest, and economic decline.
Rise in epidemics in late 2ndand early 3rd centuries led to the Yellow Turban Rebellion (rebels' yellow turbans represented their peasants status and their ties to the earth).
Dynasty formally ended in 220 C.E.
Invasion led to the final fall of the dynasty | | 21 |
| 2125068548 | Mauryan Dynasty | Flourished during the late 320s B.C.E, when Chandragupta Maurya took over and laid the foundations for a centralized, unified government that included all of India from the Indus to the Ganges rivers.
Ashoka (ruled 268-232 B.C.E) conquered the kingdom of Kalinga through bloody battles, uniting the entire subcontinent; better known as a governor than a conqueror.
Ashoka built irrigation systems for agriculture, constructed roads for trade and travel, supported Buddhism, and encouraged religious tolerance.
Ashoka's death led to decline of empire. | | 22 |
| 2125071546 | Gupta Dynasty | Chandra Gupta laid foundations for empire by making alliances with powerful families in the Ganges; he conquered many, while others chose to form tributary alliances with the Guptas.
Government, both policy and administration, was left to the locals; Gupta did not impose uniform laws; brought stability and prosperity.
Decline caused by invasions by the White Huns (nomadic people from central Asia)- dynasty continued in name only. | | 23 |
| 2125074610 | Jainism | Indian belief system popularized by Vardhamana Maharvira ('the great hero"). Disciples referred to Mahavira as Jina ("the conqueror") and called themselves Jains.
Practiced ahmisa- nonviolence to living things or their souls (belief later impacted Hinduism and Buddhism). Extremists swept ground as they walked to avoid harming insects (souls).
Not practical, but attractive- because if all living things possessed a soul, there should not be rigid social classes (belief especially popular among lower classes). | | 24 |
| 2125078861 | Buddhism | About 537 B.C.E Siddhartha Gautama, a Hindu of the Kshatriyan caste, left his family to live as a holy man.
After meditating 49 days under the bo tree, said he understood the problem of suffering and how to eliminate it; became the Buddha ('the enlightened one").
Dharma is the principle of law that orders the universe according to the teachings and methods of the Buddha.
Four Noble Truths: nothing is permanent; all of life involves suffering; desire causes suffering- eliminate desire and you will eliminate suffering. Follow the Eightfold Path, the fourth Noble Truth: right belief, right resolve, right speech, right behavior, right occupation, right effort, right
contemplation, right meditation.
Goal: to achieve Nirvana (a state of spiritual independence).
Appealed to lower castes because it de-emphasized class distinctions.
Cultural diffusion responsible for spread of ideas- in Japan developed into Zen Buddhism; in China, Mahayan Buddhism; in northern India, Theravedic Buddhism. | | 25 |
| 2125080730 | Hinduism | Worlds' oldest organized religion, originated in India.
Spoke to needs and interests of average people.
Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord"), a brief poem composed by many unidentified authors, outlines what Hinduism expects of individuals and the path to salvation.
Salvation is achieved by individuals who meet responsibilities by obeying laws of their caste, not material success.
Hindu ethics: dharma- righteousness (obey religious and moral laws), artha-wealth (to uphold dharma and provide for family and society), kama- desire (take pleasure in social, physical, and sexual activities), moksha- salvation of the soul.
A person in reincarnated on the basis of behavior into one of four castes (and later a fifth, untouchables).
Limited spread beyond India. | | 26 |
| 2125082624 | Mycenaeans | Language combined Greek and Minoan.
Built impressive stone fortresses and palaces. Palaces dominated Mycenaean cities, as was the case in Minoan Crete (Palace of Knossos); however, their design tended to be more centripetal and individualistic than those of the Minoans which were more centrifugal. By 1200 B.C.E., the great
citadels possessed impressive fortifications. Most likely a king ruled over a small area from each palace.
Their conflict with Troy was presented by Homer in the Iliad. | | 27 |
| 2125084008 | Polis | A Greek word meaning a city, city-states, and body of citizens.
Attracted large populations because it offered safety; became center of trade.
Levied taxes; took farming surplus from countryside to feed inhabitants.
Political models could include, but were not limited to, monarchies and tyrannical rulers. | | 28 |
| 2125084651 | Sparta | A city-state in classical Greece- conquered neighbors and forced them into servitude.
Helots-bound to land; role-to provide food; outnumbered Spartans ten to one.
Spartans were characteristically simple, frugal, and austere.
Known for military talent; from age seven all boys lived in barracks and trained; served in military at age 20.
Women exercised regularly- physical fitness was associated with bearing strong children. | | 29 |
| 2125087331 | Athens | A city-state in classical Greece whose government was based on democratic principles. However, only free male adults could participate in government.
Debt forced many poor farmers into slavery; gap between rich and poor widened. Aristocrat Solon became a great mediator between the classes: aristocrats kept land, canceled debts, and forbade debt slavery for poor.
Pericles encouraged democracy, public works, and the development of science, philosophy, poetry, and the arts.
World's first democracy (women and slaves, however, could not vote- only approximately 40,000 of the 450,000 inhabitants of the polis were eligible to vote); had a great impact on the development of later governments. | | 30 |
| 2125090690 | Macedonian Empire | Supplied Greeks with grain, timber, and natural resources in exchange for olives, wine, and finished products.
Alexander led an army of approximately 37,000 to invade the Persian Empire.
By 331 B.C.E, Alexander controlled Ionia, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Mesopotamia.
When Alexander died, the empire was divided among his top three generals. | | 31 |
| 2125091792 | Hellenistic Empire | The period during the reign of Alexander the Great and the subsequent division into three large states is known as the Hellenistic age (after Greece, or Hellas).
Greek culture spread to areas from Greece to India and affected them politically, socially, and economically.
Egypt (under Ptolemy), the wealthiest of the colonies, maintained organized agriculture (irrigation0, industry, tax collection.
Capital of empire, Alexandria, with a pivotal location on the Mediterranean, could harbor 1,200 ships; home of world's largest library.
The Hellenistic Empire was built on the former Persian Empire (led by Seleucus), impressive because of its size - reaching to the Indus River -its common law and trade practices, and its culture. | | 32 |
| 2125093159 | Olympics | Most famous of Pan-Hellenic festivals.
Trade between Greek poleis (cities; see card #58) fostered a stronger sense of community and shared (gods, language, and games).
Different areas, including Crete, claimed they were responsible for the inception of the games, but the first written records of the games were from 776 B.C.E. All parts of Greece sent their best athletes to compete in contests of speed, strength, skill.
Events included foot races, long jump, boxing, wrestling, javelin tossing, and discus throwing; they took place every four years for more than 100 years and then disappeared.
Winners received olive wreaths at the games and hero status at home. | | 33 |
| 2125099070 | Greek Philosophy: Socrates | Socrates developed a method of questioning aimed at exposing ethic and morality through a series of increasingly difficulty questions; his student Plato recorded his thoughts in a series of writings called dialogues.
Socrates suggested that honor was more important than wealth and fame and stressed the importance of personal integrity: "The unexamined life is not worth living."
Charged with encouraging immorality, Socrates was tried by Athenian citizens in 399 B.C.E. He was sentenced to death and chose to drink hemlock, a poison. | | 34 |
| 2125101356 | Greek Philosophy: Plato | Plato believed that everything was based on ideal forms, or ideas. In reality, definitions were not absolute because virtue, honesty, courage, truth, and beauty all meant different things in different situations.
Had an impact on the development of the Republic of Rome.
Aristotle, a disciple of Plate (teacher of Aristotle), rejected the theory of forms and ideas; he believed people could depend on their senses and the reason to answer the mysteries of the world.
Taught Alexander the Great, a Macedon. | | 35 |
| 2125103521 | Hellenistic Philosophies (I) | Epicureans suggested that individual needs could be met through reflection.
Epicureans said pleasure is greatest good; they defined as an inner peace that could protect them from the world's pressures. | | 36 |
| 2125106414 | Hellenistis Philosophies (II) | Skeptics doubted the existence of absolute certain knowledge and so did not espouse strong political, social, or moral beliefs. They taught that people should abandon their search for certain answers and find an inner peace.
Stoics believed human beings were part of a universal family; people must help each other through difficulties and deal with stress and anxiety by finding inner peace. | | 37 |
| 2125107446 | Roman Republic | Republic- a form of government whose head of state is usually a president
In 509 B.C.E, an aristocratic republic replaced the Roman monarchy; built Roman forum, a political and civic center housing temples and public buildings for government business
A republican constitution gave executive (civil and military) duties and power to two consuls elected for one-year terms by an assembly dominated by the aristocracy (patricians); a senate dominated the decision-making process
Tension developed as interests of the lower class (plebeians) were not represented. This led to the development of tribunes (consisting of officials elected by plebeians), which had the right to intervene in all political affairs and veto unjust laws.
During time of civil or military crisis, a dictator was appointed with absolute power for a six-month term to restore peace and stability- elongating the viability of the republic | | 38 |
| 2125110041 | Rome: From Republic to Empire | 87 B.C.E: invasion and subsequent occupation of Rome led by Marius until his death
Sulla took over, labeling state enemies and encouraging slaughter ; civil war and a reign of terror ensued, which lasted five years and resulted in over 10,000 deaths
Sulla died in 78 BCE and left as his legacy a conservative legislature that weakened the power of the lower classes and returned power to the wealthy
Latifunda- land conquered by the Roman Empire, controlled by wealthy elites, and organized into plantations- increased tensions between rich and poor | | 39 |
| 2125111064 | Julius Caesar | Named himself dictator of the Roman Empire (for life, not six months as was the past precedent)
Sought to build a sense of community in Rome after civil war; spent large sums of money on gladiators, huge armies, and large-scale building projects employed Roman citizens; extended Roman citizenship to outreaches of empire (Gaul); and consolidated government
Aristocratic conspirators, upset by loss of power and wealth, plotted to execute Caesar in 44 BCE in an attempt to restore the republic. Thirteen years of civil conflict followed
Octavian (later called Augustus) defeated Mark Anthony and became sole ruler. He ruled as an emperor while retaining republican forms | | 40 |
| 2125112124 | Expansion of Roman Empire | During the republic, the empire included Italy, Greece, Syria, Gaul, most of the Iberian Peninsula, and outposts in North Africa and Anatolia; Augustus added most of southwestern Europe and most of North Africa and increased control in Anatolia and southwestern Asia; at its height, the empire included Britain and all of the land surrounding the northern and southern coast of the Mediterranean from Iberia to Mesopotamia
As Roman soldiers, diplomats, governors, and merchants settled throughout the empire, Roman culture spread, encouraging the development of local politics and economies; cities such as Paris, Lyons, Cologne, Mainz, London, Toledo, and Segovia sprang up
Augustus' rule brought up a period known as the pax romana (Roman Peace), which lasted for two and a half centuries and allowed the empire to experience a golden age. | | 41 |
| 2125119122 | Roman Roads | Roman engineers developed an intricate process for building roads-they prepared a deep bed, edged roads with curbs, provided for drainage, and topped roads with large flat paving stones
Main roads were 20 to 26 feet wide-allowing for two-way traffic; narrow roads through mountains were on average 6 to 10 feet wide to enable trade, travel and military passage
Milestones were placed along the road to facilitate the imperial postal system
Linked in all parts of the empire: one highway stretched over 1554 miles connected the Black Sea to the North Sea: another stretched over 2983 miles and ran parallel to the coast of North Africa, with many run-offs to transport supplies, goods, and soldiers father into Africa
Linked with the Silk Roads to create an intricate trade network, Roman roads connected western Europe to the Far East | | 42 |
| 2125121806 | Roman Law | Roman law was first recorded c. 450 B.C.E. The Twelve Tables were meant to provide a standardized system of law throughout the early empire
Jurists worked together to standardize interpretations of the laws and develop a definition of justice
Established basic rights of defendants: They were innocent until proven guilty and could challenge their accusers in court
Power ultimately rested in the hands of the judge, who had the authority to set aside laws deemed to be unfair | | 43 |
| 2125125369 | Trade in the Mediterranean | Grain from latifundia in North Africa, Egypt, and Sicily supported large cities in the empire and was also used for trade with Greece (for olives and vines) and with Syria and Palestine (for fruits, nuts, and wool fabrics); trade facilitated crop specialization throughout the climatically diverse empire
The sea supported trade from the ports in Syria and Palestine to Spain and North Africa
The Roman army and navy kept the seas safe for transportation of goods- Romans called the Mediterranean mare nostrum (our sea)
Merchants were also responsible for promoting cultural diffusion and a sense of community throughout the empire | | 44 |
| 2125130145 | Jesus | Jewish prophet and teacher whose major teachings were proper worship of God and love for fellow man
His message "The kingdom of God is at hand" challenged Roman civic life because it did not allow for worship of Roman gods
After the Crucifixion, devotion to Jesus grew rapidly; he was called the Christ (Greek for Messiah, or "the anointed one"), and his followers were called Christians | | 45 |
| 2125132605 | Early Christianity | Generally defined as the time between the crucifixion of Jesus (c. 30 C.E) and the First Council of Nicaea ( 325 C.E)
Christians would not worship Roman gods
Worshipped a single God
Appealed to the lower classes (urban dweller and women)
Encouraged men and women to lead faithful lives that would, in turn, lead to there salvation. | | 46 |
| 2125135295 | Silk Roads | Trade route that connected the Han and Roman Empires in classical times
Facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and disease
Southeastern Asia, China, and India traded silk and spices west to consumers in central Asia, Iran, Arabia, and the Roman Empire
Spices were important because they had numerous purposes (food preservation, flavoring, and pharmaceutical)
Central Asia traded horses, jade, and magic potions west
Following the fall of the Han and Roman Empires, the route was revived in post-classical times, first by the Tang and Song and later by the Mongols | | 47 |
| 2125136136 | Fall of Roman Empire | Problems: internal opposition, power struggle (26 people claimed the throne in just 50 years), generals struggled for power and died violently; empire was simply too large, epidemics
Diocletian dived the empire into two districts: eastern (Anatolia, Syria, Egypt, and Greece) and western (Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and North Africa)
Germans, migrating from the north, attacked the western half; especially powerful were the Visigoths
Hun invasions, led by Attila, pressured other Germanic tribes to invade: Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Franks
In 476 C.E., a German general defeated the last Roman emperor | | 48 |
| 2125137594 | Germanic Invasions | Ended imperial Roman power in western Europe by 476 C.E.; power later shifts to Byzantium in the east
Nomadic Germanic tribes-Visigoths, Huns (led by Attila), Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Franks- encountered little effective resistance
Controlled the western half of the Roman empire: Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and North Africa
Led to decentralized rule and to the establishment of the feudal system | | 49 |
| 2125145936 | Early Byzantine Empire | Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity in 313 C.E. He then relocated the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople in east because the eastern Mediterranean was wealthier and the move allowed him to spy on enemies in the east
With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the eastern half became known as the Byzantine Empire and included lands in Greece, the Balkans, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and northeastern Africa
The young empire boasted roads and communication systems
Emperors were above the law, claiming divine rights
Emperors used political power to sway public opinion regarding religious issues | | 50 |
| 2125148818 | Justinian's Code | Justinian (reigned 527-565 C.E.) was a very important emperor during the early Byzantine Empire; his wife, Theodora, advised him on political, religious, and diplomatic issues
Great public works built, including the Hagia Sophia, a cathedral that became a mosque following the Ottoman Turks' conquest of Constantinople; exemplified architecture past and present
After a systematic review of all laws of the republic, Justinian codified Roman law, keeping legal principles of ancient Rome
Published Corpus iuris civilis (Body of the Civil Law)
Justinian's Code has remained an inspiration for civil law codes | | 51 |
| 2125151160 | Byzantine Economy and Society | Lower Danube region was the breadbasket of the empire
Byzantine government prevented wealthy classes from seizing peasants' lands. The wealthy could buy exemptions from taxes
Craftsmen were highly respected for their handiwork in the areas of glassware, gems, jewelry (including gold and silver), and mosaics (used to decorate churches)
Agricultural gems- Hagia Sophia (first a church, later a mosque)
Byzantine government recognized the importance of the silk industry (a trade borrowed from the Chinese) and, subsequently, closely supervised silk production and sale
Trade was very important to the empire as a direct result of its location; merchants were especially respected | | 52 |
| 2125151785 | Legacy of Classical Greece | Greek replaced Latin as the official language of the Byzantine Empire
Modeled after Greece's, the empire's government-organized school system offered basic reading, writing, and grammar, followed by classical Greek literature, philosophy, and science, providing an educated workforce for the bureaucracy
Byzantine scholars, like the Greeks, focused on literature, history, and philosophy; their legacy was the preservation of Greek culture
Byzantine preservation of Greek culture was transmitted back to western Europe during the Crusades | | 53 |
| 2125153566 | Fall of Byzantine Empire | Turks invaded from the east and conquered Constantinople (later remained Istanbul) in 1453
In 1071, the Byzantines lost most of Anatolia (their breadbasket), which led to their ultimate demise (they had no food source) | | 54 |
| 2125156113 | Byzantium and Russia | Russia created several trading centers, including Kiev along the Dnieper River
In 989 C.E., Prince Vladimir of Kiev converted to Orthodox Christianity as a result of his exposure to Byzantium; his subjects followed
Other Byzantine influences included the Cyrillic alphabet, writing, codified laws, and art and architecture (for example, onion domes)
After Constantinople fell, Russia named Moscow the world's third Rome-insinuating that they had inherited the imperial power, as the Byzantines had inherited it from the Romans
Center of Orthodox Christianity shifts northward from Constantinople to Moscow | | 55 |
| 2125156567 | Long Distance Trade | Specialized labor and efficient means of transportation encouraged trade between groups such as the Mesopotamians and the Egyptians as early as 3500 B.C.E
Sumerians, who needed natural resources, traded regularly with the Harappan society by 2300 B.C.E
Sumerians shipped woolen textiles, leather goods, sesame oil, and jewelry to India in exchange for copper, ivory, pearls, and semiprecious stones
Egyptian pharaohs imported cedar, a sign of wealth, for tombs | | 56 |
| 2125159873 | Spread of Epidemic Diseases | Smallpox and measles were the most pervasive; bubonic plague also broke out
Problem: epidemics devastated communities because they had no immunities and no medicines to fight against them
Smallpox devastated the Roman Empire-reduced population by approximately one-quarter during the 2nd century B.C.E.
The bubonic plague or Black Death, started in China and spread to Europe along trade routes in the early 1330s. it killed an estimated 25 million people, or one-third of Europe's population
Epidemics led to social change; trade declined, and people learned to be self-sufficient | | 57 |
| 2125163485 | Lateen Sails | A triangular-shaped sail that improved upon the traditional square sail
By the 500s C.E., the lateen sails had extensively replaced the square sail
The sail was easily maneuverable due to its ability to "catch" wind on the sides, as well as from behind
It can be traced to the early Roman Empire and was used in the Mediterranean Sea
Knowledge of the sail spread to Southeast Asia and India in the 100s C.E.; the sail was used in Indian Ocean basin trade
This technology played a key role in European exploration | | 58 |
| 2125166117 | Sternpost Rudder | A rudder is used to steer a ship
The Chinese mounted rudders on the sterns of their boats beginning in the 1st century C.E.
The sue of the sternpost rudder spread across the Indian Ocean
Europeans began to use the sternpost rudder in the 1100s (C.E.)
This technology played a key role in European exploration | | 59 |
| 2125167345 | Dhows | Sailing vessels with lateen sails
Lateen sails were used on the ships and were most often made of palm leaves or cotton
Origin is hard to date, but records of their construction exist in the Roman Empire
These boats were used extensively by Arab sailors in the Arabian Sea and later, during the post-classical era, in the Indian Ocean by India, Arab, and Persian sailors; helped spread Islam
They functioned as both cargo and passenger ships were constructed of sewn planks | | 60 |
| 2125173989 | Magnetic Compass | A navigational tool that determines direction; the magnetic compass does this by using the magnetic poles of Earth
Its origin is hard to date, but it is certainly a Chinese invention that was in wide use during the time of the Song dynasty (960 C.E.-1279 C.E.)
The Chinese used a magnetic needle floating in water
Knowledge of the compass spread from China across the Indian Ocean; used by Arab and Persian sailors in the 100s (C.E.)
Europeans began using the magnetic compass in the 1100s (C.E.)
This technology played a key role in European exploration | | 61 |
| 2125175167 | Muhammed | About 610 C.E., Muhammad had a transformational spiritual experience and traveled through the Arabian Peninsula proclaiming that he was the last prophet of Allah
He believed in one God (Allah)
Allah's words were given to Muhammad and collected by his followers and compiled in the Qur'an
The Hadith, a record of the sayings attributed to Muhammad ad accounts of the prophet's deeds, serves as a guide for interpretation of the Qur'an and for social and legal customs; the Hadith lays out the concepts of the five pillars, tenets central to Islam
Muhammad's journey to Mecca became a symbolic starting point of the official Islamic calendar and a religious pilgrimage for the followers of Islam
He was the last prophet; both Moses and Jesus were considered prophets before him | | 62 |
