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AP Flashcards

6932698615	Armistice	Nov 11	0
6932698616	Schieffin	developed attack on France	1
6932698617	Triple Entente	agreement between Britain	2
6932698618	Vladimir	introduce communism to Russia	3
6932698619	Arthur	German minister	4
6932698620	Archduke	assassinated in Sarajevo	5
6932698621	John J	general in charge	6
6932698622	Lusitania	sinking ship along zimmerman	7
6932698623	Nicholas II	last of russians tsars	8
6932698624	Selective Service Act	conscription of young men	9
6932698625	Woodrow	president	10
6932698626	Triple Alliance	agreement between Germany	11
6932698627	League of Nations	Woodrow Wilson	12
6932698628	U-boats	German Submarines	13
6932698629	Western Front	battle line	14

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AP Vocabulary List 22 Flashcards

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6166462046	chastening	to inflict suffering for purposes of moral improvement; to restrain; to subdue	0
6166462047	corporeal	of the nature of the human body; bodily; material; tangible	1
6166463416	dervive	to trace from a source of origin	2
6166463417	dubious	doubtful; questionable	3
6166463418	ethos	a quality the evokes trust and credibility	4
6166465065	equivocal	allowing the possibility of several different meanings; deliberately	5
6166465066	errant	erring; straying; moving in an aimless manner	6
6166465067	goad	provoke or annoy; a spiked stick used for driving cattle	7
6166466551	resplendent	shiningly brilliant; gleaming; splendid	8
6166466552	ruminate	to muse or ponder; to chew over again and again	9

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AP Psychology - Sensation Flashcards

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6653616600	Transduction	The translation of incoming stimuli into neural signals Neural impulses from the senses travel first to the thalamus and then on to different cortices of the brain The sense of smell is the one exception to this rule	0
6653625108	Sensory Adaptation	Decreasing responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation For example, we eventually stop perceiving a persistent scent in a room	1
6653635652	Sensory Habituation (also called Perceptual Adaptation)	Our perception of sensations is partially determined by how focused we are on them' For example, no longer hearing traffic from the nearby freeway after having lived in a place for years	2
6653641050	Cocktail-Party Phenomenon	If you are talking with a friend and someone across the room says your name, your attention will probably involuntarily switch across the room An example of selective attention	3
6653647195	Sensation	Sensation occurs when one of our senses (sight, smell, hearing, touch, or taste) is activated by something in our environment Occurs before the process of perception (the brain interpreting these sensations)	4
6653653137	Perception	The brain's interpretation of sensory messages Occurs after the process of sensation (the activation of our senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch., and taste). The process of understanding and interpreting sensations	5
6653661445	Energy Senses	The senses of vision, hearing, and touch These senses gather energy in the form of light, sound waves, and pressure, respectively	6
6653666271	Chemical Senses	The senses of taste and smell These senses work by gathering chemicals	7
6653671062	Vision	Dominant sense in human beings. Sighted people use vision to gather information about their environment more than any other sense The process of vision involves several steps: 1. Light is reflected off objects 2. Reflected light coming from the object enters the eye through the cornea and pupil, is focused by the lens, and is projected on to the retina where specialized neurons are activated by the different wavelengths of light 3. Transduction occurs when light activates the special neurons in the retina and sends impulses along the optic nerve to the occipital lobe of the brain 4. Impulses from the left side of each retina (right visual field) go to the left hemisphere of the brain, and those from the right side of each retina (left visual field) go to the right side of the brain 5. Visual cortex receives the impulses from the retina, which activate feature detectors for vertical lines, curves, motion, among others. What we perceive visually is a combination of these features.	8
6653713881	Cornea	Protective covering on the front of the eye Helps focus the light	9
6653717046	Pupil	Opening in the center of the eye Similar to the shutter of the camera Muscles that control the pupil (called the iris) open it (dilate) to let more light in and also make it smaller to let less light it	10
6653722467	Lens	Focuses light that enters the pupil Curved and flexible in order to focus the light As the light passes through the lens, the image is flipped upside down and inverted The focused inverted image projects on the retina	11
6653728116	Retina	Like a screen on the back of your eye As the light passes through the lens, the image is flipped upside down and projected on the retina Special neurons in the retina (cones, which detect color, and rods, which detect black and white) are activated by light and send impulses along the optic nerve to the occipital lobe of the brain	12
6653736396	Optic Nerve	Nerve leading from the retina that carries impulses to the occipital lobe of the brain The optic nerve is divided into two parts. Impulses from the left side of each retina (right visual field) go to the left hemisphere of the brain, and those from the right side of each retina (left visual field) go to the right side of the brain	13
6653744534	Occipital Lobe	Location of the visual cortex Part of the brain that processes vision sensations Receives impulses via the optic nerve The optic nerve is divided into two parts. Impulses from the left side of each retina (right visual field) go to the left hemisphere of the brain, and those from the right side of each retina (left visual field) go to the right side of the brain	14
6653750155	Feature Detectors	Perception researchers Hubel and Weisel discovered that groups of neurons in the visual cortex respond to different types of visual images Visual cortex has feature detectors for vertical lines, curves, and motion, among others. What we perceive visually is a combination of these features	15
6653759669	Visible Light	Color is perceived due to a combination of different factors: Light intensity-How much energy the light contains determines how bright the object appears Light wavelength-The length of the light waves determines the particular hue we see. We see different wavelengths within the visible light spectrum as different colors	16
6653770003	Rods and Cones	Special neurons in the retina that are activated by light Cones are activated by color Rods respond to black and white	17
6653774673	Bipolar Cells and Ganglion Cells	These cells make up different layers in the retina In the retina, light activates rod and cone cells Rods and cones send signals to the next layer of cells in the retina: bipolar cells Bipolar cells send signals to the next layer of cells in the retina: ganglion cells Ganglion cells send signals to the brain through the optic nerve	18
6653781423	Fovea	Indentation at the center of the retina where cones are concentrated When light is focused onto your fovea, you see it in color Your peripheral vision, especially at the extremes, relies on rods and is mostly in black and white Foveal vision, focusing light on the fovea, results in the sharpest and clearest visual perception	19
6653914067	Blind Spot	The spot on the retina where the optic nerve leaves the retina and there are no rods or cones We cannot detect objects in our blind spot, but our brains and the movement of our eyes accommodate for the blind spot, so we usually don't notice it	20
6653919998	Trichromatic Theory	A theory of color vision (the other theory is Opponent-Process Theory) Also called Young-Helmholtz Theory Hypothesizes that we have three types of cones in the retina: cones that detect the primary colors of light-blue, red, and green These cones are activated in different combinations to produce all the colors of the visible spectrum Even though this theory has some research support and makes sense intuitively, it cannot explain such visual phenomena as afterimages and color blindness Most researchers agree that color vision is explained by a combination of the Trichromatic and Opponent-Process Theory	21
6653932903	Color Blindness	Individuals with dichromatic color blindness cannot see either red/green shades or blue/yellow shades Those who have monochromatic color blindness see only shades of gray	22
6653938773	Opponent-Process Theory	A theory of color vision (the other theory is Trichomatic Theory) States that the sensory receptors arranged in the retina come in pairs: red/green pairs, yellow/blue pairs, and black/white pairs If one sensor is stimulated, its pair is inhibited from firing. This theory explains color afterimages If you stare at the color red for a while, you fatigue the sensors for red. Then when you switch your gaze and look at a blank page, the opponent part of the pair for red will fire, and you will see a green afterimage The Opponent-Process Theory explains afterimage and color blindness Most researchers agree that the color vision is explained by a combination of the Trichromatic and Opponent-Process Theories	23
6653957135	Hearing	The hearing process occurs in several steps: Sound waves, vibrations in the air, travel through the air, and are then collected by our ears Sound waves have amplitude and frequency Amplitude is the height of the wave and determines the loudness of the sound, which is measured in decibels Frequency, which is measured in megahertz, refers to the length of the waves and determines pitch Vibrations enter the ear and vibrate the eardrum, which connects with three bones in the middle ear: the hammer (or malleus), the anvil (or incus), and the stirrup (or stapes) The vibration is transferred to the oval window, a membrane very similar to the eardrum The oval window membrane is attached to the cochlea, where the process of transduction occurs and neural messages are sent to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe	24
6653974431	Sound Waves	Vibrations in the air. They travel through the air and are collected by our ears Sound waves have amplitude and frequency Amplitude is the height of the wave and determines the loudness of the sound, which is measured in decibels Frequency, which is measured in megahertz, refers to the length of the waves and determines pitch	25
6653981535	Cochlea	The process of transduction (where sound waves are changed into neural impulses) occurs in the cochlea Shaped like a snail's shell and filled with fluid. As sound waves move the fluid, hair cells move. Neurons are activated by movement of the hair cells. Neural messages are sent to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe	26
7218418379	Pitch Theories	Theories that explain how we hear different pitches or tones Place Theory explains that the hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound based on where they are located in the cochlea According to Frequency Theory, Place Theory accurately describes how hair cells sense the upper range of pitches but not the lower tones. Lower tones are sensed by the rate at which the cells fire. We sense pitch because the hair cells fire at different rates (frequencies) in the cochlea	27
7218428354	Nerve Deafness	Occurs when the hair cells in the cochlea have been damaged, usually by loud noise. In conduction deafness, the other type of deafness, something goes wrong with the system of conducting the sound to the cochlea (in the ear canal, eardrum, hammer/anvil/stirrup, or oval window). Difficult to treat because no method yet found that will encourage the hair cells to regenerate.	28
7218438083	Touch	Sense of touch is activated then our skin is indented, pierced, or experiences a change in temperature. Some nerve endings in the skin respond to pressure; others respond to temperature. Brain interprets the amount of indentation (or temperature change) as the intensity of the touch, from a light touch to a hard blow. We sense placement of the touch by the place on our body where the nerve endings fire. Nerve endings are more concentrated in different parts of our body. If we want to feel something, we usually use our fingertip, an area of high nerve concentration, rather than the back of our elbow, an area of low nerve concentration. Pain is a useful response because it warns us of potential danger.	29
7218467118	Gate-Control Theory	Explains how we experience pain Some pain messages have a higher priority than others. When a high-priority message is sent, the gate swings open for it an shut for low-priority messages, which will not be felt. Of course, this gate is not a physical gate swinging in the nerve, it is just a convenient way to understand how pain messages are sent. For example, when you scratch an itch, the gate swings open for your high-intensity scratching and shuts for low-intensity itching; this stops the itching for a short period of time. Endorphins, or pain-killing chemicals in the body, also swing the gate shut. Natural endorphins in the brain, which are chemically similar to opiates like morphine, control pain.	30
7221769598	Taste (or Gustation)	Nerves involved in the chemical senses (taste and smell) respond to chemicals rather than to energy. Taste buds on the tongue absorb chemicals from the food we eat. Taste buds are located on papillae, the bumps you can see on your tongue. Taste buds are located all over the tongue and on some parts of the inside of the cheeks and roof of the mouth. Humans sense five different types of tastes: sweet, salty, sour, umami, and bitter. People differ in their ability to taste food. The more densely packed the taste buds, the more chemicals are absorbed, and the more intensely the food is tasted. The flavor of food is actually a combination of taste and smell.	31
7221788287	Smell (or Olfaction)	Molecules of substances rise into the air and are drawn into our nose. The molecules settle in a mucous membrane at the top of each nostril and are absorbed by receptor cells located there. As many as 100 different types of smell receptors may exist. These receptor cells are linked to the olfactory bulb, which gathers the messages from the olfactory receptor cells and send this information to the brain. Nerve fibers from the olfactory bulb connect to the brain at the amygdala and then to the hippocampus, which make up the limbic system, which is responsible for emotional impulses and memory. This direct connection to the limbic system may explain why smell is such a powerful trigger for memory.	32
7222990504	Vestibular Sense	Our vestibular sense tells us about how our body is oriented in space. Three semicircular canals in the inner ear give the brain feedback about body orientation. When the position of your head changes, the fluid moves in the canals, causing sensors in the canals to move. The movement of these hair cells activate neurons, and their impulses go to the brain. For example, our vestibular sense helps us figure out which way is up or down when doing a flip.	33
7223030304	Kinesthetic Sense	Gives us feedback about the position and orientation of specific body parts. Receptors in our muscles and joints send information to our brain about our limbs. This information, combined with visual feedback, lets us keep track of our body.	34
7223033851	Absolute Threshold	Smallest amount of stimulus we can perceive. Technical definition - the minimal amount of stimulus we can detect 50 percent of the time.	35
7223039246	Subliminal Messages	Stimuli below our absolute threshold. Research does not support claim that subliminal messages affect our behavior in overt ways.	36
7223042452	Difference Threshold (also Just-Noticeable Difference)	Smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we detect a change. Computed by Weber's law, named after psychophysicist Ernst Weber. Change needed is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus. The more intense the stimulus, the more it will need to change before we notice a difference.	37
7223049936	Weber's Law	Named after psychophysicist Ernst Weber Describes the difference thresholds for different senses. The change needed is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus. The more intense the stimulus is, the more it will need to change before we notice a difference.	38
7223060923	Signal Detection Theory	Investigates the effects of distractions and inferences we perceive while experiencing the world. Takes into account how motivated we are to detect certain stimuli and what we expect to perceive. These factors together are called response criteria. By using factors like response criteria, Signal Detection Theory tries to explain and predict the different perceptual mistakes we make (such as not seeing a stop sign, or thinking that you see a friend in the distance when you are actually seeing a stranger.)	39
7249985242	Top-Down Processing	When we use top-down processing, we perceive by filling in gaps in what we sense. Occurs when you use your background knowledge to fill in gaps in what you perceive. Our experience creates schemata, mental representations of how we expect our world to be. Our schemata influence how we perceive the world. Schemata can create a perceptual set, in which is a predisposition to perceiving something in a certain way.	40
7250002667	Perceptual Set	Our experience creates schemata, mental representations of how we expect the world to be. Our schemata influence how we perceive the world. Schemata can create a perceptual set, which is predisposition to perceiving something in a certain way. For example, you may perceive a cloud as being shaped like a heart around Valentine's Day.	41
7250016374	Bottom-Up Processing (also Feature Analysis)	Opposite of top-down processing. Instead of using our experience to perceive an object, we use only the features of the object itself to build a complete perception. We start our perception at the bottom with the individual characteristics of the image and put all those characteristics together into our final perception. Our minds build the picture from the bottom up using basic characteristics.	42
7250033103	Gestalt Rules	Developed by a group of researchers from the early 20th century who described the principles that govern how we perceive groups of objects (e.g. proximity, similarity, continuity, closure). Based on observation that we normally perceive images as groups, not isolated elements. This process believe to be innate and inevitable.	43
7250056916	Constancy	Every object we see changes minutely from moment to moment due to our changing angle of vision, variations in light, and so on. Our ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite these challenges. Several types of constancy: size constancy, shape constancy, and brightness constancy.	44
7250066596	Size Constancy	Objects closer to our eyes will produce bigger images on our retinas, but we take distance into account in our estimations of size. We keep a constant size in mind for an object (if we are familiar with the typical size of the object) and know that it does not grow or shrink in size as it moves closer or farther away.	45
7250077320	Shape Constancy	Objects viewed from different angles will produce different shapes on our retinas, but we know the shape of an object remains constant. For example, the top of a coffee mug viewed from a certain angle will produce an elliptical image on our retinas, but we know the top is circular due to shape constancy.	46
7250091056	Brightness Constancy	We perceive objects as being constant color even as the light reflecting off the objects changes. For example, we will perceive a brick wall as brick red even as the daylight fades and the actual color reflected from the wall turned gray.	47
7250097830	Depth Cues	Researchers divide the cues that we use to perceive depth into two categories: Monocular cues - Depth cues that do not depend on having two eyes (e.g., linear perspective, interposition, shading, and texture gradient). Binocular cues - Cues that depend on having two eyes (e.g., retinal disparity and convergence).	48

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AP Spanish Tema 4 Flashcards

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9523869543	La docencia / el docente	Teaching / the teacher	0
9523869544	La aptitude / la habilidad	The ability	1
9523869545	El conocimiento	the knowledge	2
9523869546	La enseñanza	The teaching	3
9523869547	El riesgo / el desafío	the risk / the challenge	4
9523869548	Los derechos	the rights / the law	5
9523869549	Aprovechar	To take advantage of	6
9523869550	La destreza	The skill	7
9523869551	El día habil	The work day	8
9523869552	El aula	The classroom	9
9523869553	La escasez	The lack of / scarcity / shortage	10
9523869554	equivocarse	To make a mistake / error	11
9523869555	La propagación	The spreading / the dissemination	12
9523869556	El porvenir	The future	13
9523869557	La apuesta	A bet / a prediction	14
9523869558	El anhelo	The desire / the longing	15
9523869559	Aportar	To contribute	16
9523869560	La fortaleza	The strength	17
9523869561	La debilidad	The weakness	18
9523869562	La remuneración	The payment / the compensation	19
9523869563	El consejo	The advice	20
9523869564	La abogacía	The legal profession	21
9523869565	Egresar	To graduate	22
9523869566	El aprendizaje	The learning	23
9523869567	Por lo tanto	Therefore	24
9523869568	Conviene indicar	It is important to point out	25
9523869569	Tiempo disponible	Available time	26
9523869570	Constar de	To consist of	27
9523869571	Dar en el blanco	To hit the target / to hit the nail on the head	28
9523869572	La broma	The joke / the prank	29
9523869573	La diversión	The pastime / fun / hobby	30
9523869574	El entretenimiento	The entertainment	31
9523869575	El género	The genre	32
9523869576	Provenir de	To originate / to come from	33
9523869577	Soler	To usually do / to tend to do	34
9523869578	Autóctono	Indigenous / native	35
9523869579	Ajeno/a -- / ajeno a	Foreign / belonging to another / unaware	36
9523869580	El rasgo	Feature / trait / characteristic	37
9523869581	Alimenticia	Nourishing	38
9523869582	La gastronomía	Gastronomy / the art of cooking, eating	39
9523869583	El concurso	A competition / contest	40
9523869584	Esforzarse	To make an effort / strain	41
9523869585	Conseguir	To get, to obtain	42
9523869586	Darse por vencido	To give up	43
9523869587	Enriquecer	To enrich	44
9523869588	La lengua materna	The mother tongue	45
9523869589	El aprendizaje	The learning	46
9523869590	La semenjanza	The similarity, resemblance	47
9523869591	La fluidez	The fluency	48
9523869592	El entretenimiento pasajero	The fleeting entertainment	49
9523869593	El lugareño	The local inhabitant	50
9523869594	El árbitro	The referee	51
9523869595	Desfilar	To parade, to pass by	52
9523869596	A las damas	Checkers (the game)	53
9523869597	De ese modo	In that manner	54
9523869598	Por lo general	Generally	55
9523869599	De hecho	As a matter of fact	56
9523869600	Ya que	Since	57
9523869601	El ocio	The leisure	58
9523869602	El sitio	The place	59
9523869603	Influir	To influence	60
9523869604	El salvavidas	The life jacket, the lifeguard	61
9523869605	La colina	The hill	62
9523869606	Despegar / aterrizar	To take off / to land	63
9523869607	A pie / de pie	On foot / standing up	64
9523869608	El barco de vela	The sailboat	65
9523869609	La trama	The plot, the conspiracy	66
9523869610	El chiste	The joke	67
9523869611	El tuteo	use of "tú" form of address, as opposed to formal "usted" form	68
9523869612	El emoticon	The emotion icon	69
9523869613	El bienestar	The well being	70
9523869614	La suerte	The luck	71
9523869615	La creencia	The belief	72
9523869616	El recorrido / recorrer	The trip, tour / To travel around, to traverse	73
9523869617	La afición	The fondness, the interest, the passion	74
9523869618	Disfrutar	To enjoy	75
9523869619	Brindar	To drink a toast, to offer, to give	76
9523869620	Una Buena vista / el punto de vista	A good view / a point of view	77
9523869621	El firmamento	The sky, the heavens	78
9523869622	Despejado	Clear, alert	79
9523869623	celeste	Sky blue, heavenly	80
9523869624	Por un lado/por otro lado	On the one hand / on the other hand	81
9523869625	En otras palabras	In other words,	82
9523869626	En realidad	Actually, in fact	83
9523869627	En resumen	In short,	84
9523869628	El ser humano	The human being	85
9523869629	La Amistad / la confianza	The friendship	86
9523869630	Nutrir	To nourish	87
9523869631	La antipatía	The dislike	88
9523869632	El rencor	The resentment, bitterness, had feelings	89
9523869633	Los altibajos	The ups and downs	90
9523869634	La etapa	The phase, a period of time, the stage	91
9523869635	El gesto	The gesture	92
9523869636	El valor, valorar	The value, to value	93
9523869637	El deber	The duty	94
9523869638	La niñez/ la juventud / al adultez / la vejez	Childhood / youth / adulthood / elderly age	95
9523869639	Pelearse	To argue, to fight,	96
9523869640	La seriedad / la tontería	The seriousness / the foolishness	97
9523869641	El enfado / la felicidad	The anger / the happiness	98
9523869642	La vergüenza / la rabia	The shame, embarrassment / the rage	99
9523869643	La comodidad / el orgullo	The comfort / the pride	100
9523869644	Forjar	To build up, to forge	101
9523869645	Perdurable	Long-lasting, eternal	102
9523869646	El cariño, afecto	The affection, the caress	103
9523869647	La pureza	The purity	104
9523869648	La ductilidad	The malleability, easy to mold	105
9523869649	La validez	The validity	106
9523869650	semejante	Similar, alike, such	107
9523869651	Hay que tomar en cuenta	One must consider that	108
9523869652	No cabe duda que	No doubt that	109
9523869653	A causa de	Because of	110
9523869654	A fin de cuentas	After all,	111
9523869655	La lealtad	The loyalty	112
9523869656	El sentido de humor	The sense of humor	113
9523869657	Extrañar	The miss someone who is far away	114
9523869658	afligirse	To suffer, to grieve	115
9523869659	Llevarse bien / llevarse mal	To get along well, to get along poorly	116
9523869660	Borrar	To erase	117

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AP Vocabulary List 24 Flashcards

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6166531445	adroitly	in a clever and skillful way	0
6166531446	allocation	the action to set apart for a particular purpose; assign; allot	1
6166532925	ascetic	a person who dedicates his or her life to a pursuit of contemplative ideals and practices self-mortification for religious reasons; monk; hermit	2
6166532926	beguile	charm or enchant someone, sometimes in a deceptive way	3
6166532927	enjoin	to instruct or urge someone to do something	4
6166534879	envoy	a diplomatic agent	5
6166534880	ideology	a system of ideas and ideals, especially one that forms the basis of political theory and policy	6
6166534881	interloper	a person who interferes or meddles in the affairs of others	7
6166536860	kowtow	to act in an excessively subservient manner	8
6166536861	vicarious	experienced in the imagination through the feelings or actions of another person	9

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AP Psychology AP Review Flashcards

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9781387145	psychology	the study of behavior and mental processes	0
9781387146	psychology's biggest question	Which is more important in determining behavior, nature or nurture?	1
9781387147	psychology's three levels of analysis	biopsychosocial approach (looks at the biological, psychological, and social-cultural approaches together)	2
9781387148	biological approach	genetics, close-relatives, body functions	3
9781387149	evolutionary approach	species - helped with survival (ancestors)	4
9781387150	psychodynamic approach	(Freud) subconscious, repressed feelings, unfulfilled wishes	5
9781387151	behavioral approach	learning (classical and operant) observed	6
9781387152	cognitive approach	thinking affects behavior	7
9781387153	humanistic approach	becoming a better human (behavior, acceptance)	8
9781387154	social-cultural approach	cultural, family, environment	9
9781387155	two reasons of why experiments are important	hindsight bias + overconfidence	10
9781387156	types of research methods	descriptive, correlational, and experimental	11
9781387157	descriptive methods	case study survey naturalistic observation (DON'T SHOW CAUSE/EFFECT)	12
9781387158	case study	studies one person in depth may not be typical of population	13
9781387159	survey	studies lots of people not in depth	14
9781387160	naturalistic observation	observe + write facts without interference	15
9781387161	correlational method	shows relation, but not cause/effect scatterplots show research	16
9781387162	correlation coefficient	+ 1.0 (both increase) 0 (no correlation - 1.0 (one increases, other decreases)	17
9781387163	experimental method	does show cause and effect	18
9781387164	population	type of people who are going to be used in experiment	19
9781387165	sample	actual people who will be used (randomness reduces bias)	20
9781387166	random assignment	chance selection between experimental and control groups	21
9781387167	control group	not receiving experimental treatment receives placebo	22
9781387168	experimental group	receiving treatment/drug	23
9781387169	independent variable	drug/procedure/treatment	24
9781387170	dependent variable	outcome of using the drug/treatment	25
9781387171	confounding variable	can affect dependent variable beyond experiment's control	26
9781387172	scientific method	theory hypothesis operational definition revision	27
9781387173	theory	general idea being tested	28
9781387174	hypothesis	measurable/specific	29
9781387175	operational definition	procedures that explain components	30
9781387176	mode	appears the most	31
9781387177	mean	average	32
9781387178	median	middle	33
9781387179	range	highest - lowest	34
9781387180	standard deviation	how scores vary around the mean	35
9781387181	central tendency	single score that represents the whole	36
9781387182	bell curve	(natural curve)	37
9781387183	ethics of testing on animals	need to be treated humanly basically similar to humans	38
9781387184	ethics of testing on humans	consent debriefing no unnecessary discomfort/pain confidentiality	39
9781387185	sensory neurons	travel from sensory receptors to brain	40
9781387186	motor neurons	travel from brain to "motor" workings	41
9781387187	interneurons	(in brain and spinal cord) connecting motor and sensory neurons	42
9781387381	neuron		43
9781387188	dendrites	receive messages from other neurons	44
9781387189	myelin sheath	protects the axon	45
9781387190	axon	where charges travel from cell body to axon terminal	46
9781387191	neurotransmitters	chemical messengers	47
9781387192	reuptake	extra neurotransmitters are taken back	48
9781387193	excitatory charge	"Let's do it!"	49
9781387194	inhibitory charge	"Let's not do it!"	50
9781387195	central nervous system	brain and spinal cord	51
9781387196	peripheral nervous system	somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system	52
9781387197	somatic nervous system	voluntary movements	53
9781387198	autonomic nervous system	involuntary movements (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems)	54
9781387199	sympathetic nervous system	arousing	55
9781387200	parasympathetic nervous system	calming	56
9781387201	neural networks	more connections form with greater use others fall away if not used	57
9781387202	spinal cord	expressway of information bypasses brain when reflexes involved	58
9781387203	endocrine system	slow uses hormones in the blood system	59
9781387204	master gland	pituitary gland	60
9781387205	brainstem	extension of the spinal cord responsible for automatic survival	61
9781387206	reticular formation (if stimulated)	sleeping subject wakes up	62
9781387207	reticular formation (if damaged)	coma	63
9781387208	brainstem (if severed)	still move (without purpose)	64
9781387209	thalamus	sensory switchboard (does not process smell)	65
9781387210	hypothalamus	basic behaviors (hunger, thirst, sex, blood chemistry)	66
9781387211	cerebellum	nonverbal memory, judge time, balance emotions, coordinate movements	67
9781387212	cerebellum (if damaged)	difficulty walking and coordinating	68
9781387213	amygdala	aggression, fear, and memory associated with these emotions	69
9781387214	amygdala (if lesioned)	subject is mellow	70
9781387215	amygdala (if stimulated)	aggressive	71
9781387216	hippocampus	process new memory	72
9781387217	cerebrum	two large hemispheres perceiving, thinking, and processing	73
9781387218	cerebral cortex	only in higher life forms	74
9781387219	association areas	integrate and interpret information	75
9781387220	glial cells	provide nutrients to myelin sheath marks intelligence higher proportion of glial cells to neurons	76
9781387221	frontal lobe	judgement, personality, processing (Phineas Gage accident)	77
9781387222	parietal lobe	math and spatial reasoning	78
9781387223	temporal lobe	audition and recognizing faces	79
9781387224	occipital lobe	vision	80
9781387225	corpus callosum	split in the brain to stop hyper-communication (eliminate epileptic seizures)	81
9781387226	Wernicke's area	interprets auditory and hearing	82
9781387227	Broca's area	speaking words	83
9781387228	plasticity	ability to adapt if damaged	84
9781387229	sensation	what our senses tell us	85
9781387230	bottom-up processing	senses to brain	86
9781387231	perception	what our brain tells us to do with that information	87
9781387232	top-down processing	brain to senses	88
9781387233	inattentional blindness	fail to "gorilla" because attention is elsewhere	89
9781387234	cocktail party effect	even with tons of stimuli, we are able to pick out our name, etc.	90
9781387235	change blindness	giving directions and person is changed and we don't notice	91
9781387236	choice blindness	when defending the choice we make, we fail to notice choice was changed	92
9781387237	absolute threshold	minimum stimulation needed in order to notice 50% of the time	93
9781387238	signal detection theory	we notice what is more important to us (rather hear a baby crying)	94
9781387239	JND (just noticeable difference)	(Weber's law) difference between different stimuli noticed in proportion	95
9781387240	sensory adaptation	tired of noticing (Brain says, "Been there, done that. Next?"	96
9781387241	rods	night time	97
9781387242	cones	color	98
9781387243	parallel processing	notice color, form, depth, movement, etc.	99
9781387244	Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory	3 corresponding color receptors (RGB)	100
9781387245	Hering's opponent-process theory	after image in opposite colors (RG, YB, WB)	101
9781387246	trichromatic + opponent-process	Young-Helmholtz -> color stimuli Hering -> en route to cortex	102
9781387247	frequency we hear most	human voice	103
9781387248	Helmoltz (hearing)	we hear different pitches in different places in basilar membrane (high pitches)	104
9781387249	frequency theory	impulse frequency (low pitches)	105
9781387250	Helmholtz + frequency theory	middle pitches	106
9781387251	Skin feels what?	warmth, cold, pressure, pain	107
9781387252	gate-control theory	small fibers - pain large fibers - other senses	108
9781387253	memory of pain	peaks and ends	109
9781387254	smell	close to memory section (not in thalamus)	110
9781387255	grouping	Gestalt make sense of pieces create a whole	111
9781387256	grouping groups	proximity similarity continuity connectedness closure	112
9781387257	make assumptions of placement	higher - farther smaller - farther blocking - closer, in front	113
9781387258	perception =	mood + motivation	114
9781387259	consciousness	awareness of ourselves and the environment	115
9781387260	circadian rhythm	daily biological clock and regular cycle (sleep and awake)	116
9781387261	circadian rhythm pattern	- activated by light - light sensitive retinal proteins signal brains SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) - pineal gland decreases melatonin	117
9781387262	What messes with circadian rhythm?	artificial light	118
9781387263	The whole sleep cycle lasts how long?	90 minutes	119
9781387264	sleep stages	relaxed stage (alpha waves) stage 1 (early sleep) (hallucinations) stage 2 (sleep spindles - bursts of activity) (sleep talk) stage 3 (transition phase) (delta waves) stage 4 (delta waves) (sleepwalk/talk + wet the bed) stage 5 (REM) (sensory-rich dreams) (paradoxical sleep)	120
9781387265	purpose of sleep	1. recuperation - repair neurons and allow unused neural connections to wither 2. making memories 3. body growth (children sleep more)	121
9781387266	insomnia	can't sleep	122
9781387267	narcolepsy	fall asleep anywhere at anytime	123
9781387268	sleep apnea	stop breathing in sleep	124
9781387269	night terrors	prevalent in children	125
9781387270	sleepwalking/sleeptalking	hereditary - prevalent in children	126
9781387271	dreaming (3)	1. vivid bizarre intense sensory experiences 2. carry fear/survival issues - vestiges of ancestors' survival ideas 2. replay previous day's experiences/worries	127
9781387272	purpose of dreaming (5 THEORIES)	1. physiological function - develop/preserve neural pathways 2. Freud's wish-fulfillment (manifest/latent content) 3. activation synthesis - make sense of stimulation originating in brain 4. information processing 5. cognitive development - reflective of intelligence	128
9781387273	1. Can hypnosis bring you back in time? 2. Can hypnosis make you do things you wouldn't normally do? 3. Can it alleviate pain? 4. What state are you in during hypnosis? 5. Who is more susceptible?	1. cannot take you back in time 2. cannot make you do things you won't do 3. can alleviate pain 4. fully conscious ((IMAGINATIVE PEOPLE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE))	129
9781387274	depressants	slows neural pathways	130
9781387275	alcohol	((depressant)) disrupts memory formation (REM) lowers inhibition expectancy effect	131
9781387276	barbituates (tranquilizers)	((depressant)) reduce anxiety	132
9781387277	opiates	((depressant)) pleasure reduce anxiety/pain	133
9781387278	stimulants	hypes neural processing	134
9781387279	methamphetamine	((stimulant)) heightens energy euphoria affects dopamine	135
9781387280	caffeine	((stimulant))	136
9781387281	nicotine	((stimulant)) CNS releases neurotransmitters calm anxiety reduce pain affects (nor)epinephrine and dopamine	137
9781387282	cocaine	((stimulant)) euphoria affects dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine	138
9781387283	hallucinogen	excites neural activity	139
9781387284	ecstasy	((hallucinogen)) reuptake is blocked affects dopamine and serotonin	140
9781387285	LSD	((hallucinogen)) affects sensory/emotional "trip" (+/-) affects serotonin	141
9781387286	marijuana	((hallucinogen)) amplify sensory experience disrupts memory formation	142
9781387287	learning	organism changing behavior due to experience (association of events)	143
9781387288	types of learning	classical operant observational	144
9781387289	famous classical psychologists	Pavlov and Watson	145
9781387290	famous operant psychologist	Skinner	146
9781387291	famous observational psychologists	Bandura	147
9781387292	classical conditioning	outside stimulus	148
9781387293	Pavlov's experiment	Step 1: US (food) -> UR (salivation) Step 2: NS (bell) -> US (food) -> UR (salivation) Later... CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)	149
9781387294	Watson's experiment	white rat was given to Little Albert Step 1: US (noise) -> UR (cry) Step 2: NS (rat) -> US (noise) -> UR (cry) Later... CS (rat) -> CR (cry)	150
9781387295	generalization	any small, white fluffy creature will make Albert cry now	151
9781387296	discriminate	any large, white fluffy creature won't make Albert cry	152
9781387297	extinction	stop "treating" with conditioned response	153
9781387298	spontaneous recovery	bring stimulus back after a while	154
9781387299	operant conditioning	control by organism	155
9781387300	Skinner's experiment	operant chamber / Skinner box (lead to shaping)	156
9781387301	shaping	get animal closer to doing what you want them to do	157
9781387302	reinforcers	want to continue behavior (positive reinforcement: give money to do laundry) (negative reinforcement: do to avoid nagging)	158
9781387303	punishments	want to stop behavior (positive reinforcement: smack) (negative reinforcement: take away phone)	159
9781387304	fixed ratio	happens a certain number of times (Starbucks punch card)	160
9781387305	variable ratio	happens an unpredictable number of times (winning the lottery)	161
9781387306	organism must do these (2 times)	fixed ratio and variable ratio	162
9781387307	fixed interval	happens at a certain time (mailman comes to the house at 10:00 AM)	163
9781387308	variable interval	happens at any time (receive texts from friends)	164
9781387309	these things happen regardless (2 times)	fixed interval and variable interval	165
9781387310	Which (fixed/variable) conditions better?	variable	166
9781387311	criticisms of Skinner	doesn't take into account intrinsic motivation	167
9781387312	intrinsic motivation	doing something for yourself, not the reward	168
9781387313	extrinsic motivation	doing something for reward	169
9781387314	Skinner's legacy	use it personally, at school, and at work	170
9781387315	famous observational experiment	Bandura's Bobo doll	171
9781387316	famous observational psychologist	Bandura	172
9781387317	mirror neurons	"feel" what is observed happens in higher order animals	173
9781387318	Bobo doll experiment legacy	violent video games/movies desensitize us see good: do good see evil: do evil	174
9781387319	observational learning	biological behaviors work best	175
9781387320	habituation	get used to it -> stop reacting	176
9781387321	examples for observational learning	lectures and reading	177
9781387322	serotonin involved with memory	speeds the connection between neurons	178
9781387323	LTP	((long-term potentiation)) strengthens potential neural forming (associated with speed)	179
9781387324	CREB	protein that can switch genes on/off with memory and connection of memories	180
9781387325	glutamate involved with memory	neurotransmitter that enhances LTP	181
9781387326	glucose involved with memory	released during strong emotions ((signaling important event to be remembered))	182
9781387327	flashbulb memory	type of memory remembered because it was an important/quick moment	183
9781387328	amygdala (memory)	boosts activity of proteins in memory-forming areas to fight/flight	184
9781387329	cerebellum (memory)	forms and stores implicit memories ((classical conditioning))	185
9781387330	hippocampus (memory)	active during sleep (forming memories) ((information "moves" after 48 hours))	186
9781387331	memory	learning over time contains information that can be retrieved	187
9781387332	processing stages	encoding -> storage -> retrieval	188
9781387333	encoding	information going in	189
9781387334	storage	keeping information in	190
9781387335	retrieval	taking information out	191
9781387336	How long is sensory memory stored?	seconds	192
9781387337	How long is short-term memory stored?	less than a minute	193
9781387338	How many bits of information is stored in short-term memory?	7	194
9781387339	How many chunks of information is stored in short-term memory?	4	195
9781387340	How many seconds of words is stored in short-term memory?	2	196
9781387341	short term memory goes to ______________	working memory	197
9781387342	working memory	make a connection and process information to mean something	198
9781387343	working memory goes to _________________	long-term memory	199
9781387344	How much is stored in long-term memory?	LIMITLESS	200
9781387345	implicit memory	naturally do	201
9781387346	explicit memory	need to explain	202
9781387347	automatic processing	space, time, frequency, well-learned information	203
9781387348	effortful processing	processing that requires effort	204
9781387349	spacing effect	spread out learning over time	205
9781387350	serial position effect	primary/recency effect	206
9781387351	primary effect	remember the first things in a list	207
9781387352	recency effect	remember the last things in a list	208
9781387353	effortful processing (4 things)	1. recency effect 2. spacing effect 3. testing effect 4. serial position effect	209
9781387354	semantic encoding (1) meaning (2) how to	make meaning out of something --- chunk, hierarchy, or connect to you	210
9781387355	if we can't remember a memory...	1. change memory to suit us 2. fill in the blanks with logical story	211
9781387356	misinformation effect	not correct information	212
9781387357	imagination inflation	imagine or visualize something that isn't real	213
9781387358	source amnesia	what is the truth? (is it a dream, story, memory, etc.?)	214
9781387359	priming	association (setting you up)	215
9781387360	context	environment helps with memory	216
9781387361	state-dependency	you may remember something if you go back to the state you were in (go back to high)	217
9781387362	mood-congruency	emotion will bring back similar emotional memories	218
9781387363	forgetting curve	forget after 5 days forget after 5 years	219
9781387364	the forgetting curve was created by	Ebbinghaus	220
9781387365	proactive interference	old information interferes with the new	221
9781387366	retroactive interference	new information interferes with the old	222
9781387367	children can't remember before age __	3	223
9781387368	Loftus	connected to abuse cases/childhood	224
9781387369	prototypes	generalize	225
9781387370	problem-solving (4)	trial + error algorithms heuristic (representative + availability) insight - "AHA!"	226
9781387371	against problem-solving	fixation	227
9781387372	mental set	what has worked in the past	228
9781387373	functional fixedness	only way to do this is with this	229
9781387374	Chomsky (nature or nurture?)	"born with language" (nature)	230
9781387375	Skinner (nature or nurture?)	language is learned (nurture)	231
9781387376	grammar is _________	universal	232
9781387377	phonemes	smallest sound unit	233
9781387378	morphemes	smallest meaning unit	234

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AP Government Congress Vocabulary Flashcards

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5948042341	Bicameral Legislature	A lawmaking body made up of two chambers or parts.	0
5948045364	Filibuster	An attempt to defeat a bill in the Senate by talking indefinitely, thus preventing the Senate from taking action on the bill.	1
5948056686	Marginal Districts	Political districts in which candidates elected to the House of Representatives win in close elections, typically by less than 55 percent of the vote.	2
5948065209	Safe Districts	Districts in which incumbents win by margins of 55 percent or more.	3
5948073555	Majority Leader	The legislative leader elected by party members holding the majority of seats in the House or the Senate.	4
5948078837	Minority Leader	The legislative leader elected by party members holding a minority of seats in the House or the Senate.	5
5948085054	Whip	A senator or representative who helps the party leader stay informed about what party members are thinking.	6
5948089753	Party Polarization	A vote in which a majority of Democratic legislators oppose a majority of Republican legislators.	7
5948097157	Caucus	An association of Congress members created to advance a political ideology or a regional, ethnic, or economic interest.	8
5948104126	Standing Committees	Permanently established legislative committees that consider and are responsible for legislation within a certain subject area.	9
5948112002	Select Committees	Congressional committees appointed for a limited time and purpose.	10
5948117262	Joint Committees	Committees on which both senators and representatives serve.	11
5948124660	Conference Committees	A joint committee appointed to resolve differences in the Senate and House versions of the same bill.	12
5948132769	Public Bill	A legislative bill that deals with matters of general concern.	13
5948137465	Private Bill	A legislative bill that deals only with specific, private, personal or local matters.	14
5948147745	Simple Resolution	An expression of opinion either in the House or Senate to settle procedural matters in either body.	15
5948154375	Concurrent Resolution	An expression of opinion without the force of law that requires the approval of both the House and Senate, but not the president	16
5948258084	Joint Resolution	A formal expression of congressional opinion that must be approved by both houses of Congress and by the president ; constitutional amendments need not be signed by the president	17
5948348460	Divided Government	One party controls the White House and another party controls one or both houses of Congress	18
5948354736	Unified Government	The same party controls the White House and both houses of Congress	19
5948366565	Earmarks	"Hidden" congressional provisions that direct the federal government to fund specific projects or that exempt specific persons or groups from paying specific federal taxes or fees	20
5948387353	Multiple Referral	A congressional process whereby a bill may be referred to several important committees.	21
5948391151	Sequential Referral	A congressional process by which a Speaker may send a bill to a second committee after the first is finished acting.	22
5948399515	Discharge Petition	A device by which any member of the House, after a committee has had the bill for 30 days, may petition to have it brought to the floor.	23
5948418716	Closed Rule	An order from the House Rules Committee that sets a time limit on debate; forbids a bill from being amended on the floor.	24
5948428209	Open Rule	An order from the House Rules Committee that permits a hill to be amended on the floor.	25
5948449670	Restrictive Rule	An order from the House Rules Committee that permits certain kinds of amendments but not others to be made into a bill on the floor.	26
5948467484	Quorum	The minimum number of members who must be present for business to be conducted in Congress.	27
5948473325	Quorum Call	A roll call in either house of Congress to see whether the minimum number of representatives required to conduct business is present.	28
5948482644	Cloture Rule	A rule used by the Senate to end or limit debate.	29
5948488361	Double-Tracking	A procedure to keep the Senate going during a filibuster in which the disputed bill is shelved temporarily so that the Senate can get on with other business.	30
5948500138	Voice Vote	A congressional voting procedure in which members shout "yea" in approval or "nay" in disapproval, permitting members to vote quickly or anonymously on bills.	31
5948509769	Division Vote	A congressional voting procedure in which members stand are counted.	32
5948517738	Teller Vote	A congressional voting procedure in which members pass between two tellers, the "yeas" first and the "nays" second.	33
5948524857	Roll Call	A congressional voting procedure that consists of members answering "yea" or "nay" to their names.	34
5948544984	Pork-Barrel Legislation	Legislation that gives tangible benefits to constituents in several districts or states in the hope of winning their votes in return.	35
5948555342	Franking Privilege	The ability of members to mail letters to their constituents free of charge by substituting their facsimile signature for postage.	36
5948592748	Rider	A provision added to a piece of legislation not germane to the bill's purpose.	37
5948596622	Christmas Tree Bill	When a bill has lots of riders.	38

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AP List 6 Flashcards

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6157990368	adulation	High praise	0
6157990369	Censure	To criticize harshly, blame	1
6157992612	Dissemble	(v) to present a false appearance; to disguise one's real intentions or character	2
6157992613	Dissimulation	(n) The concealment of one's thoughts, feelings, or character; pretense	3
6157992614	Droll	Amusing in an odd way	4
6157998927	Expectorate	cough up and spit out mucus from the respiratory tract	5
6157998928	Palpate	to examine by touch, especially for the purpose of diagnosing disease or illness	6
6158002952	Peremptory	Leaving no opportunity for denial or refusal	7
6158005114	Pusillanimous	Cowardly, timid	8
6158009074	surfeit	excessive amount	9

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AP Biology- Chapter 22 Flashcards

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5783346817	Charles Darwin	1) published "The Origin of Species" 2) based off observations made on round-the-world journey as naturalist on H.M.S. Beagle 3) conclusions: current species are descendants of ancient species	0
5783346818	Evolution	descent with modification; change over time; both pattern and process	1
5783346819	Aristotle	1) Greek philosopher 2) "Species are fixed" 3) Scala naturae	2
5783346820	Carolus Linnaeus	1) creationist 2) Adaptations= evidence of design 3) taxomy= classification of biological organisms	3
5783346821	Fossils	1) groundwork for Darwin's ideas 2) remains or traces of organisms from the past 3) usually found in sedimentary rock= appears in layers (strata)	4
5783346822	James Hutton & Charles Lyell	1) uniformitarianism= "earth has changed vis constant, slow processes" 2) influenced Darwin's thinking	5
5783346823	Jean-Baptist Lamarck	1) "species change through use and disuse of body parts" 2) "aquired characteristics can be inherited" 3) not supported by evidence	6
5783346824	Thomas Malthus	1) "Humans population would reach a maximum number" 2) "Controlled by famine, war, disease, etc." 3) Darwin applied this to other species	7
5783346825	Natural Selection	cause of adaptive evolution	8
5783346826	Artificial Selection	1) Humans have modified other species by selecting and breeding animals with desired traits 2) Darwin experimented with pigeon breeding to test natural selection	9
5783346827	Darwin's two main ideas:	1) descent with modification=all organisms are related through descent from an ancient common ancestor 2) explanation for life's unity and diversity	10
5783346828	Observation #1: Members of population often __________ _______ in their traits.	greatly vary	11
5783346829	Observation #2: Traits are __________ from parents to offspring.	inherited	12
5783346830	Observation #3: All species are capable of producing ______ offspring than environment can ___________.	more; support	13
5783346831	Observation #4: Owing to lack of ______ or other resources, many of these offspring do not __________.	food; survive	14
5783346832	Inference #1: Individuals whose parents give them _________ probability of surviving and _____________ in given environment tend to leave more ___________ than other individuals.	higher; reproducing; offspring	15
5783346833	Inference #2: The _________ ability of individuals to survive and __________ will lead to the accumulation of ____________ traits in the population over _______________.	unequal; reproduce; favorable; generation	16
5783346834	S.W.I.F.T	S~ struggle for existence W~ Whale of a lot of offspring I~ Individual variation F~ Fittest survive T~ Transmission of offspring	17
5783346835	"Fit"	ability to survive and reproduce in your particular environments	18
5783346836	"Adaptation"	trait that makes you more fit for your particular environment	19
5783346837	____________ DO NOT evolve--> ____________ evolve over long periods of time.	Individuals; populations	20
5783346838	Drug 3TC	designed to interfere and cause errors in the manufacture of DNA from the virus	21
5783346839	Rapid adaptation of bacteria= ?	challenge to our society	22
5783346840	Fossil Record provides evidence of:	1) extinction of species 2) origins of new groups 3) changes within groups over time	23
5783346841	Homology	similarity resulting from common ancestry	24
5783346842	Homologous structures	anatomical structures that function on a basic plan due to common ancestry; have differentiated to fit different function; verbrate	25
5783346843	Comparative Embryology	reveals anatomical homologies not visible in adult	26
5783346844	Vestigial Structure	1) remnants of features that served important homologies in organism's ancestors 2) have lost or reduced function	27
5783346845	Phylogenetic trees (AKA evolutionary trees)	1) show hypothesis of evolutionary relationships bet. different organismal groups 2) use many different types of data: anatomical differences & DNA sequence data	28
5783346846	Convergent Evolution	1) evolution of similar (analogous) features in distantly related groups 2) happen when groups independently adapt to similar environments in similar ways 3) does not provide ancestry	29
5783346847	Biogeography	geographic distribution of species (living and extinct)	30
5783346848	Islands	many species that are often closely related to species on the nearest mainland or island	31
5783346849	Pangea	single large continent formerly existing on Earth; separated by continental drift	32

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AP Biology Chapter 20 Flashcards

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4987705921	Phylogeny	- The evolutionary history of a species or group of species.	0
4987705922	Taxonomy	- The classification and naming or organisms.	1
4987705923	Binomial Nomenclature	- 2 part scientific naming format introduced by Carlos Linnaeus - 1st part- genus to which the species belongs. - 2nd part- specific epithet unique for each species. - Ex. Panthera pardus	2
4987705924	Linnaean System	- Related genera. 1. Family 2. Order 3. Class 4. Phyla 5. Kingdom 6. Domain	3
4987705925	Phylogenetic tree	- Branching diagram that represents the evolutionary history of a group of organisms. - Evolutionary relationships. - Has branch points that indicate the divergence of 2 evolutionary lineages from a common ancestor. - Shows patterns of descent. - Sequence of branching does not indicate the absolute ages of the particular species. - You cannot assume that a taxon evolved from the taxon next to it.	4
4987705926	Sister taxa	- Groups of organisms that share an immediate common ancestor.	5
4987705927	Homologies	- Phenotypic and genetic similarities due to shared ancestry. - Organisms with similar morphologies and DNA sequences are more likely to be related, although this is not always the case. - More elements similar in two complex structures- organisms might be homologous.	6
4987705928	Analogy	- Similarity due to convergent evolution. - Ex. Bat's wings and bird's wings are analogous.	7
4987705929	Convergent Evolution	- Occurs when similar environmental pressures and natural selection produce similar (analogous) adaptations in organisms from different evolutionary lineages.	8
4987705930	Homoplasies	- Analogous structures that arose independently.	9
4987705931	Cladistics	- Approach to systematics where common ancestry is the primary criterion used to classify organisms. - Organisms are grouped into clades	10
4987705932	Clades	- Includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants. - Nested within larger clades.	11
4987705933	Monophyletic	- A taxon that forms a clade since it consists of an ancestral species and all of its descendants.	12
4987705934	Paraphyletic	- A group that consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of its descendants. - Most recent common ancestor of all members of the group is part of the group.	13
4987705935	Polyphyletic	- A group which includes taxa with different ancestors. - Most recent common ancestor is not part of the group.	14
4987705936	Shared ancestral character	- A character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon. - Ex. Backbone of mammals (predates the branching of mammals from other vertebrates)	15
4987705937	Shared derived character	- An evolutionary novelty unique to a clade. - Ex. Hair (not found in all mammals)	16
4987705938	Outgroup	- Used when inferring phylogenies - A species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that includes the species were are studying. - Can be determined by morphology, paleontology, embryonic development and gene sequences.	17
4987705939	Ingroup	- Used when inferring phylogenies - The species that is being studied.	18
4987705940	Maximum parsimony	- Principle that says one should first investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts when finding the most accurate phylogenetic tree. - Trees base don morphology → most parsimonious tree requires the fewest evolutionary events. - Based on DNA- most parsimonious tree requires fewest base changes.	19
4987705941	Molecular Clocks	- An approach for measuring the absolute time of evolutionary change based on the observation that some genes and other regions of genomes appear to evolve at constant rates. - # of nucleotide substitutions in related genes is proportional to the time that has elapsed since the genes branched from their common ancestor. - Clock speed- many mutations are neither beneficial nor detrimental.	20
4987705942	From 2 Kingdoms to 3 Domains	- Taxonomists once classified all species into 2 kingdoms: plants and animals. - 5 kingdoms recognized later: monera, protista, plantae, fungi, and animalia. - Prokaryotes separated from eukaryotes in Monera. - Problem: differences between prokaryotes can be drastic. - New 3 domain system: Bacteria, archaea and eukarya. - Bacteria: consists of prokaryotes - Archaea: consists of diverse group of prokaryotes - Eukarya: organisms with a nuclei.	21

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