| 6220844782 | Developmental Psychology | a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. |  | 0 |
| 6220844783 | Zygote | the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo. |  | 1 |
| 6220844784 | Embryo | the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month. |  | 2 |
| 6220844785 | Fetus | the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. |  | 3 |
| 6220844786 | Teratogens | agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. |  | 4 |
| 6220844787 | Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) | physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions. |  | 5 |
| 6220844788 | Habituation | decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. |  | 6 |
| 6220844789 | Maturation | biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience. |  | 7 |
| 6220844790 | Cognition | all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. |  | 8 |
| 6220844791 | Schema | a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. |  | 9 |
| 6220844792 | Assimilation | interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas. | | 10 |
| 6220844793 | Accommodation | Development - adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. | | 11 |
| 6220844794 | Sensorimotor Stage | in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. |  | 12 |
| 6220844795 | Object Permanence | the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived. |  | 13 |
| 6220844796 | Preoperational Stage | in Piaget's theory, the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. | | 14 |
| 6220844797 | Conservation | the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects. |  | 15 |
| 6220844798 | Egocentrism | in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view. |  | 16 |
| 6220844799 | Theory of Mind | people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. |  | 17 |
| 6220844800 | Concrete Operational Stage | in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. | | 18 |
| 6220844801 | Formal Operational Stage | in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts. | | 19 |
| 6220844802 | Autism | a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind. |  | 20 |
| 6220844803 | Stranger Anxiety | the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age. |  | 21 |
| 6220844804 | Attachment | an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation. |  | 22 |
| 6220844805 | Critical Period | an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development. |  | 23 |
| 6220844806 | Imprinting | the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. |  | 24 |
| 6220844807 | Temperament | a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. |  | 25 |
| 6220844808 | Basic Trust | according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers. |  | 26 |
| 6220844809 | Self-Concept | all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" |  | 27 |
| 6220844810 | Gender | in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female. |  | 28 |
| 6220844811 | Aggression | physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone. |  | 29 |
| 6220844812 | X Chromosome | the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two of these; males have one. One chromosome from each parent produces a female child. |  | 30 |
| 6220844813 | Y Chromosome | the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child. | | 31 |
| 6220844814 | Testosterone | the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional levels in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty. |  | 32 |
| 6220844815 | Role | a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. |  | 33 |
| 6220844816 | Gender Role | a set of expected behaviors for males or for females. |  | 34 |
| 6220844817 | Gender Identity | our sense of being male or female. |  | 35 |
| 6220844818 | Gender Typing | the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role. |  | 36 |
| 6220844819 | Social Learning Theory | the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished. |  | 37 |
| 6220844820 | Adolescence | the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. |  | 38 |
| 6220844821 | Puberty | the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing. |  | 39 |
| 6220844822 | Primary Sex Characteristics | the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible. |  | 40 |
| 6220844823 | Secondary Sex Characteristics | nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair. |  | 41 |
| 6220844824 | Menarche | the first menstrual period. |  | 42 |
| 6220844825 | Identity | our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles. |  | 43 |
| 6220844826 | Social Identity | the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships. |  | 44 |
| 6220844827 | Intimacy | in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood. |  | 45 |
| 6220844828 | Emerging Adulthood | for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood. |  | 46 |
| 6220844829 | Menopause | the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines. |  | 47 |
| 6220844830 | Cross-Sectional Study | a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another. |  | 48 |
| 6220844831 | Longitudinal Study | research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period. |  | 49 |
| 6220844832 | Crystallized Intelligence | our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age. |  | 50 |
| 6220844833 | Fluid Intelligence | our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood. | | 51 |
| 6220844834 | Social Clock | the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. |  | 52 |
| 6220844835 | Ivan Pavlov | Contribution: developed the theory of "classical conditioning" while working with dogs
Significance: Father of Classical Conditioning |  | 53 |
| 6220844836 | Classical Conditioning | Learning that takes place when two or more stimuli are paired together
UCS = UCR; NS + UCS = UCR; & CS = CR |  | 54 |
| 6220844837 | Unconditioned Stimulus | Part of Classical Conditioning
It is the stimulus that triggers a natural reflexive response.
Pavlov's Dogs: "Meat"
Little Albert: "Loud noise" | | 55 |
| 6220844838 | Conditioned Stimulus | Part of Classical Conditioning
It initially has no effect but after conditioning, it triggers a natural reflexive response.
Pavlov's Dogs: It was the "Bell"
Little Albert: "White Mouse" | | 56 |
| 6220844839 | Extinction | Classical Conditioning: The disappearance of a behavior because CS no longer paired with the UCS
Operant Conditioning: The disappearance of a behavior because it is no longer reinforced or punished | | 57 |
| 6220844840 | Spontaneous Recovery | Classical Conditioning: When a previous CR returns after it has been extinguished
Operant Conditioning: Occurs when a response begins again after extinction | | 58 |
| 6220844841 | Stimulus Generalization | Classical Conditioning: When the NS and the CS are different. (Example: Little Albert being afraid of any thing that is white and furry)
Operant Conditioning: When a reinforced/punished behavior occurs in a setting/situation where it was NOT learned (Example: Not cursing at home or at school) | | 59 |
| 6220844842 | Stimulus Discrimination | Classical Conditioning: When the NS and the CS are the same (Example: Little Albert being afraid of a white mouse)
Operant Conditioning: When a reinforced/punished behavior occurs in a setting/situation where it was learned (Example: Cursing only at home because it is acceptable but not at school) |  | 60 |
| 6220844843 | Higher Order Conditioning | When the first CS is paired with a second CS
The second CS is presented briefly before the first CS | | 61 |
| 6220844844 | Taste Aversions | Psychologist: Garcia
Defined: If you ingest an unusual food or drink and then become nauseous, you will probably develop an aversion to the food or drink.
Significance: Violates the acquisition principles of classical conditioning | | 62 |
| 6220844845 | Operant conditioning | Defined: Learning is based on the association of one's behavior and its consequences. Consequences are reinforced or punished
Example: You choose to break curfew based on the consequences |  | 63 |
| 6220844846 | Law of Effect | Psychologist: Edward Thorndike
Defined: if a behavior results in a satisfying consequence, it will likely be repeated whereas; if a behavior results in a unsatisfying consequence, it will NOT likely be repeated
Example: If you complement your mother and she lets you stay out past curfew, you will complement her again | | 64 |
| 6220844847 | B.F. Skinner | Contributions: Invented the Operant chamber, aka his ________ box, to use in his research of animal learning.
Significance: Father & Developer of Operant Conditioing |  | 65 |
| 6220844848 | Positive Reinforcement | Part of Operant Conditioning
Adding something to increase the likelihood of a behavior occuring again
Example: Receiving $5 for every "A" in high school |  | 66 |
| 6220844849 | Negative Reinforcement | Part of Operant Conditioning
Increasing the likelihood of a behavior occurring again by removing a negative stimuli
Example: Taking aspirin to relieve a headache | | 67 |
| 6220844850 | Positive Punishment | Part of Operant Conditioning
Adding something to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again
Example: Spanking and yelling |  | 68 |
| 6220844851 | Negative Punishment | Part of Operant Conditioning
Removing something to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again
Example: Grounding |  | 69 |
| 6220844852 | Shaping | Part of Operant Conditioning
Positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desird behavior to teach a new behavior | | 70 |
| 6220844853 | Primary Reinforcers | Reinforcers that are rewarding such as food, water, rest, whose natural properties are reinforcing. | | 71 |
| 6220844854 | Secondary Reinforcers | Defined: Reinforcers that are rewarding because we learned that are reinforcing.
Example: praise, money, the chance to play video games. |  | 72 |
| 6220844855 | Fixed-Ratio Schedule | Defined: schedule of reinforcement after a set number of responses.
Example: Being paid for every 10 pizzas made | | 73 |
| 6220844856 | Variable-Ratio Schedule | Defined: schedule of reinforcement after a varying number of responses.
Example: playing a slot machine | | 74 |
| 6220844857 | Fixed-Interval Schedule | Defined: schedule of reinforcement after a fixed amount of time has passed
Example: cramming for an exam | | 75 |
| 6220844858 | Variable-Interval Schedule | Defined: schedule of reinforcement after varying amounts of time
Example: pop (surprise) quizzes in class | | 76 |
| 6220844859 | Instinctive Drift | Defined: when animals revert to instinctive behaviors rather than the operantly conditioned behaviors
Examples: Rats will not walk backward, chickens won't hit a ball and run to first base, and pigs won't put wooden dollars into a piggy bank | | 77 |
| 6220844860 | Observational Learning | Defined: learn by watching others
Example: BoBo Doll Study | | 78 |
| 6220844861 | Latent Learning | Defined: Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Example: Tolman's rats would only complete the maze if there was cheese for them at the end of the maze | | 79 |
| 6220844862 | Insight Learning | Defined: suddenly knowing the solution to the problem
Example: When taking a test and the previous answer comes to you without effort | | 80 |
| 6220844863 | Acquisition of Classical Conditioning | Frequency: the more often the CS and the US are paired together
Timing: the CS is presented a half a second before the US | | 81 |
| 6220844864 | Biological Preparedness | Defined: humans and animals have predisposed fears that help us survive
Examples; Phobia of heights keeps us away from danger | | 82 |
| 6220844865 | Unconditioned Response | Part of Classical Conditioning
It is the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the stimulus
Pavlov's Dogs: It was the "Salivating to the Meat"
Little Albert: "Screaming at the Loud Noise" | | 83 |
| 6220844866 | Associative Learning | Defined: learn by putting together two events
Example: Expect to hear thunder after viewing lightening | | 84 |
| 6220844867 | Habituation | Defined: An organisms decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it
Example: Your parents yell at you a lot and eventually you tune out their yelling | | 85 |
| 6220844868 | Watson | Contribution: applies Classical Conditioning to Humans through the "Little Albert" Experiment
Significance: Creates "Behaviorism" Theory |  | 86 |
| 6220844869 | Thorndike | Contribution: studied cats in puzzle boxes and recorded their behaviors
Significance: Creates "Law of Effect" theory |  | 87 |
| 6220844870 | Bandura | Contribution: Studied how children mimic others behaviors and repeat that same behavior
Significance: Creates "Observational Learning" Theory |  | 88 |
| 6220844871 | Garcia | Contribution: Demonstrated the significance of biological processes in classical conditioning
Significance: Creates "Taste Aversions" theory | | 89 |
| 6220844872 | Seligman | Contribution: Used dogs to demonstrates the significance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning
Significance: Creates "Learned Helplessness" theory | | 90 |
| 6220844873 | Tolman | Contribution: demonstrated the significance of cognitive processes in operant conditioning by studying rats in mazes
Significance: Creates the "Latent Learning" theory | | 91 |
| 6220844874 | Bretlands | Contribution: demonstrated the significance of biological/instinctive processes in operant conditioning by studying a variety of animals
Significance: Creates the "Instinctive Drift" theory | | 92 |
| 6220844875 | Pavlov's Dogs | First experiment that created and demonstrate the theory of classical conditioning | | 93 |
| 6220844876 | Little Albert | First experiment to demonstrate how emotions can be classically conditioned in humans
Provides a foundation for the "Behaviorism Theory" |  | 94 |
| 6220844877 | Conditioned Response | Part of Classical Conditioning
Occurs after conditioning when the conditioned stimulus (CS) triggers an innate response
Pavlov's Dogs: It was the "Salivating to the Bell"
Little Albert: "Screaming/Crying" | | 95 |
| 6220844878 | Learned Helplessness | Defined: Exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive (bad) events produces passive behavior
Study: Seligman delivering shocks to dogs
Example: If a student consistently fails math, they may start to give up or a sports team that consistently loses may start to belive they can't win |  | 96 |
| 6220844879 | Reliable Signals | Defined: A cognitive process in classical conditioning where the organism must decide if the NS accurately predicts the UCS
Example: Pavlov's Dogs-the dogs had to think that the NS (bell) predicted the UCS (meat) | | 97 |
| 6220844880 | Concerns regarding Punishment | It does not teach the learner appropriate behavior and can also increase violent behavior in the learner | | 98 |
| 6220844881 | Skinner Box | Also known as: Operant Chamber
Description: A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal (rat or pigeon) can manipulate in order to obtain a reward |  | 99 |
| 6220844882 | Immediate Reinforcer | Defined: when you are immediately rewarded for a behavior (it's all about the short run)
Example: skipping school and enjoying time with friends | | 100 |
| 6220844883 | Superstitious Behavior | Defined: if a random reinforcement follows an event, the event will likely be repeated.
Example: a lucky shirt, shoes, etc. | | 101 |
| 6220844884 | Continuous Reinforcement Schedule | Defined: When every behavior is reinforced
Example: a multiple choice test
Significance: best for "establishing" a behavior | | 102 |
| 6220844885 | Cognitive Maps | Defined: having the ability or know how to accomplish a particular task
Example: Tolman's rats knew how to complete the maze | | 103 |
| 6220844886 | Intrinsic Motivation | Defined: the desire to perform a behavior effectively and for its own sake—rewards can carry hidden costs.
Example: reading books because you find them rewarding | | 104 |
| 6220844887 | Extrinsic Motivation | Defined: the desire to perform a behavior to receive external rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
Example: reading a book because you need to get a good grade in your English class | | 105 |
| 6220844888 | BoBo Doll Study | Psychologist: Bandura
Description: Children watched (through a one way glass)a confederate play with the BoBo doll and then played with the BoBo doll in the same way as the confederate
Significance: used to develop "observational learning" | | 106 |
| 6220844889 | Mirror Neurons | Defined: frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
Example: explains why yawning is contagious | | 107 |
| 6220844890 | Densensitization | Defined: after viewing a similar act/behavior, you become less emotionally responsive (indifferent or unaware) to the stimulus
Example: The first murder on TV is shocking but becomes less shocking as you watch violent television | | 108 |
| 6220844891 | Pro-Social Modeling | Defined: People who show nonviolent, helpful behavior prompt similar behavior in others
Significance: When parents help their grandparents, the children will likely do the same | | 109 |
| 6220844892 | Anti-Social Modeling | Defined: People show violent, selfish behavior prompts similar behaviors in others
Significance: Watching violent TV prompts similar behaviors in others (pro-wrestling, etc.) | | 110 |
| 6220844893 | Behaviorism | Psychologist: John B. Watson
Defined: a theory that made psychology an objective science by making it based on observable (and only observable) events, not the unconscious or conscious mind. | | 111 |
| 6220844894 | Delayed Reinforcer | Defined: when you complete a behavior but not awarded immediately (it's all about the long run)
Example: getting good grades in school and attending class in order to get a good job in the future | | 112 |
| 6220844895 | Partial Reinforcement Schedule | Defined: When a random behavior is reinforced
Example: Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio, Fixed Interval, Variable Interval
Significance: best for "maintaining" a behavior | | 113 |
