AP Notes, Outlines, Study Guides, Vocabulary, Practice Exams and more!
| 7294491679 | bath | depth;height | 0 | |
| 7294492477 | bene | well;good | 1 | |
| 7294493182 | bi (Latin) | two | 2 | |
| 7294493650 | bi (greek) | life | 3 | |
| 7294494196 | blast | sprout | 4 | |
| 7294494789 | brachi | arm | 5 | |
| 7294495285 | brachy | short | 6 | |
| 7294496020 | brady | slow | 7 | |
| 7294497066 | branchi | fin | 8 | |
| 7294497416 | brev | short | 9 | |
| 7294498197 | bronch | windpipe | 10 | |
| 7294498752 | cac | bad | 11 | |
| 7294498753 | calor | heat | 12 | |
| 7294499368 | capill | hair | 13 | |
| 7294500246 | carcin | cancer | 14 | |
| 7294500466 | cardi | heart | 15 | |
| 7294500467 | carn | meat; flesh | 16 |
| 5640105350 | natural born citizen | a person that is born in a country and does not require any special process to be a citizen | 0 | |
| 5640130415 | nominee | a person selected to represent a political party in a general election | 1 | |
| 5640130416 | primary | an election in which voters select a party nominee | 2 | |
| 5640130417 | caucus | a meeting during which party members discuss and debate their choices for their party's nomination | 3 | |
| 5640132973 | delegates | party members who are pledged to vote for a particular candidate based on the results of their home states' primary results | 4 | |
| 5640132974 | superdelegates | Democratic officials who may cast a vote for any candidate at the convention | 5 | |
| 5640132975 | national convention | party meeting during which candidates are nominated and platforms are ratified | 6 | |
| 5640132976 | convention bump | an increase in poll averages following a national convention | 7 | |
| 5640135897 | general election | an election in which voters select an officeholder | 8 | |
| 5640135898 | 12th Amendment | allows for the presidential and vice presidential candidates to run on a single ticket | 9 | |
| 5640138949 | electoral college | system employed by the United States to formally elect the president | 10 | |
| 5640138950 | elector | a person with the power to cast one of the 538 electoral votes for president | 11 | |
| 5640138951 | popular vote | the number of citizens that cast a ballot for a candidate in an election | 12 | |
| 5640143758 | safe state | states that reliably support one party in presidential elections | 13 | |
| 5640143759 | swing state | states that do not reliably support one party in presidential elections | 14 | |
| 5640143760 | political party | organization that sponsors candidates for office under its name. | 15 | |
| 5640143761 | two-party system | political system in which two major political parties compete for control of the government | 16 | |
| 5640148787 | third party | a group, aside from Democrats and Republicans, attempting to win elections | 17 | |
| 5640148788 | single member districts | congressional districts represented by one person in the legislature | 18 | |
| 5640148789 | party base | the core members of a political party | 19 | |
| 5640152012 | pivoting to the general | highlighting more moderate parts of platforms to appeal to wider electorate | 20 | |
| 5640152013 | framing opponents | Create cohesive narrative for electorate about other party's nominee | 21 | |
| 5640152014 | critical election | an election that redefines the agendas of political parties and/or the alignment of voters within parties | 22 | |
| 5640152015 | hard money | contributions directly to a candidate | 23 | |
| 5640154997 | soft money | unregulated contributions to parties for "party building activities" | 24 | |
| 5640154998 | political action committees | organizations established by businesses, unions, and interest groups to channel money into political campaigns | 25 | |
| 5640154999 | Super PACs | a PAC whose primary purpose is to influence can take unlimited amounts of money, but cannot coordinate with candidate | 26 | |
| 5640157818 | Buckley v. Valeo | SCOTUS case that first establishes that money = speech; says that candidates can spend unlimited amounts of personal funds on campaigns | 27 | |
| 5640157819 | McCain-Feingold | prohibits spending of soft money too close to an election; includes the "stand by your ad" provision | 28 | |
| 5640157820 | Citizens United v. FEC | SCOTUS case that lifted limits on groups' campaign expenditures; created Super PACS | 29 | |
| 5640161306 | public interest group | a group that seeks to institute certain policies that benefit citizens | 30 | |
| 5640161307 | labor union | organization of workers who share the same occupation | 31 | |
| 5640161308 | trade association | interest group focused on a particular business or industry | 32 | |
| 5640161309 | informing | presenting information to the public and elected officials about issues that matter to the group | 33 | |
| 5640161310 | donating | giving money to political campaigns or PACs | 34 | |
| 5640163918 | endorsement | supporting a candidate for office and suggesting that the group's members vote for him or her | 35 | |
| 5640163919 | litigation | initiating legal action, most often civil | 36 | |
| 5640163920 | mobilization | organizing a group of people to take collective action | 37 |
| 8459249693 | John Locke | 1632-1704. English philosopher whose Treatises of Government espousing natural rights, consent of the governed, and social compacts greatly influenced the Founding Fathers | 0 | |
| 8459249694 | Social Contract | A voluntary agreement among individuals to secure their rights and welfare by creating a government and abiding by its rules. | 1 | |
| 8459249695 | Natural Rights | ... Life, Liberty, and Property | 2 | |
| 8459249696 | consent of the governed | the idea that government derives its authority by the sanction of the people | 3 | |
| 8459249697 | direct democracy | A form of government in which citizens rule directly and not through representatives | 4 | |
| 8459249698 | Representative democracy | A system of government in which citizens elect representatives, or leaders, to make decisions about the laws for all the people. | 5 | |
| 8459249699 | articles of confederation | 1st Constitution of the U.S. 1781-1788 (weaknesses-no executive, no judicial, no power to tax, no power to regulate trade) | 6 | |
| 8459249700 | Shay's Rebellion | A Series of attacks on courthouses by a small band of farmers led by Revolutionary War captain Daniel Shays to block foreclosure proceedings. Led to the Constitutional convention | 7 | |
| 8459249701 | elite Theory | A theory of government and politics contending that societies are divided along class lines and that an upper-class elite will rule, regardless of the formal niceties of governmental organization. | 8 | |
| 8459249702 | Pluralist theory | A theory of government and politics emphasizing that politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies | 9 | |
| 8459249703 | great compromise | 1787; This compromise was between the large and small states of the colonies. The Great Compromise resolved that there would be representation by population in the House of Representatives, and equal representation would exist in the Senate. Each state, regardless of size, would have 2 senators. All tax bills and revenues would originate in the House. This compromise combined the needs of both large and small states and formed a fair and sensible resolution to their problems. | 10 | |
| 8459249704 | 3/5 compromise | settled debate over how slaves would be counted in regards to representation | 11 | |
| 8459249705 | confederal system | A system consisting of a league of independent states, each having essentially sovereign powers. The central government created by such a league has only limited powers over the states. | 12 | |
| 8459249706 | federal system | A government that divides the powers of government between the national government and state or provincial governments | 13 | |
| 8459249707 | unitary system | A government that gives all key powers to the national or central government | 14 | |
| 8459249708 | Gibson V. Ogden (1824) | a landmark decision in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that the power to regulate interstate commerce was granted to Congress by the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution | 15 | |
| 8459249711 | Marbury V. Madison (1803) | Under Chief Justice John Marshall, the Supreme Court of the United States held that ONLY the Supreme Court of the United States has the power to declare laws unconstitutional. Established judicial review. | 16 | |
| 8459249712 | McCullough V. Maryland (1819) | In establishing a national bank, Congress was legally exercising its enumerated powers not sepcifically mentioned in the Constitution. Established Implied Powers under the "Necessary and Proper Clause" | 17 | |
| 8459249713 | Supremacy Clause | Article VI of the Constitution, which makes the Constitution, national laws, and treaties supreme over state laws when the national government is acting within its constitutional limits. Verified by McCullough V. Maryland (1819) | 18 | |
| 8459249714 | Grants in Aid | money given by the national government to the states | 19 | |
| 8459249715 | Categorical Grants | Federal grants that can be used only for specific purposes or "categories," of state and local spending. They come with strings attached, such as nondiscrimination provisions. Compare to block grants. | 20 | |
| 8459249716 | Block Grants | Federal grants given more or less automatically to states or communities to support broad programs in areas such as community development and social services | 21 | |
| 8459249717 | Federalist # 10 | Madisons Warning on Factions. Solution = larger republic | 22 | |
| 8459249718 | Constitutional amendment process | proposal either by the Congress with a two-thirds majority vote in both the House of Representatives and the Senate or by a constitutional convention called for by two-thirds of the State legislatures. | 23 | |
| 8459249719 | Cooperative Federalism (Marble Cake) | state and federal government work together to improve the lives of citizens | 24 | |
| 8459249721 | Dual Federalism (Layer Cake) 1789-1937 | A system of government in which both the states and the national government remain supreme within their own spheres, each responsible for some policies. | 25 | |
| 8459249722 | Unfunded Mandate | actions imposed by the federal or state government on lower levels of government which are not accompanied by the money needed to fund the action required. | 26 | |
| 8459249723 | Checks and Balances | A system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches in order to prevent abuse of power |  | 27 |
| 8459249724 | Nullification | The doctrine that a state can declare null and void a federal law that, in the state's opinion, violates the Constitution. | 28 | |
| 8459249725 | Implied Powers | Powers inferred from the express powers that allow Congress to carry out its functions. Justified via Necessary and Proper clause | 29 | |
| 8459249726 | Reserved Powers | Powers not specifically granted to the federal government or denied to the states belong to the states and the people | 30 | |
| 8459249727 | Delegated Powers | Powers specifically given to the federal government by the US Constitution, for example, the authority to print money, declare War or regulate commerce | 31 | |
| 8459249728 | Denied Powers | the powers that are denied to the federal government, the state government, or both; also called restricted powers | 32 | |
| 8459249729 | New Federalism 1969-present | A policy in 1969, that turned over powers and responsibilities of some U.S. federal programs to state and local governments and reduced the role of national government in domestic affairs (states are closer to the people and problems) | 33 | |
| 8459249730 | Concurrent Powers | Powers held jointly by the national and state governments. | 34 | |
| 8459249731 | New Jersey Plan | A constitutional proposal that would have given each state one vote in a new congress | 35 | |
| 8459249732 | Virginia Plan | "Large state" proposal for the new constitution, calling for proportional representation in both houses of a bicameral Congress. The plan favored larger states and thus prompted smaller states to come back with their own plan for apportioning representation. | 36 | |
| 8459249733 | Federalists | Favored ratification of the constitution (Madison) | 37 | |
| 8459249734 | Anti-Federalists | Anti-Federalists rose up as the opponents of the Constitution during the period of ratification. They opposed the Constitution's powerful centralized government, arguing that the Constitution gave too much political, economic, and military control. They instead advocated a decentralized governmental structure that granted most power to the states | 38 | |
| 8459249735 | Amending the Constitution | Needs approval of two-thirds of Congress and three-fourths of the states | 39 | |
| 8459249736 | Political Socialization | Complex process by which people get their sense of political identity, beliefs, and values. Four sources: Family and community, Events, Group Identity, Politicians and other actors | 40 | |
| 8459249737 | mass surveys | A way to measure public opinion by interviewing a large sample of the population | 41 | |
| 8459249738 | sample | A relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole population | 42 | |
| 8459249739 | population | the group of people a researcher wants to study such as Americans, Students, Senior citizens | 43 | |
| 8459249740 | sampling error | A calculation that describes what percentage of the people surveyed may not accurately represent the population being studied. Increasing the number of respondents lowers the sampling error. | 44 | |
| 8459249741 | ideological polarization | The effect on public opinion when many citizens move away from moderate positions and toward either end of the political spectrum, identifying themselves as either liberals or conservatives. | 45 | |
| 8459249742 | mass media | Forms of communication designed to reach large numbers of people. | 46 | |
| 8459249743 | Federal Communications Commission | A government agency created in 1934 to regulate American radio stations, and later expanded to regulate television, wireless communications technologies, and other broadcast media. | 47 | |
| 8459249748 | gatekeepers | the news media's influence on how citizens make political judgments, through emphasis on particular stories. | 48 | |
| 8459249749 | media bias | Ability of the media to influence public perception of issues by constructing the issue or discussion of a subject in a certain way (details, explanations, and context) | 49 | |
| 8459249750 | party in organization | the formal structure and leadership of a political party; including election committees; local, state, and national executives; and paid professional staff | 50 | |
| 8459249751 | party in government | Elected officials who call themselves members of the party. | 51 | |
| 8459249752 | party in electorate | Ordinary citizens who identify with the party. The people who elect the party into office. The citizens support the party's basic ideology and policy principles. | 52 | |
| 8459249753 | party system | A period in which the names of the major political parties, their supporters, and the issues dividing them remain relatively stable. | 53 | |
| 8459249754 | realignment | A change in the size or composition of the party coalitions or in the nature of the issues that divide the parties. Realignments typically occur within an election cycle or two, but they can also occur gradually over the course of a decade or longer. | 54 | |
| 8459249756 | national committee | An American political party's principal organization, comprised of party representatives from each state. | 55 | |
| 8459249757 | political action committee (PAC) | A committee set up by a corporation, labor union, or interest group that raises and directly spends campaign money from voluntary donations | 56 | |
| 8459249758 | 527 organization | A tax-exempt group formed primarily to influence elections through voter mobilization efforts and issue ads that do not directly endorse or oppose a candidate. Unlike political action committees, they are not subject to contribution limits and spending caps. | 57 | |
| 8459249759 | party coalition | The groups who identify with a political party, usually described in demographic terms, such as African American Democrats or evangelical Republicans. | 58 | |
| 8459249760 | primary election | A ballot vote in which citizens select a party's nominee for the general election. | 59 | |
| 8459249761 | caucus | A meeting of local party members to choose a parties nominee for the general election | 60 | |
| 8459249762 | closed primary | A primary election in which a voter is allowed to obtain only a ballot of the party in which they are registered. | 61 | |
| 8459249764 | open primary | A primary election in which voters may choose in which party to vote as they enter the polling place. | 62 | |
| 8459249765 | plurality | A voting system in which the candidate who receives the most votes within a geographic area wins the election, regardless of whether that candidates wins a majority (more than half) of the votes. | 63 | |
| 8459249766 | majority voting | A voting system in which a candidate must win more than 50 percent of votes in order to win the election. If no candidate wins enough votes to take office, a runoff election is held between the top two vote-getters. | 64 | |
| 8459249767 | electoral college | A group selected by the states to elect the president and the vice-president, in which each state's number of electors is equal to the number of its senators and representatives in Congress. | 65 | |
| 8459249768 | coattails | the idea that a weaker or less-known candidates to profit in an election by the presence on the ticket of a more popular candidate | 66 | |
| 8459249769 | Constitutional Authority | Powers derived from the provisions of the Constitution that outline the president's role in government. | 67 | |
| 8459249771 | Executive Privilege | An implied presidential power that allows the president to refuse to disclose information regarding confidential conversations or national security to Congress or the judiciary. | 68 | |
| 8459249773 | Bureaucracy | the system of civil servants and political appointees who implement congressional and presidential descisiona | 69 | |
| 8459249774 | Civil Servants | Employees of bureaucratic agencies within the government | 70 | |
| 8459249775 | Political appointees | People selected by an elected leader, such as the president, to hold a government position. | 71 | |
| 8459249776 | realigning election | Showing a lasting shift in fundamental party loyalities among a large portion of voters | 72 | |
| 8459249777 | split ticket | Voting for candidates of different parties for various offices in the same election | 73 | |
| 8459249778 | bicameralism | a two-house legislature | 74 | |
| 8459249779 | trustee model | a model of representation in which a member of the House or Senate follows his or her own conscience when deciding issue positions | 75 | |
| 8459249780 | delegate model | A model of representative democracy that supports the idea that representatives are chosen to directly mirror the preferences of their constituents. | 76 | |
| 8459249783 | gerrymadering | attempting to use the process of redrawing district boundaries to benefit a political party, protect incumbents, or change the proportion of minority voters in a district | 77 | |
| 9876253880 | divided government | a situation in which our government has one party in control of one branch and one party in control of another | 78 | |
| 9876285353 | legislative veto | a vote in Congress to override a presidential decision, has been found unconstitutional by the Supreme Court | 79 | |
| 9876309824 | factions | groups such as political parties and interest groups | 80 |
| 9505307904 | 1st Law of Thermodynamics | energy of universe is constant | 0 | |
| 9505307905 | 2nd Law of Thermodynamics | process spontaneous in one direction can't be spontaneous in reverse direction | 1 | |
| 9505307906 | state function | ∆H, ∆S, ∆G | 2 | |
| 9505307907 | energy released | bonds formed; exothermic | 3 | |
| 9505307908 | energy absorbed | bonds broken; endothermic | 4 | |
| 9505307909 | ∆H | H(products)-H(reactants) | 5 | |
| 9505307910 | heat of formation | ∆H = ∑H(products)-∑H(reactants) | 6 | |
| 9505307911 | heat capacity | heat ÷ ∆T | 7 | |
| 9505307912 | specific heat | q = mc∆T | 8 | |
| 9505307913 | Gibbs free energy | measure of spontaneity of process | 9 | |
| 9505307914 | ∆G negative | spontaneous | 10 | |
| 9505307915 | ∆G positive | not spontaneous | 11 | |
| 9505307916 | ∆G = 0 | reaction at equilibrium | 12 | |
| 9505307917 | ∆G° | ∆H - T∆S | 13 | |
| 9505307918 | ∆G | ∆G° + RT(lnQ) | 14 | |
| 9505307919 | R (in thermo, not gases) | 8.31 J/mol*K | 15 | |
| 9505307920 | exothermic reaction | reactants start higher than products | 16 | |
| 9505307921 | endothermic reaction | reactants start lower than products | 17 | |
| 9505307922 | entropy | measure of disorder of system | 18 | |
| 9505307923 | particles | in solution have higher entropy values than solids | 19 | |
| 9505307924 | 2 moles of substance | have higher entropy value than one mole | 20 | |
| 9505307925 | entropy change ∆S | ∑S°(products) - ∑S°(reactants) | 21 | |
| 9505307926 | standard state conditions | 1. all gases are at 1 atm 2. all liquids are pure 3. all solids are pure 4. all solutions are at 1-M 5. the energy of formation of an element in its normal state is defined as 0 6. temperature used for standard state values is almost invariably room temperature. standard state values can be calculated for other temperatures, however. | 22 | |
| 9505307927 | heat of vaporization | energy given off when substance condenses | 23 | |
| 9505307928 | heat of fusion | energy taken in by substance when melts | 24 | |
| 9505307929 | addition of catalyst | decreases activation energy only | 25 | |
| 9505307930 | spontaneous endothermic reaction | ∆H > 0 ∆S > 0 | 26 | |
| 9505307931 | spontaneous process | one that proceeds on its own without assistance, they are irreversible unless the surroundings are changed and they can be fast or slow | 27 | |
| 9505307932 | Exothermic Reactions | negative ∆H, favors spontaneity but does not guarantee it. | 28 | |
| 9505307933 | Entropy of a system increases when | gases are formed from solids or liquids, liquids or solutions are formed from solids, the number of gas molecules changes during a chemical reaction | 29 | |
| 9505307934 | standard entropy | S° is the absolute entropy of a mole of a substance at 1 atm and 35°C. J/Mol K. for all elements and compounds the standard entropy is always positive. | 30 | |
| 9505307935 | +∆S | becomes more random; disordered | 31 | |
| 9505307936 | -∆S | becomes more ordered | 32 | |
| 9505307937 | standard molar entropies of elements and diatomics | are not 0 unlike standard molar enthalpies | 33 | |
| 9505307938 | standard free energy | ∆G°(rxn) is the free energy change of a reaction when it occurs under standard conditions; when reactants in their standard states are converted to products in their standard states. | 34 | |
| 9505307939 | ∆G°rx | = ∑n∆G(f°products) - ∑n∆G°reactants | 35 | |
| 9505307940 | spontaneous at all temperatures | -∆H (favorable) +∆H (favorable) | 36 | |
| 9505307941 | nonspontaneous at all temperatures | +∆H (unfavorable) -∆S (unfavorable) | 37 | |
| 9505307942 | spontaneous at low T; nonspontaneous at high T | -∆H (favorable) -∆S (unfavorable) | 38 | |
| 9505307943 | spontaneous at high T; non spontaneous at low T | +∆H (unfavorable) +∆S (favorable) | 39 | |
| 9505307944 | -∆G | the forward process is spontaneous (the reverse is nonspontaneous) | 40 | |
| 9505307945 | +∆G | the forward process is nonspontaneous (the reverse is spontaneous) | 41 | |
| 9505307946 | Phase transitions | if the process is melting, the ∆H is the same as the heat of fusion. if the process is freezing, the ∆H is the negative value of the heat of fusion. if the process is boiling, the ∆H is the heat of vaporization. if the process is condensing, the ∆H is the negative value of the heat of vaporization. | 42 | |
| 9505307947 | what does Q stand for | reaction quotient: the mass action expression at non-equilibrium conditions. the spontaneity of a reaction that has not reached equilibrium has to be measured in terms of ∆G which is not synonomous with ∆G° because the substances are not in standard state | 43 | |
| 9505307948 | Finding ∆G when ∆G° and Q are known | ∆G = ∆G° + RTlnQ | 44 | |
| 9505307949 | Enthalpy (heat) of combustion | the heat released or absorbed (enthalpy change) during the formation of a pure substance from its elements, at constant pressure and usually denoted by ΔHf. | 45 | |
| 9505307950 | Hess's law | The overall enthalpy change in a reaction is equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes of the individual steps of the process. | 46 | |
| 9505307951 | Calorimeter insulated device used for measuring the amount of heat absorbed or released through a chemical or physical process | insulated device used for measuring the amount of heat absorbed or released through a chemical or physical process |  | 47 |
| 9505307952 | bomb calorimeter sealed, insulated container used for measuring the energy released during combustion | sealed, insulated container used for measuring the energy released during combustion |  | 48 |
| 9505307953 | heating curve | a diagram that shows the temperature changes and changes of state of a substance as it is heated |  | 49 |
| 9505307954 | potential energy diagram | a diagram that shows the changes in potential energy that takes place during a chemical reaction |  | 50 |
| 6204022511 | Availability of Freshwater | only about 0.024% of the earth's water supply is available to us as liquid fresh water | 0 | |
| 6204022512 | Groundwater | some precipitation infiltrates the ground and is stored in spaces in soil and rock; water in these spaces is one of most important sources of fresh water; moves from high to low elevation | 1 | |
| 6204022513 | Zone of Saturation | a certain depth where these spaces are completely filled with water | 2 | |
| 6204022514 | Water Table | the top of the zone of saturation | 3 | |
| 6204022515 | Aquifers | geological layers deeper down like caverns and porous, layers of sand, gravel, or bedrock through which groundwater flows; contain much more freshwater than lakes and rivers | 4 | |
| 6204022516 | Renewable Aquifers | replenished naturally by precipitation that percolates down through the soul and rock (natural recharge); some others are recharged by lateral recharge from nearby streams; refill slowly | 5 | |
| 6204022517 | Nonrenewable Aquifers | get very little, if any, recharge; deep underground from thousands of years ago; withdrawing will amount to mining a nonrenewable resource - a major problem in today's societies | 6 | |
| 6204022518 | Surface Water | the freshwater that flows across the earth's land surface and into rivers, streams, lakes, and reservoirs | 7 | |
| 6204022519 | Surface Runoff | precipitation that does not return to the atmosphere by evaporation or infiltrate into the ground | 8 | |
| 6204022520 | Watershed | drainage basin; the land fro which surface water drains into a river, lake, wetland, or other body of water | 9 | |
| 6204022525 | Global Outlook: Use of World's Freshwater | irrigation is the biggest use of eater (70%), then industries (20%), and cities and residences (10%) | 10 | |
| 6204022526 | Freshwater Resources in the United States | the US has plenty of freshwater but supplies vary depending on climate; in East water is used for energy, cooling, and manufacturing | 11 | |
| 6204022527 | Emerging Water Shortages | 41% of world's population lives in river basins that do not have enough freshwater; falling water tables, bodies of water running dry | 12 | |
| 6204022528 | Ownership and Management | disputes over government or private management; 85% of Americans get water from publicly owned utilities | 13 | |
| 6204022529 | Competition for World's Water and Resources | cities are outbidding farmers for water supplies from rivers and aquifers; countries are importing grain as a way to reduce water use; more crops are being used to produce biofuel | 14 | |
| 6204022530 | Water Options | get more water from rivers and aquifers, desalinate ocean water, waste much less water | 15 | |
| 6204022531 | Groundwater Depletion | aquifers are being depleted faster than they are being renewed; over pumping can increase gap between rich and poor, cause land to sink, and contaminate with saltwater | 16 | |
| 6204022532 | Withdrawing Groundwater Advantages | useful for drinking and irrigation, available year round and everywhere, renewable, no evaporation losses, cheaper to extract than most surface waters | 17 | |
| 6204022533 | Withdrawing Groundwater Disadvantages | depletion from over pumping, sinking of land from over pumping, pollution, saltwater intrusion, reduced water flows into surface waters, increased cost and contamination with more depth | 18 | |
| 6204022534 | Using Aquifers More Sustainably | requires controlling the rate of water removal, identifying and protecting water recharge zones from development, wasting less water, and slowing population growth | 19 | |
| 6204022535 | Groundwater Depletion Prevention | waste less water, subsidize water conservation, ban new wells and aquifers near surface water, retire groundwater withdrawal rights in critical areas, do not grow water intensive crops | 20 | |
| 6204022536 | Groundwater Depletion Control | raise price of water to discourage waste, tax water pumped from wells near surface water, set and enforce minimum stream flow levels | 21 | |
| 6204022537 | Advantages and Disadvantages to Large Dams | large dams and reservoirs produce cheap electricity, reduce downstream flooding, and provide year-round water for irrigating crop land but also displace people and disrupt aquatic systems; advantages include less flooding, electricity, water for irrigation and recreational activities; disadvantages include tensions among shared countries, and reducing downstream flow | 22 | |
| 6204022538 | Salton Sea | a shallow saline lake in S California, in the Imperial Valley, formed by the diversion of water from the Colorado River into a salt-covered depression; slowly drying up mainly due to evaporation | 23 | |
| 6204022539 | Lake Chad | a lake in Africa at the junction of four countries: Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria. 5000 to 10,000 sq. mi.; similar situation to Salton Sea where it is slowly drying up | 24 | |
| 6204022540 | Aral Sea | a lake in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan (formerly Soviet Union), east of the Caspian Sea, formerly the fourth largest lake in the world: shallow and saline, now badly polluted; use of its source waters for irrigation led to a loss of over 50% of its area between 1967 and 1997, after which the reduction began to be slowed. Area originally (to 1960) about 68 000 sq km (26 400 sq miles); water area reduced by 2004 to about 17 158 sq km (6625 sq miles) and the lake divided into sections; diverted water was mostly used for irrigation | 25 | |
| 6204022541 | Colorado River Basin | This river has so many dams and withdrawals that it does not reach the sea; 14 major dams and reservoirs; supplies water mainly to California but is also used for Nevada and other states around; 30 million people use for recreation; four major problems: includes driest land in US, only modest flow of water, more allocated water than it can supply, water withdrawn mainly for agriculture and urban use (80% for agriculture), evaporation, leakage, siltation (Lake Mead and Lake Powell) | 26 | |
| 6204022542 | China's Three Gorges Dam | debate over advantages and disadvantages; world's largest; helps reduce flooding and provide electricity but displaces many people and will cause flooding in different areas; may even collapse because it is built over a major seismic fault | 27 | |
| 6204022543 | Dam Removal | some dams are being removed for ecological reasons and because they have outlived their usefulness; cost for taxpayers is high, can expose downstream to toxic sediments | 28 | |
| 6204022544 | Advantages and Disadvantages to Water Transfer | advantages: makes water-poor areas more suitable for growing food, grazing, and other business activities; makes it more likely that businesses will invest, jobs will be created, and economies will be strengthened in those areas; disadvantages: encourages unsustainable water use | 29 | |
| 6204022545 | California Experience | California's Water Project uses mazes, dams, pumps, and aqueducts to transport water between areas; subsidized water contracts | 30 | |
| 6204022546 | Desalination | removing dissolved salts from ocean water or from brackish water in aquifers or lakes for domestic use; Israel uses prominently; two major problems: very costly and takes a lot of energy | 31 | |
| 6204022547 | Distillation | heating saltwater until it evaporates, leaves behind salts in solid form, and condenses as freshwarer | 32 | |
| 6204022548 | Reverse Osmosis | microfiltration; uses high pressure to force salt water through a membrane filter with pores small enough to remove the salt (pushes freshwater out of salt water) | 33 | |
| 6204022549 | Cloud Seeding and Towing Icebergs or Gigantic Water Bags | seeding clouds with tiny particles of chemicals to increase rainfall or towing icebergs or huge bags filled with freshwater to dry coastal areas is unlikely to provide significant amounts of freshwater; problems: few clouds to seed, no compelling evidence that it works, large amounts of chemicals into soil and water systems, legal disputes over cloud water | 34 | |
| 6204022550 | Benefits of Reducing Water Waste | we waste 2/3 of the water we use through evaporation, leaks, and other losses; we can cut it to 15%; we charge too little for water; water is heavily subsidized; establishing lifeline rates (minimum) would be effective; lack of government subsidies for improving efficiencies of water use | 35 | |
| 6204022551 | Wasting Less Water for Irrigation and Crop Yields | 60% of world's irrigation water is wasted; improved techniques can decrease it to 5-20%; flood irrigation is terrible; better methods are center pivot, low pressure sprinkler, drip irrigation, microirrigation systems (perforated tubes at or below ground level), gravity flow are less effective, can also use soil moisture detectors | 36 | |
| 6204022552 | Reducing Irrigation Water Waste | line canals bringing water to irrigation ditches, level fields with lasers, irrigate at night to reduce evaporation, monitor soil moisture to add water only when necessary, polyculture, organic farming, don't grow water thirsty crops, grow water efficient crops, irrigate with treated urban waste water, import water intensive crops and meats, rainwater harvesting | 37 | |
| 6204022553 | Reducing Water Waste | redesign manufacturing processes, repair leaking underground pipes, landscape yards with plants that require little water, use drip irrigation, fix water leaks, use water meters, raise water prices, use waterless composting toilets, require water conservation in water-short cities, use water saving appliances, collect and reuse household water for irrigations and non edible plants, purify and reuse water for domestic use, don't waste energy | 38 | |
| 6204022554 | Reducing Flood Damage | preserve forests on watersheds, preserve and restore wetlands in floodplains, tax all developments on floodplains, use floodplains primarily for recharging aquifers, sustainable agriculture and forestry, and recreation; strengthen and deepen streams, build levees or floodwalls along streams, build dams | 39 | |
| 6204022555 | What Can We Do? | use water saving appliances, shower instead of taking baths, stop water leaks, turn off sink faucets when not directly using, flush toilets only when necessary, wash only full loads of laundry, used recycled water for lawns and gardens and car washing, wash a car from bucket and use hose for rinsing, use water efficient plants, water gardens in evenings or early mornings, sweep or blow off driveway instead of hosing them down, use drip irrigation and mulch for gardens and flowerbeds | 40 | |
| 6204022556 | Hydrologic Cycle | the hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of the ocean; as moist air is lifted, it cools and water vapor condenses to form clouds; moisture is transported around the globe until it returns to the surface as precipitation. | 41 | |
| 6204022557 | Transpiration | the process by which moisture is carried through plants from roots to small pores on the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere; transpiration is essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves | 42 | |
| 6204022558 | Natural Recharge | the replenishment of groundwater storage from naturally-occurring surface water supplies such as precipitation and stream flows | 43 | |
| 6204022559 | Drainage Basin | drainage basin or catchment basin is an extent or an area of land where all surface water from rain, melting snow, or ice converges to a single point at a lower elevation, usually the exit of the basin, where the waters join another body of water, such as a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland, sea, or ocean | 44 | |
| 6204022560 | Aqueduct | an artificial channel for conveying water, typically in the form of a bridge supported by tall columns across a valley | 45 | |
| 6204022561 | Irrigation Types | flood irrigation-delivers far more water than necessary; center pivot-pumped from underground and sprayed from mobile boom with sprinklers; low pressure sprinkler-uses pumps to spray on crops; low energy precision application sprinklers-center pivot method, sprays water closer to ground and with larger droplets; drip irrigation-microirrigation, perforated plastic tubing is at or below ground level deliver water to plant roots; gravity flow-water comes from nearby aqueduct or river | 46 | |
| 6204022562 | Ogallala | shallow water table aquifer surrounded by sand, silt, clay and gravel located beneath the Great Plains in the United States; most important in the US | 47 | |
| 6204022563 | Riparian Rights | a system for allocating surface water among those who possess land along its path. It has its origins in English common law. Riparian water rights exist in many jurisdictions with a common law heritage, such as Canada, Australia, and states in the eastern United States. | 48 | |
| 6204022564 | Floodplain | an area of low-lying ground adjacent to a river, formed mainly of river sediments and subject to flooding | 49 | |
| 6204022565 | Living on Floodplains in Bangladesh | increased flooding from upstream deforestation of Himalayan mountain slopes and clearing of mangrove forests on its coastal floodplains; increased runoff from the soil and monsoon rains increase severity of flooding; living on the floodplain means coping with storm surges, cyclones, tsunamis, earthquakes, etc | 50 |
| 7341815382 | sovereign state | State which rules itself | 0 | |
| 7341815383 | Louis XI | King of France, shut down nobility | 1 | |
| 7341815384 | Henry VII of England | King of England | 2 | |
| 7341815385 | Ferdinand and Isabella | their marriage unified Spain and together they completed the Reconquista | 3 | |
| 7341815386 | Reconquista | the Christian "reconquest" of the Iberian Peninsula by Ferdinand and Isabella | 4 | |
| 7341815387 | Moriscos | Spanish Muslims who converted to Christianity | 5 | |
| 7341815388 | Marranos | Jews who converted to Catholicism after the Reconquista to avoid being exiled | 6 | |
| 7341815389 | Holy Roman Empire | Decentralized State of Kingdoms | 7 | |
| 7341815390 | Johann Gutenberg | Invented the printing press | 8 | |
| 7341815391 | Christian Humanism | the combination of humanist and religious ideas | 9 | |
| 7341815392 | Desiderius Erasmus | In praise of folly | 10 | |
| 7341815393 | The Praise of Folly | By Desiderius Erasmus | 11 | |
| 7341815394 | Sir Thomas More | writer in Renaissance; wrote "Utopia", a perfect society | 12 | |
| 7341815395 | Utopia | an imagined place or state of things in which everything is perfect, Sir Thomas More | 13 | |
| 7341815396 | Francois Rabelais | Renaissance Writer | 14 | |
| 7341815397 | Miguel de Cervantes | Spanish Renaissance writer best known for writing Don Quixote | 15 |
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