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AP Biology Nervous System Flashcards

9876603073	neuron	main cell of the nervous system	0
9876603074	glial cells	cells that support neurons (ex: Schwann cells)	1
9876603075	cell body	contains nucleus of the neuron	2
9876603076	dendrite	receive stimuli; highly branched extensions	3
9876603077	axon	conduct and propagate impulses	4
9876603078	Schwann cell	creates the myelin sheath	5
9876603079	node of Ranvier	gap between myelin sheaths that expose the axon, help accelerate impulses	6
9876603080	sensory neuron	pick up stimuli from the environment and send to the brain	7
9876603081	motor neuron	sends impulses to muscles to create movement	8
9876603082	interneuron	neurons in the CNS that communicate internally and connect sensory to motor neurons; are responsible for reflexes	9
9876603083	resting potential	membrane potential of a neuron that is not firing, -70 mV	10
9876603084	sodium-potassium pump	protein that uses active transport to move 3 Na out of the membrane and 2 K in, which resets the neuron to resting potential	11
9876603085	action potential	rapid change in the voltage between the membrane of a neuron in response to a stimulus	12
9876603086	threshold	the voltage needed to open the voltage gated Na channels and start the unstoppable flow of Na into the cell, -55 mV	13
9876603087	depolarization	the massive influx of Na causes the cell's voltage to become less negative, all the way up to 35 mV	14
9876603088	repolarization	Na channels close and K channels open, which allows K out of cell so the cell is more negative	15
9876603089	hyperpolarization	because K channels are slow to close, the voltage reaches -80 mV, and causes the Na/K pump to reset the neuron	16
9876603090	refractory period	period where the neuron resets using the Na/K pump before a neuron can be fired again	17
9876603091	synapse	transmission of information is from one neuron to the next	18
9876603092	neurotransmitter	molecule that neurons use in synaptic transmission	19
9876603093	synaptic vesicle	hold the neurotransmitters in the presynaptic neuron	20
9876603094	postsynaptic receptor	receive neurotransmitters and open Na gated ion channels to start another action potential	21
9876603095	synaptic cleft	space between the pre and postsynaptic neurons	22
9876603096	myelin sheath	insulates the axon and speeds transmission of the impulse	23
9876603097	afferent pathway	signal received from outside your nervous system and conducted toward it	24
9876603098	efferent pathway	carry signals away from the central nervous system toward muscle cells or glandular cells	25
9876603099	dopamine	neurotransmitter that controls the brain's reward and pleasure center	26
9876603100	serotonin	neurotransmitter responsible for maintaining mood balance	27
9876603101	GABA	neurotransmitter that inhibits nerve impulse from being transmitted	28
9876603102	ion-gated channels	proteins responsible for allowing sodium or potassium to diffuse into or out of the axon	29
9876603103	sodium	ion responsible for depolarization	30
9876603104	potassium	ion responsible for repolarization	31
9876603105	calcium	ion that signals vesicles to release neurotransmitters	32

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APES Friedland Chapter 8 Flashcards

Essential vocabulary for Friedland and Relyea Environmental Science 2nd Edition - Module 24 and 25.

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5537389032	Core	innermost zone of the earth, mostly nickel and iron	0
5537389033	Mantle	contains molten rock, above core	1
5537389034	Magma	molten rock inside the earth	2
5537389035	Asthenosphere	outer mantle, semi-molten rock	3
5537389036	Lithosphere	brittle outermost layer of the earth	4
5537389037	Hot spots	weak areas in crust where hot molten materials reach surface	5
5537389038	Plate Tectonics	theory that crustal plates on surface are in motion	6
5537389039	Subduction	one crustal plate converging under another	7
5537389040	Volcano	vent in Earth's surface that emits gas, ash and molten lava	8
5537389041	Divergent Plate Boundary	two crustal plates move apart	9
5537389042	Seafloor Spreading	diverging plates underwater	10
5537389043	Convergent Plate Boundary	two crustal plates move together	11
5537389044	Transform Fault Boundary	two crustal plates slide along side each other	12
5537389045	Fault	crack in the earth's crust	13
5537389046	Earthquakes	rocks of the lithosphere rupture and unexpectedly slip along fault	14
5537389047	Seismic Activity	geologic activity surrounding a fault zone	15
5537389048	Epicenter	point on surface of earth above earthquake	16
5537389049	Richter Scale	reports magnitude of earthquake, logarthmic	17
5537389050	Minerals	solid chemical substances with uniform crystalline structures	18
5537389051	Rock Cycle	forms new rock by erosion, compression and heat	19
5537389052	Igenous Rock	rock formed from hardened molten materials	20
5537389053	Intrusive	rock formed inside earth, small crystals, igneous	21
5537389054	Extrusive	rock formed outside earth, large crystals, igneous	22
5537389055	Fractures	cracks formed when rocks cool	23
5537389056	Sedimentary Rock	rock formed from compression and compaction of eroded rock particles	24
5537389057	Metamorphic Rock	rock formed from heating and compressing other rocks	25
5537389058	Physical Weathering	mechanical breakdown of rock by water and wind	26
5537389059	Chemical Weathering	breakdown of rock by chemical reactions, dissolving of elements	27
5537389060	Acid Precipitation	acidic atmospheric moisture that breaks down rocks and minerals	28
5537389061	Erosion	physical removal of rock fragments	29
5537389062	Deposition	accumulation or depositing of eroded material	30
5537389063	Soil	mixture of geologic, chemical and biological components that support plant growth	31
5537389064	Parent Material	rocks and minerals that make up soil and other rocks	32
5537389065	Topography	lay of the land, surface slope and arrangement of landscape	33
5537389066	Soil Horizons	layers of soil that depend on climate, vegetation and parent material	34
5537389067	O-Horizon	organic top layer of soil, contains leaf litter	35
5537389068	A-Horizon	topsoil layer	36
5537389069	E-Horizon	zone of leaching, nutrients removed	37
5537389070	B-Horizon	subsoil, composed primarily of mineral material, low organics	38
5537389071	C-Horizon	weathered parent material	39
5537389072	Texture	determined by percentages of sand, silt, and clay	40
5537389073	Soil Pyramid	used to determine soil texture	41
5537389074	Cation Exchange Capacity	nutrient holding capacity of soil	42
5537389075	Base Saturation	measure of the proportion of soil bases to soil acids	43
5537389076	Soil Degradation	loss of some or all of the ability of soils to support growth	44
5537389077	Crustal Abundance	average concentration of an element in the crust	45
5537389078	Ores	concentrated accumulations of minerals from which valuable materials can be extracted	46
5537389079	Metals	elements with properties that allow them to conduct electricity	47
5537389080	Reserve	the known quantity of the resource that can be economically recovered	48
5537389081	Strip Mining	removal of strips of soil and rock to expose ore	49
5537389082	Mining Spoils	unwanted waste material from mining	50
5537389083	Open-Pit Mining	large pit or hole in the ground for easy extraction of materials	51
5537389084	Mountaintop Removal	miners remove mountaintop to extact materials	52
5537389085	Placer Mining	process of looking for metals or minerals in stream sediment	53
5537389086	surface mining	The extraction of mineral and energy resources near Earth's surface by first removing the soil, subsoil, and overlying rock strata.	54
5537389087	tectonic cycle	the sum of the processes that build up and break down the lithosphere	55
5537389088	subsurface mining	Used when desired resource is more than 100m below Earth's surface.	56
5537389089	crust	The thin and solid outermost layer of the Earth above the mantle	57
5537389090	fault zone	a large expanse of rock where a fault has occurred.	58

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AP World History Chapter 4-6 Flashcards

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4843980514	Indra	Was the epitome of Aryan attitude. He was tough, bellicose and fearless.	0
4843980515	Harappan Society	Between 8000 and 5000 BCE, agricultural Neolithic society was created on the Indus River Valley 1) Named for Harappa, one of the two major cities 2) Due to flooding the ruins are inaccessible 3) They had a written language but its not decipherable Had cattle, sheep, goats, and 1st known to domesticate chicken	1
4843980516	Indus River	Not unlike the Nile, water for agriculture from the "Hindu Kush"	2
4843980517	Dravidian Complex Society	3000-2500 BCE - South India	3
4843980518	Mohenjo-Daro and Harrapa	1) Walled but no proof of violence nor weapons 2) Populations of 30k-40k 3) Had social structure 4) Had indoor plumbing (healthier) 5) Economic and political organization 6) Had art 7) Had religion 8) Ecological Devastation a) topsoil b) floods c) deforestation d) climate change e) earthquakes	4
4843980519	The Aryans	North India Are Indo-Europeans with an attitude. They fought everyone! 1) Called noble people "wheat colored" while others were called "dosa" or subjects 2) Migrate from Ukraine region, took centuries 3) Full of themselves 4) Fought everyone even themselves 5) Had Indo- European Language 6) Domesticated cattle for beef and dairy	5
4843980520	The Vedas	1) Songs and poems memorized through generation (not written) 2) Prakrit - common language : base of Hindi/Bengali/Erdu 3) Rig Veda 1500 BCE the Vedic Age-most important of veda 4) Raja - leader (rex=king in latin) 5) Centuries of migration- NOT AN INVASION - first arrived in punjab area 6) Rice - Aryans cultivate rice; Dravidians were all about wheat and barley	6
4843980521	How Social Structure changed under the Aryans	1) Tribal leaders-of small settlements 2) Large imperial states 4th century BCE 3) Caste System - strict social hierarchy with hereditary distinction	7
4843980522	Casta	Term from Portuguese (first in India) upon observation of Indian Social Structure	8
4843980523	Sanskrit Varna	Varna means color	9
4843980524	Intermixing blurs the aspect of color	Intermarriage blurs the lines between Dravidian and Aryan	10
4843980525	The Late Vedic Age	1) Brahmin - priest or holy men 2) Kshatriya - warrior and aristocrats 3) Vaishya - farmers, merchants, and artisans 4) Shudra - Landless peasants or serfs Later adds the untouchables (ignored)	11
4844363746	Caste and Jati	Jati means sub-caste which usually means the person's occupation. Larger societies tend to produce more occupational sub-castes. These Jati are somewhat like an insurance plan.	12
4844373135	Social Mobility under the Caste System India	It was somewhat flexible at first, but it was much easier to move downwards than to go up.	13
4844381161	Caste and Jati Patriarchy India	Aryans brought a strong sense of male control. Education and faith leadership fell to the men.	14
4844395723	The Law of Manu	According to legend, Manu founded the human race. These laws made sure that everyone (especially women) knew their place in society. Dealt with moral behavior +class+social relations.	15
4844526976	Aryan's 1st Language	Aryans did not bring the 1st written language to India. It already existed, even if it is indecipherable (Harrapan language).	16
4844400149	Sati or suttee	Was performed by the upper caste. This was the burning of an alive women after their husband died, on a pike. Husband burns in a pike area and women is suppose to throw themselves at funeral.	17
4844437985	Aryan Religion	Indra and Varuna: Indra-warrior God Varuna- Less violent, more of everyday living, oversaw mortal behavior and kept order Blending of Dravidian and Aryan will become the basis of the Hindu faith. (Peace) House of Clay-Hell World of the Fathers-Heaven Animal Sacrifice - fell out of fashion as the Dravidian concept of mystical Union became more popular	18
4844455919	*The Upanishads	What are they? Commentaries on the Vedas, explaining them. What does the term mean? "Sitting in front of" as in disciples listening to the words of a sage (wise person) SOME DISCIPLES ARE WOMEN	19
4844466485	Samsara	Rebirth of soul	20
4844467104	Karma	Actual incarnation (man or beast)	21
4844468126	Moksha	Cut all ties with the physical world and self, thereby reaching the reality of the Brahman. To achieve this, one must follow asceticism, self-denial giving everything up and meditation.	22
4844479829	Commentaries on Lifestyle India	1) Personal Integrity - respect for all living things often led to vegetarianism 2) Honesty, charity and mercy 3) Reincarnation- the goal is to get off the merry-go-round and stay with the universal soul -each person is a part of the universal soul	23
4844504286	Aryans Used _________ Drink	They used a hallucinogenic drink called SOMA	24
4853458922	King Yu and The Yellow River	First leader to address Yellow river problem "May be fictional"	25
4853458923	The Importance of the Yellow River 黄河	1) water source-came from Tibet 2) Loess soil (yellow) carried in it 3) Named China's sorrow 4) Rich soil contributes to agriculture	26
4853458924	Chinese Neolithic Societies	Yangshao - 5000BCE to 3000BCE Banpo-city, houses existed, had POTTERY AND BONE TOOLS	27
4853458925	The Xia "kind of still under Neolithic Societies"	2200BCE - were first to attempt to organize public life*	28
4853458926	King Yu	Legendary ruler who constructed dams, dikes, and created a measure of flood control	29
4853458927	The Shang Dynasty 1766-1122BCE	1) Ao was the early capital city 2) They had written records 3) They strengthened control with advance technology-bronze but CONTROLLED WHO KNEW HOW TO USE IT 4) Horse and chariots from Indo-Europeans give them a military advantage a) No trading except with Mongols for their horses 5) Agriculture helped support their large army - 13,000 soldiers* 6) They had a network of walled towns 7) Lavish Tombs	30
4853458928	The Zhou 1122 to 256BCE	1) Gradually eclipsed the Shang 2) Mandate of Heaven (right to rule) 3) Political organizations a) Zhou laid the foundation for government and political legitimacy in Ancient China b) Used princes and relatives to rule regions but had a weak central government=strong regional powers. 4) Iron Metallurgy Eventually collapse because they couldn't control the use of iron, since other knew the Zhou were weakened 5) Fall of Zhou Thanks to nomadic invaders, they invaded the region DID NOT COPY CHINESE WAYS 6) Warring States (403-221 BCE) Chaotic Period at the end of the Zhou Dynasty Will not end until Qin she huang take control and cracks whip	31
4853458929	Mandate of Heaven	a) justification for Zhou to take over b) Son of Heaven is the ruler c) Role of leadership would be reserved for the person of integrity and of virtue (in theory)	32
4853458930	Ancient Chinese Social Order	Ruling Elite Artisans and Craftsman Peasants Slaves	33
4853458931	Ancient Chinese Ruling Elite	1) Lavish use of bronze 2) hereditary aristocrats 3) Administrative/military officers 4) Had Book of Etiquette	34
4853458932	Ancient Chinese Artisans and Craftsman	Worked for the Elite, hired by them.	35
4853458933	Ancient Chinese Peasants	Made up the majority of the Chinese population 1) Landless laborers 2) Small subterranean homes 3) Women made wine, weaving and silkworms 4) Peasants used wood, bone and stone fools before iron.	36
4853458934	Ancient Chinese Slaves	Are prisoners of war	37
4853458935	Patriarchal Families	1) Ruled through family and kinship groups 2) Ancestor veneration=worship 3) Patriarchy grew from a matriarchal line but as the focus on the contribution of men in society grew, after the shang dynasty the role of women were demoted	38
4853458936	Chinese Cultural Traditions	Secular, Absence of Organized Religion, and Oracle Bones	39
4853458937	Secular	No religious or spiritual bias	40
4853482870	Chinese Absence of Organized Religion	Knew of tian but was not connected to it like other religions felt. tian is an impersonal heavenly power	41
4853482871	Oracle Bones	Heated to crack to reveal fortune, writing revealed many characters	42
4853482872	Chinese Writing from Pictographs to ________________	Ideographs	43
4853482873	Chinese Characters found from oracle bones	2,000, modern chinese is directly from the shang	44
4853482874	Chinese Literature	1) Book on Change (divinity) 2) Book of History (Zhou) 3) Book of Rite (rituals of aristocrats) 4) Book of Songs (verses)	45
4853482875	Most of the Zhou writing are not in existence because...	The Qin Dynasty burned them!	46
4853482876	Yangzi River	Dependable river that yielded 2 crops of rice per year	47
4853482877	Indigenous Peoples of Southern China	1) Some assimilated into the Chinese Agricultural system 2) Some were pushed into hills and mountain communities 3) Some migrated to Taiwan, Vietnam and Thailand	48
4853482878	State of Chu	Wasnt important in the Zhou Dynasty Was located south Later conquered by the Qin Dynasty	49
4895025157	Chan Bahlum	Culture believed agriculture let blood on ground (not necessarily death)	50
4895025158	Early societies of mesoamerica	Olmecs and Maya and Teotihuacan	51
4910017608	Olmecs	The Rubber people cause they had rubber, produced basalt heads, looked like west african. Migration-13000-9500 BCE already covered mesoamerica and both americas Agriculture-little animal protein but had squash etc	52
4910017609	San Lorenzo "spanish name"	Olmec ceremonial center	53
4910017610	The Rubber People	1) built elaborate complexes 2) basalt human heads 3) pyramids 4) jade for art, obsidian for weapon 5) 400 BCE destroyed ceremonial centers by themselves (no clue why)	54
4910017611	Influence of the Olmecs	Astronomy, calendar/seasons, writings, ball games	55
4910017612	Maya-heirs of the Olmecs	1) Agriculture 2) Tikal - largest city 4th-9th century 3) Maya city states 4) warrior class 5) chichen itza-power of the ninth century/loose empire in Yucatan peninsula 6) Decline of Maya as people leave the cities dk y	56
4917317265	Mayan Hierarchal Society	1) top is kings, priest, nobles, typical hierarchy 2) dual duty of merchants-they were also spies 3) professional architects and sculpture 4) peasants and slaves constructed everything	57
4917317266	Mayan Calendar	Solar, 365 days had ritual year 260 days	58
4917317267	Mayan Writing	Difficult to decipher, spanish destroyed some, really translated in 1960s "started"	59
4917317268	Popul Vuh	1) the story of creation 2) people created from corn 3) fundamental role of agriculture	60
4917317269	Sports and religion	Gruesome	61
4917317270	Teotihuacan: Heirs of the Olmecs	The city of Teotihuacan in highlands of mexico 1) huge agricultural village -50,000 pop, pyramids of sun and moon 2) Between 400-600 BCE, 200k pop, had arts, scholars, books, and agriculture 3) Theocracy-Artisans were honored. 2/3 farmer return city at night	62
4917317271	Teotihuacan Society	Who were the dominate individual-Artisans City Inhabitants-trade, professional merchants/workshop/stores toolmakers NOT LARGE MILITARY PRESENCE Decline from about 650 CE 8th century invader destroy city	63
4917317272	Early Societies of South America	Societies of mesoamerica and south america developed at same time but independently	64
4917317273	Andean and Chavin Cult	Chavin early Andean-deities with features of both humans and wild animals	65
4917317274	Andean/Chavin Cult Migration To Peru and Bolivia	a) communication is tricky b) Andes had gold, silver, and copper eventually taken north for trade c) Maize and squash from mesoamerica eventually went south d) powerful andean states did influence settlements as far as equador, chile and colombia	66
4917317275	Chavin Agriculture	A) beans peanuts sweet potatoes llama and alpacas=meat and wool B) Cotton and potatoes, cotton used for fishing C) 1800 BCE irrigation canals for drier land	67
4917521913	The Chavin Cult circa 900 to 30" BCE	Andean Society become more complex Technology for cotton textiles and fishing nets Gold, silver copper Cities begin appearing-the chavin cult disappears but no one knows why	68
4917521914	Mochica 300-700 CE northern peru	1st Andean Civilization Had irrigation, trade military but no writing Artistic painting on pottery tells us a story Mochica's fall was due to climate challenges	69
4917521915	The societies of Oceania	Australia and New Guinea 60,000 years ago people areived at these locations 10,000 years ago rising seas separated Australia and New Guinea	70
4917521916	Australia hunting and gathering until 19-20th centuries	Were hunter gatherers Small changes overall No agriculture	71
4917521917	New Guinea agriculture crops and herding	More likely yo interact Was also hunter gatherer	72
4917521918	Lapita people, a type of austronesians	Brought agriculture everywhere	73
4917317276	Austronesians/Lapita people (branch of Austro)	Madagascar	74

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APES Flashcards

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9762734625	units of time from largest to smallest	eon, era, periods, epochs, stages	0
9762740636	strata	rock layers	1
9762747993	principle of superposition	any given layer is probably older than the those above it and youner than those below it	2
9762767006	when did prokaryotes form	3.5 billion years ago	3
9762774028	when did eukaryotes form	1.5 billion years ago	4
9762805013	earth is divided into 3 sections	biosphere, hydrosphere, internal structure	5
9772590949	albedo	reflectivity, ocean water has low, landmasses have moderate, snow and ice has high	6
9772610142	altitude	every 1,000 feet there is a 3 degrees drop	7
9772624734	ozone	produced in the production of photochemical smog, and by UV radiation and lighting. in stratosphere	8
9772649174	atmosphere layers from bottom to top	troposphere, tropopause, stratosphere, stratopause, mesosphere, mesopause, thermosphere	9
9772672052	troposphere	right above surface, 75% of atmospheres mass, temperature decreases going up, where weather occurs	10
9772689332	stratosphere	temperature increases due to absorption of UV radiation, ozone	11
9772703447	mesosphere	temperature decreases, coldest layer, meteors burn up in this layer	12
9772726365	thermosphere	temperature increases due to gamma rays, x-rays, and UV radiation, molecules are converted into ions, results in Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis	13
9772764989	Consumption of carbon	results in cooling, carbonate rock weathering, silicate rock weathering	14
9772774973	production of carbon	results in heating, carbon formation in oceans, metamorphic breakdown of carbonate	15
9772813146	two main parts of the crust	basalt-rich oceanic crust and granite-rich continental crust	16
9772838509	continental crust	less dense, stratified and becomes denser with depth, composed of volcanic, sedimentary, and granite-type rocks, older areas dominated by metamorphic rock	17
9772881819	oceanic crust	basaltic rock overlain by sediments, thinner, denser, younger, and has different chemical composition	18
9772905277	mantle	most of earths mass, iron, magnesium, aluminum, and silicon-oxygen compounds, over 1800 degrees, upper third is asthenosphere	19
9772924287	lithosphere	solid, outer part of earth, includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle and the crust, always moving, broken into tectonic plates	20
9772966093	core	mostly iron, outer core is molten, inner core under such extreme pressure that it remains solid	21
9773009327	Alfred Wegener	in 1915 he proposed that all present day continents came originally from one landmass	22
9773030807	subduction zones	areas on earth where two tectonic plates meet and move toward each other with one sliding underneath the other and moving down the mantle	23
9773054573	types of boundaries	transform, divergent, convergent	24

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APES Week 01 Vocabulary Flashcards

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4850519405	Scientific Method	An objective method to explore the natural world, draw inferences from it, and predict the outcome of certain events, processes, or changes.	0
4850519406	Hypothesis	A testable theory or supposition about how something works.	1
4850519407	Null Hypothesis	A statement or idea that can be falsified, or proved wrong.	2
4850519408	Replication	The data collection procedure of taking repeated measurements	3
4850519409	Sample Size	The number of times a measurement is replicated in the data collection process.	4
4850519410	Accuracy	How close a measured value is to the actual or true value.	5
4850519411	Precision	How close the repeated measurements of a sample are to one another.	6
4850519412	Uncertainty	An estimate of how much a measured or calculated value differs from a true value.	7
4850519413	Theory	A hypothesis that has been repeatedly tested and confirmed by multiple groups of researchers and has reached wide acceptance.	8
4850519414	Control Group	In a scientific investigation, a group that experiences exactly the same conditions as the experimental group, except for the single variable under study.	9
4850519415	Natural Experiment	A natural event that acts as an experimental treatment in an ecosystem.	10
4850519416	Environmental Justice	A social movement and field of study that focuses on equal enforcement of environmental laws and eliminating disparities in the exposure of environmental harms to different ethnic and socioeconomic groups within a society.	11
4850519417	Fracking	A method of oil and gas extraction that uses high-pressure fluids to force open cracks in rocks deep underground.	12
4850519418	Environment	The sum of all the conditions surrounding us that influence life.	13
4850519419	Environmental Science	The field of study that looks at interactions among human systems and those found in nature.	14
4850519420	Ecosystem	A particular location on Earth distinguished by its mix of interacting biotic and abiotic components.	15
4850519421	Biotic	Living	16
4850519422	Abiotic	Nonliving	17
4850519423	Environmentalist	A person who participates in environmentalism, a social movement that seeks to protect the environment through lobbying, activism, and education.	18
4850519424	Environmental studies	The field of study that includes environmental science, environmental policy, economics, literature, and ethics, among others.	19
4850519425	Ecosystem Services	The process by which natural environments provide life-supporting resources.	20
4850519426	Environmental indicators	An indicator that describes the current state of an environmental system.	21
4850519427	Biodiversity	The diversity of life forms in an environment.	22
4850519428	Genetic Diversity	A measure of the genetic vatiation among individuals in a population.	23
4850519429	Species	A group of organizms that is distinct from other groups in its mophology (body form and structure), behavior, or biochemical properties.	24
4850519430	Species Diversity	The number of species in a region or in a particular type of habitat.	25
4850519431	Speciation	The evolution of new species.	26
4850519432	Background Extinction Rate	The average rate at which species become extinct over the long term.	27
4850519433	Greenhouse Gases	A gas in Earth's atmosphere that traps heat near the surface.	28
4850519434	Anthropogenic	Derived from human activities	29
4850519435	Development	Improvement in human well-being through economic advancement.	30
4850519436	Sustainability	Living on Earth in a way that allows humans to use its resources without depriving future generations of those resources.	31
4850519437	Sustainable Development	Development that balances current human well-being and economic advancement with resource management for the benefit of future generations.	32
4850519438	Ecological Footprint	A measure of how much an individual consumes, expressed in area of land.	33

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AP Psychology - States of Consciousness Flashcards

States and consciousness vocabulary words.

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5332735889	consciousness	our awareness of ourselves and our environment.	0
5332735890	biological rhythms	periodic physiological fluctuations.	1
5332735891	circadian rhythm	the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle.	2
5332735892	pineal gland	small endocrine gland that produces the serotonin derivative melatonin, a hormone that affects the modulation of wake/sleep patterns and seasonal functions.	3
5332735893	Stage 1 sleep	slow breathing and irregular brain waves. Very brief, may experience fantastic images resembling hallucinations, sensation of falling or floating.	4
5332735894	Stage 2 sleep	appearance of sleep spindles. Clearly asleep, but still easily awoken; about 20 minutes.	5
5332735895	sleep spindles	bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain activity.	6
5332735896	Stage 3 sleep	transitional stage. Brain begins to emit slow delta waves. Hard to be woken.	7
5332735897	Stage 4 sleep	brain increasingly emits slow delta waves. About 30 minutes, hard to be woken. Children tend to wet the bed or sleepwalk during end.	8
5332735898	NREM sleep	encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.	9
5332735899	REM sleep	a recurring sleep stage during which vivid reams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleeping, because the muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active.	10
5332735900	alpha waves	relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.	11
5332735901	sleep	periodic, natural loss of consciousness -- as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.	12
5332735902	hallucinations	false sensory experiences.	13
5332735903	delta waves	large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.	14
5332735904	insomnia	recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.	15
5332735905	narcolepsy	a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.	16
5332735906	sleep apnea	a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.	17
5332735907	night terrors	a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, these occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.	18
5332735908	dream	a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. These are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.	19
5332735909	nightmares	anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to awakening, usually from REM sleep.	20
5332735910	lucid dreams	dreams in which the dreamer is aware that he or she is dreaming.	21
5332735911	manifest content	according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).	22
5332735912	latent content	according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).	23
5332735913	Activation-synthesis Theory	the theory that dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural signals that fire during sleep.	24
5332735914	REM rebound	the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).	25
5332735915	hypnosis	a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors, will spontaneously occur.	26
5332735916	posthypnotic amnesia	supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis; induced by the hypnotist's suggestion.	27
5332735917	posthypnotic suggestion	a suggestion made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.	28
5332735918	dissociation	a split consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.	29
5332735919	hidden observer	Hilgard's term describing a hypnotized subjects awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis.	30
5332735920	psychoactive drug	a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood	31
5332735921	tolerance	the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.	32
5332735922	withdrawal	the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.	33
5332735923	physical dependence	a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.	34
5332735924	psychological dependence	a psychological need to use a drug such as to relieve negate emotions.	35
5332735925	depressants	drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.	36
5332735926	stimulants	drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.	37
5332735927	hallucinogens	psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.	38
5332735928	barbiturates	drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement.	39
5332735929	opiates	opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.	40
5332735930	amphetamines	drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.	41
5332735931	ecstasy (MDMA)	a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.	42
5332735932	LSD	a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide).	43
5332735933	THC	the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.	44
5332735934	near-death experience	an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.	45
5332735935	dualism	the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact.	46
5332735936	monism	the presumption that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing.	47
5332735937	circadian rhythms	Internally generated patterns of body functions, including hormonal signals, sleep, blood pressure, and temperature regulation, which have approximately a 24-hour cycle and occur even in the absence of normal cues about whether it is day or night	48
5332735938	Disruptions to Circadian Rhythm	1. jet lag 2. night shifts	49
5332735939	Evolutionary Sleep/Dream Theory	we evolved it as part of natural selection to maximize survival. (restorative)	50
5332735940	Restorative Dream Theories	1. protein synthesis 2. maintain plasticity (memory)	51
5332735941	Stage 1 Sleep	quick sleep stage with gradual loss of responsiveness to outside, drifting thoughts, and images (the hypnagogic state). EEGs show theta waves.	52
5332735942	Stage 2 Sleep	A sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of "sleep spindles". Around 50% of sleep is Stage 2.	53
5332735943	Stage 3 Sleep	usually about 30 minutes; is transitional and leads to the fourth stage; brains starts to emit some delta waves	54
5332735944	Stage 4 Sleep	The deepest stage of NREM sleep, characterized by an EEG pattern of more than 50% delta waves.	55
5332735945	REM Sleep	rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.	56
5332735946	lucid dreaming	controlling dreams	57
5332735947	activation-synthesis theory	the theory by Robert McCarley and J. Alan Hobson that dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural signals that fire during sleep	58
5332735948	Cognitive Reason for Dreams	dreams are the interplay of the physiological triggering of brain waves and the psychological functioning of the imagination--in other words, when we're cut off from thinking about world, we think about memories	59
5332735949	Psychoanalytic Reason for Dreams	dreams are the expression of the unconscious--manifest content hides the latent content	60
5332735950	narcolepsy	a condition in which an awake person suddenly and uncontrollably falls into REM sleep	61
5332735951	sleep apnea	when someone temporarily stops breathing during sleep--awaken the sufferer repeatedly throughout the night. cause=obstruction/collapse of air passages (obesity) cures=weight loss and sleeping on the side	62
5332735952	night terrors	childhood (often) sleep disrptions from Stage 4 sleep--bloodcurling scream and intense fear	63
5332735953	sleepwalking	aka somnambulism; (most frequently) a childhood sleep disruption, including trips from bed/complex activity. don't usually remember in morning.	64
5332735954	hypnosis	an altered state of consciousness resulting from a narrowed focus of attention and characterized by heightened suggestibility and deep relaxation	65
5332735955	dissociation theory	hypnosis=individual experiencing two or more streams of consciousness that are cut off from one another. one consciousness responds to suggestions, while the other, the "hidden observer," monitors behavior.	66
5332735956	Ernest Hilgard	psychologist associated with dissociation theory	67
5332735957	"hidden observer"	one of the consciousnesses of dissociation theory--monitors behavior	68
5332735958	post-hypnotic amnesia	forgetting events of hypnosis by suggestion	69
5332735959	meditation	a set of techniques used to focus concentration away from thoughts and feelings in order to create calmness, inner peace, and tranquility.	70
5332735960	types of waves during meditation	alpha waves--like the relaxed wakefulness before sleep	71
5332735961	physiological changes of meditation	1. slowed heart rate 2. slowed breathing 3. lower blood pressure 4. warm hands--indicate activation of parasympathetic nervous system	72
5332735962	psychoactive drugs	Chemicals that pass through the blood-brain barrier into the brain to affect the nervous system and alter perception	73
5332735963	blood-brain barrier	what the psychoactive drug must pass through to enter the brain. It is made up of blood vessels (capillaries) that selectively let certain substances enter the brain tissue and keep other substances out	74
5332735964	physiological dependence	aka addiction; when someone feels an intense desire to experience the drug even with the adverse effects	75
5332735965	tolerance	decreased responsivity to a drug	76
5332735966	Types of Psychoactive Drugs:	1. depressants 2. narcotics 3. stimulants 4. hallucenogens	77
5332735967	depressants	reduce CNS's activity to relax; include: sedatives barbiturates tranquilizers alcohol	78
5332735968	sedatives	depressants taken to induce sleep and prevent siezures	79
5332735969	barbiturates	depressants that include Seconal/secobarbital and Luminal/phenobarbital	80
5332735970	tranquilizers	depressants that include benzodiazepines such as Valium, Xanax, Rohypnol ("roofies"/date rape), and quaaludes. Effects: 1. relieve anxiety 2. induce sleep 3. prevent seizures	81
5332735971	alcohol	most commonly used depressant.	82
5332735972	how alcohol works	increases transmission of GABA, decreases transmission of acetylcholine (excitatory neurotransmitter)	83
5332735973	where alcohol works (in brain)	acts at reticular formation, spinal cord, cerebellum, cerebral cortex, and many neurotransmitter systems	84
5332735974	effects of alcohol	low dose=relaxation, less tension, lower inhibitions, less concetration, slower reflexes and reaction time, and poorer coordination. medium dose=slurred speech, drowsiness, and altered emotions high doses=vomiting, depression, unconsciousness, coma, or even death	85
5332735975	withdrawal symptoms of alcohol	sleep problems, hallucinations, tremors, seizures	86
5332735976	narcotics	analgesics/pain relievers that depress CNS or respiratory system. produce feelings of euphoria, relieve pain, and induce sleep. similar to endorphins chemically.	87
5332735977	types of narcotics	include: opiates and synthetic opiates--codeine, heroin, morphine, opium, Percodan, Darvon, Talwin, Dilaudid, mathadone, and Demerol	88
5332735978	stimulants	psychoactive drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that activate motivational centers of the brain, reduce activity of inhibitory centers of CNS; excite neural activity and speed up body functions; increase activity of serotonin and dopamine; used to treat narcolepsy and hyperactivity.	89
5332735979	amphetamines	stimulants; include methamphetamine, benzadrine, Ritalin, ephedrine (Ephedra), and ecstasy (MDMA); stimulate sympathetic nervous system and speed up metabolism-->alert, energetic, elated, and less of an appetite	90
5332735980	cocaine	powerfully addicting drugs that produce feelings of euphoria, excitement, strength, and reduce hunger. can cause neurological and behavioral problems (dizziness, headaches, movement problems, anxiety, insomnia, depression, hallucinations, high blood pressure, and stroke). overdose-->death	91
5332735981	hallucenogens	aka psychedelics; diverse group of psychoactive drugs that alter moods, distort perceptions, and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input (hallucinations); include: LSD/lysergic acid diethylamide, PCP/phenocyclidine, THC/marijuana, psilocybin (from mushrooms), and Peyote/mescaline.	92
5332735982	Consciousness	our awareness of ourselves and our environment	93
5332735983	Circadian Rhythm	the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle	94
5332735984	REM Sleep	rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active	95
5332735985	Alpha Waves	the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state stage 1	96
5332735986	Sleep	periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation	97
5332735987	Hallucinations	false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus	98
5332735988	Delta Waves	the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep stages 3/4	99
5332735989	NREM Sleep	non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep	100
5332735990	Insomnia	recurring problems in falling or staying asleep	101
5332735991	Narcolepsy	a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer my lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times	102
5332735992	Sleep Apnea	a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings	103
5332735993	Night Terrors	a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered	104
5332735994	Dream	a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it	105
5332735995	Manifest Content	according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream	106
5332735996	Latent Content	according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream	107
5332735997	REM Rebound	the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)	108
5332735998	Hypnosis	a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur	109
5332735999	Posthypnotic Suggestion	a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors	110
5332736000	Dissociation	a split in consciousness, which allows some thought and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others	111
5332736001	Psychoactive Drug	a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods	112
5332736002	Tolerance	the diminishing effect with regular use of the same does of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect	113
5332736003	Withdrawal	the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug	114
5332736004	Physical Dependence	a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued	115
5332736005	Psychological Dependence	a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions	116
5332736006	Addiction	compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences	117
5332736007	Barbiturates	drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement	118
5332736008	Opiates	opium and its derivatives such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety	119
5332736009	Stimulants	drugs that excite neural activity and sped up body functions	120
5332736010	Amphetamines	drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes	121
5332736011	Methamphetamine	a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels	122
5332736012	Ecstasy (MDMA)	a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood cognition	123
5332736013	LSD	a powerful halucinogenic drug; also known as acid	124
5332736014	Hallucinogens	psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input	125
5332736015	Depressants	drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions	126
5332736016	Near-Death Experience	an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death; often similar to drug-induced hallucinations	127
5332736017	THC	the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations	128
5332736018	stage 1	irregular brain activity caused by unrememberable moments: experiences fantasy images, resembles hallucinations, has twitches and lasts 10 minutes	129
5332736019	stage 2	is more relaxed but has burst of rapid brain activity called spindles. The individual is clearly asleep in this stage even though they can be woken up: sleeptalking is in this stage	130
5332736020	stage 3	the brain has slow delta waves which lasts for 30 minutes, the body begins to be unresponsive and the body's metabolism decreases	131
5332736021	stage 4	very difficult stage to be woken up from, the person doesn't remember the stage, sleeptalking, walking and wetters are in this stage	132
5332736022	when do dreams occur	REM	133
5332736023	4 reasons for why we need to sleep?	protection, recuperate/restore and repair brain tissue, memory, growth	134
5332736024	Preconscious	in Freud's theory, the level of consciousness in which thoughts and feelings are not conscious but are readily retrieveable to consciousness	135
5332736025	Nonconscious	the level of consciousness devoted to processes completely unavailable to conscious awareness (e.g., fingernails growing, blood flow)	136
5332736026	Psychodyanmic	Free association "saying anything that comes to mind" the importance of unconscious influences, early life experiences, and interpersonal relation ships explaining behavior or in treating people with psychological problems	137
5332736027	Unconscious(Subconscious)	According to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware. Freud's level of mental life that consists of mental activities beyond people's normal awareness.	138
5332736028	Cognitive Psychologists	are primarily interested in thinking. That want to know how reasoning, problem solving, memory, and other mental processes relate to computer game playing. Believe unconscious processes info of which you are unaware	139
5332736029	Dual Processing	the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.	140
5332736030	Unconsciousness	the condition of not being alert or aware of your surroundings	141
5332736031	Consciousness	our awareness of ourselves and our environment can be altered by sleep, hypnosis, mediation, and drugs	142
5332736032	Hypothalamus	A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. controls biological clock	143
5332736033	Circadian Rhythms	Internally generated patterns of body functions, including hormonal signals, sleep, blood pressure, and temperature regulation, which have approximately a 24-hour cycle and occur even in the absence of normal cues about whether it is day or night	144
5332736034	Reticular Formation	A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.	145
5332736035	Forebrain Reticular Formation Thalamus	Involved in changes in wakefulness, arousal, and attention	146
5332736036	Evolutionary Psychologists	Say that humans evolved unique waking-sleep cycle as result of natural selection that maximized chance of survival	147
5332736037	Sleep's restorative function	Protein synthesis throughout body maintaining plasticity of neural connections	148
5332736038	Plasticity of neural connections	ability to be molded essential for storing and retrieving memory	149
5332736039	Consolidation	unification; process of becoming firmer or stronger; V. consolidate: merge; strengthen putting together new memories and thoughts with old	150
5332736040	Sleep Deprivation	any significant loss of sleep, resulting in problems in concentration and irritability impairs memory and immune system	151
5332736041	Sleep	periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation complex combination of states of consciousness Amount we sleep changes as we age	152
5332736042	Electroencephalogram (EEG)	reveal the brain waves change systematically throughout sleep cycles	153
5332736043	Conscious (awake)	Beta waves when alert Alpha waves when relaxed	154
5332736044	Beta Waves	Alertness	155
5332736045	Alpha Waves	Relaxed	156
5332736046	Hypnagogic State	a brief transitional stage of sleep in which one may experience hallucinations and/or the sensation of falling (Between conscious and sleep)	157
5332736047	Stage 1 Sleep	theta waves(higher in amplitude, Lower in frequency)	158
5332736048	Stage 2 Sleep	A sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of "sleep spindles." (high frequency bursts) and K complexes	159
5332736049	Stage 3 Sleep	Slow wave sleep; large-amplitude delta waves begin appearing; transition stage. Delta Waves, high amplitude, low frequency	160
5332736050	Stage 4 Sleep	The deepest stage of sleep, during which we are least responsive to outside stimulation. Heart rate, respiration, temperature, and blood flow to brain reduced. Secrete growth hormone	161
5332736051	Non-Rem (NREM) Sleep	Sleep Stages 1, 2, 3, and 4 that involve no rapid eye movement	162
5332736052	Order of Sleep Stages	1,2,3,4,3,2,REM	163
5332736053	REM Sleep	Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.	164
5332736054	Stage 2	50% of sleep is in this stage	165
5332736055	Deep Sleep	In support of the restorative function of sleep, many of the body's cells show increased production and reduced breakdown of proteins during .......	166
5332736056	Nightmares	Anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to awakening, usually from REM sleep.	167
5332736057	Dreaming	A mental state that usually occurs during sleep that features visual imagery REM Sleep 75% occurs in REM (longer/vivid), mental experience starts to shift to dreamlike state after stage 2	168
5332736058	Lucid Dreaming	Being aware of your dreaming and being able to control the storyline.	169
5332736059	Frued	Dreams showcase unconscious desires and reveal secrets of the unconscious part of the mind unknown to the conscious part of the mind.	170
5332736060	Manifest Content	according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream	171
5332736061	Latent Content	according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream	172
5332736062	Robert Mccarley and J Alen Hobson	Activation synthesis theory	173
5332736063	Activation synthesis Theroy	Theory that proposes that perhaps dreams are nothing more than the brains interpretations of what is happening physiologically during REM sleep.	174
5332736064	Pons	A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain Generate bursts of action potential to forebrain which is activation	175
5332736065	Cognitive view of Sleep	During sleep, info from external world is cut off. Only world that brain can model is the one from memories and experiences that can be activated by electrical impulses discharged from brain	176
5332736066	REM rebound	the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)`	177
5332736067	Insomnia	Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.	178
5332736068	Narcolepsy	A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.	179
5332736069	Sleep Apnea	a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings	180
5332736070	Night Terrors	a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered	181
5332736071	Sleepwalking	somnambulism A phenomenon primarily occurring in non-REM sleep in which people walk while asleep. Sleep stage 4	182
5332736072	Hypnosis	Altered state of consciousness characterized by deep relaxation and heightened suggestibility subjects can change aspects of reality and let the changes influence behavior	183
5332736073	Dissociation	A split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others. Hypnotized people might experience two or more streams of conscious cutoff from each other	184
5332736074	Ernest hilgrad	pioneering hypnosis researcher and advocate of the divided consciousness theory of hypnosis	185
5332736075	Divided Consciousness Theory of Hypnosis	a state of awareness characterized by divided attention to two or more tasks or activities performed at the same time	186
5332736076	Posthypnotic Suggestion	a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors	187
5332736077	Meditation	An intentional, self-produced state of consciousness induced by relaxing and systematically shifting attention away from day-to-day concerns. EEG's of meditators show alpha wave characteristics of relaxed awareness	188
5332736078	Physiological Changes by Meditation	lowered blood pressure indicate activation of parasympathetic nervous system increased feeling of wellbeing	189
5332736079	Psychoactive Drugs	chemicals that affect the central nervous system and alter activity in the brain can pass through the blood brain barrier to alter perception can inhibit or stimulate different regions of brain by interacting with neurotransmitters	190
5332736080	Blood Brain Barrier	The brain is protected from harmful chemicals in the blood stream by thicker walls surrounding the brains blood vessels.	191
5332736081	Tolerance	A progressive decrease in a person's responsiveness to a drug. partly depends on environmental stimuli	192
5332736082	Withdrawal Symptoms	The Reaction experienced when a substance abuser stops using a drug with dependence properties intense craving for drug and effects opposite to those the drug usually induces	193
5332736083	Physiological Dependence or Addiction	a condition in which the user has a chemical need for the drug develops when changes in brain chemistry from taking the drug necessitate taking the drug again to prevent withdrawal symptoms	194
5332736084	Drug categories	Depressants Narcotics Stimulants Hallucinogens	195
5332736085	Depressants	Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions and induce relaxation	196
5332736086	Barbiturates (depressant)	drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment Secobarbital (Seconal) and phenobarbital(Luminal) sedatives taken to induce sleep and prevent seizures	197
5332736087	Tranquilizers (depressant)	Benzodiazepines Valine, Xanax, and Rohypnol(roofies DATE RAPE DRUGS) and quaaludes relieve anxiety induce sleep prevent seizure	198
5332736088	Alcohol (depressant)	most studies psychoactive drug acts at reticular formation, spinal cord cerebellum, and cerebral cortex and neurotransmitter systems increases transmission of GABA decreases Acetylcholine increases beta endorphins depresses activity of frontal lobe Withdrawal symptoms: tremors, seizures, sleep issues, nausea, hallucinations	199
5332736089	Narcotics	Specific drugs that are obtainable only by prescription and are used to relieve pain analgesics (pain reducers) depress central nervous system and respiratory system Include: Opiates and synthetic opiates like codeine, heroin, morphine, opium percodan, Darvon, talwian, demerol induces feelings of euphoria, relieve pain and induce sleep similar to endorphins	200
5332736090	Opiates	opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety physically and psychologically addictive	201
5332736091	Stimulants	Psychoactive drugs that activate motivational centers and reduce activity in inhibitory centers for central nervous system by increase activity of serotonin dopamine and norepinephrine Include: caffeine, cocaine , amphetamines, and nicotine treat hyperactivity and narcolepsy	202
5332736092	Amphetamines (stimulants)	methamphetamine benzedrine ritalin ephedra ecstacy (MDMA) stimulate the sympathetic nervous system and speed up metabolism reduce appetite	203
5332736093	Hallucinogens	psychedelics alter moods distort perceptions evoke sensory images in absence of sensory input Include LSD, PCP, THC, shrooms, and peyote	204

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AP Psychology AP Review Flashcards

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9684128835	psychology	the study of behavior and mental processes	0
9684128836	psychology's biggest question	Which is more important in determining behavior, nature or nurture?	1
9684128837	psychology's three levels of analysis	biopsychosocial approach (looks at the biological, psychological, and social-cultural approaches together)	2
9684128838	biological approach	genetics, close-relatives, body functions	3
9684128839	evolutionary approach	species - helped with survival (ancestors)	4
9684128840	psychodynamic approach	(Freud) subconscious, repressed feelings, unfulfilled wishes	5
9684128841	behavioral approach	learning (classical and operant) observed	6
9684128842	cognitive approach	thinking affects behavior	7
9684128843	humanistic approach	becoming a better human (behavior, acceptance)	8
9684128844	social-cultural approach	cultural, family, environment	9
9684128845	two reasons of why experiments are important	hindsight bias + overconfidence	10
9684128846	types of research methods	descriptive, correlational, and experimental	11
9684128847	descriptive methods	case study survey naturalistic observation (DON'T SHOW CAUSE/EFFECT)	12
9684128848	case study	studies one person in depth may not be typical of population	13
9684128849	survey	studies lots of people not in depth	14
9684128850	naturalistic observation	observe + write facts without interference	15
9684128851	correlational method	shows relation, but not cause/effect scatterplots show research	16
9684128852	correlation coefficient	+ 1.0 (both increase) 0 (no correlation - 1.0 (one increases, other decreases)	17
9684128853	experimental method	does show cause and effect	18
9684128854	population	type of people who are going to be used in experiment	19
9684128855	sample	actual people who will be used (randomness reduces bias)	20
9684128856	random assignment	chance selection between experimental and control groups	21
9684128857	control group	not receiving experimental treatment receives placebo	22
9684128858	experimental group	receiving treatment/drug	23
9684128859	independent variable	drug/procedure/treatment	24
9684128860	dependent variable	outcome of using the drug/treatment	25
9684128861	confounding variable	can affect dependent variable beyond experiment's control	26
9684128862	scientific method	theory hypothesis operational definition revision	27
9684128863	theory	general idea being tested	28
9684128864	hypothesis	measurable/specific	29
9684128865	operational definition	procedures that explain components	30
9684128866	mode	appears the most	31
9684128867	mean	average	32
9684128868	median	middle	33
9684128869	range	highest - lowest	34
9684128870	standard deviation	how scores vary around the mean	35
9684128871	central tendency	single score that represents the whole	36
9684128872	bell curve	(natural curve)	37
9684128873	ethics of testing on animals	need to be treated humanly basically similar to humans	38
9684128874	ethics of testing on humans	consent debriefing no unnecessary discomfort/pain confidentiality	39
9684128875	sensory neurons	travel from sensory receptors to brain	40
9684128876	motor neurons	travel from brain to "motor" workings	41
9684128877	interneurons	(in brain and spinal cord) connecting motor and sensory neurons	42
9684129070	neuron		43
9684128878	dendrites	receive messages from other neurons	44
9684128879	myelin sheath	protects the axon	45
9684128880	axon	where charges travel from cell body to axon terminal	46
9684128881	neurotransmitters	chemical messengers	47
9684128882	reuptake	extra neurotransmitters are taken back	48
9684128883	excitatory charge	"Let's do it!"	49
9684128884	inhibitory charge	"Let's not do it!"	50
9684128885	central nervous system	brain and spinal cord	51
9684128886	peripheral nervous system	somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system	52
9684128887	somatic nervous system	voluntary movements	53
9684128888	autonomic nervous system	involuntary movements (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems)	54
9684128889	sympathetic nervous system	arousing	55
9684128890	parasympathetic nervous system	calming	56
9684128891	neural networks	more connections form with greater use others fall away if not used	57
9684128892	spinal cord	expressway of information bypasses brain when reflexes involved	58
9684128893	endocrine system	slow uses hormones in the blood system	59
9684128894	master gland	pituitary gland	60
9684128895	brainstem	extension of the spinal cord responsible for automatic survival	61
9684128896	reticular formation (if stimulated)	sleeping subject wakes up	62
9684128897	reticular formation (if damaged)	coma	63
9684128898	brainstem (if severed)	still move (without purpose)	64
9684128899	thalamus	sensory switchboard (does not process smell)	65
9684128900	hypothalamus	basic behaviors (hunger, thirst, sex, blood chemistry)	66
9684128901	cerebellum	nonverbal memory, judge time, balance emotions, coordinate movements	67
9684128902	cerebellum (if damaged)	difficulty walking and coordinating	68
9684128903	amygdala	aggression, fear, and memory associated with these emotions	69
9684128904	amygdala (if lesioned)	subject is mellow	70
9684128905	amygdala (if stimulated)	aggressive	71
9684128906	hippocampus	process new memory	72
9684128907	cerebrum	two large hemispheres perceiving, thinking, and processing	73
9684128908	cerebral cortex	only in higher life forms	74
9684128909	association areas	integrate and interpret information	75
9684128910	glial cells	provide nutrients to myelin sheath marks intelligence higher proportion of glial cells to neurons	76
9684128911	frontal lobe	judgement, personality, processing (Phineas Gage accident)	77
9684128912	parietal lobe	math and spatial reasoning	78
9684128913	temporal lobe	audition and recognizing faces	79
9684128914	occipital lobe	vision	80
9684128915	corpus callosum	split in the brain to stop hyper-communication (eliminate epileptic seizures)	81
9684128916	Wernicke's area	interprets auditory and hearing	82
9684128917	Broca's area	speaking words	83
9684128918	plasticity	ability to adapt if damaged	84
9684128919	sensation	what our senses tell us	85
9684128920	bottom-up processing	senses to brain	86
9684128921	perception	what our brain tells us to do with that information	87
9684128922	top-down processing	brain to senses	88
9684128923	inattentional blindness	fail to "gorilla" because attention is elsewhere	89
9684128924	cocktail party effect	even with tons of stimuli, we are able to pick out our name, etc.	90
9684128925	change blindness	giving directions and person is changed and we don't notice	91
9684128926	choice blindness	when defending the choice we make, we fail to notice choice was changed	92
9684128927	absolute threshold	minimum stimulation needed in order to notice 50% of the time	93
9684128928	signal detection theory	we notice what is more important to us (rather hear a baby crying)	94
9684128929	JND (just noticeable difference)	(Weber's law) difference between different stimuli noticed in proportion	95
9684128930	sensory adaptation	tired of noticing (Brain says, "Been there, done that. Next?"	96
9684128931	rods	night time	97
9684128932	cones	color	98
9684128933	parallel processing	notice color, form, depth, movement, etc.	99
9684128934	Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory	3 corresponding color receptors (RGB)	100
9684128935	Hering's opponent-process theory	after image in opposite colors (RG, YB, WB)	101
9684128936	trichromatic + opponent-process	Young-Helmholtz -> color stimuli Hering -> en route to cortex	102
9684128937	frequency we hear most	human voice	103
9684128938	Helmoltz (hearing)	we hear different pitches in different places in basilar membrane (high pitches)	104
9684128939	frequency theory	impulse frequency (low pitches)	105
9684128940	Helmholtz + frequency theory	middle pitches	106
9684128941	Skin feels what?	warmth, cold, pressure, pain	107
9684128942	gate-control theory	small fibers - pain large fibers - other senses	108
9684128943	memory of pain	peaks and ends	109
9684128944	smell	close to memory section (not in thalamus)	110
9684128945	grouping	Gestalt make sense of pieces create a whole	111
9684128946	grouping groups	proximity similarity continuity connectedness closure	112
9684128947	make assumptions of placement	higher - farther smaller - farther blocking - closer, in front	113
9684128948	perception =	mood + motivation	114
9684128949	consciousness	awareness of ourselves and the environment	115
9684128950	circadian rhythm	daily biological clock and regular cycle (sleep and awake)	116
9684128951	circadian rhythm pattern	- activated by light - light sensitive retinal proteins signal brains SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) - pineal gland decreases melatonin	117
9684128952	What messes with circadian rhythm?	artificial light	118
9684128953	The whole sleep cycle lasts how long?	90 minutes	119
9684128954	sleep stages	relaxed stage (alpha waves) stage 1 (early sleep) (hallucinations) stage 2 (sleep spindles - bursts of activity) (sleep talk) stage 3 (transition phase) (delta waves) stage 4 (delta waves) (sleepwalk/talk + wet the bed) stage 5 (REM) (sensory-rich dreams) (paradoxical sleep)	120
9684128955	purpose of sleep	1. recuperation - repair neurons and allow unused neural connections to wither 2. making memories 3. body growth (children sleep more)	121
9684128956	insomnia	can't sleep	122
9684128957	narcolepsy	fall asleep anywhere at anytime	123
9684128958	sleep apnea	stop breathing in sleep	124
9684128959	night terrors	prevalent in children	125
9684128960	sleepwalking/sleeptalking	hereditary - prevalent in children	126
9684128961	dreaming (3)	1. vivid bizarre intense sensory experiences 2. carry fear/survival issues - vestiges of ancestors' survival ideas 2. replay previous day's experiences/worries	127
9684128962	purpose of dreaming (5 THEORIES)	1. physiological function - develop/preserve neural pathways 2. Freud's wish-fulfillment (manifest/latent content) 3. activation synthesis - make sense of stimulation originating in brain 4. information processing 5. cognitive development - reflective of intelligence	128
9684128963	1. Can hypnosis bring you back in time? 2. Can hypnosis make you do things you wouldn't normally do? 3. Can it alleviate pain? 4. What state are you in during hypnosis? 5. Who is more susceptible?	1. cannot take you back in time 2. cannot make you do things you won't do 3. can alleviate pain 4. fully conscious ((IMAGINATIVE PEOPLE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE))	129
9684128964	depressants	slows neural pathways	130
9684128965	alcohol	((depressant)) disrupts memory formation (REM) lowers inhibition expectancy effect	131
9684128966	barbituates (tranquilizers)	((depressant)) reduce anxiety	132
9684128967	opiates	((depressant)) pleasure reduce anxiety/pain	133
9684128968	stimulants	hypes neural processing	134
9684128969	methamphetamine	((stimulant)) heightens energy euphoria affects dopamine	135
9684128970	caffeine	((stimulant))	136
9684128971	nicotine	((stimulant)) CNS releases neurotransmitters calm anxiety reduce pain affects (nor)epinephrine and dopamine	137
9684128972	cocaine	((stimulant)) euphoria affects dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine	138
9684128973	hallucinogen	excites neural activity	139
9684128974	ecstasy	((hallucinogen)) reuptake is blocked affects dopamine and serotonin	140
9684128975	LSD	((hallucinogen)) affects sensory/emotional "trip" (+/-) affects serotonin	141
9684128976	marijuana	((hallucinogen)) amplify sensory experience disrupts memory formation	142
9684128977	learning	organism changing behavior due to experience (association of events)	143
9684128978	types of learning	classical operant observational	144
9684128979	famous classical psychologists	Pavlov and Watson	145
9684128980	famous operant psychologist	Skinner	146
9684128981	famous observational psychologists	Bandura	147
9684128982	classical conditioning	outside stimulus	148
9684128983	Pavlov's experiment	Step 1: US (food) -> UR (salivation) Step 2: NS (bell) -> US (food) -> UR (salivation) Later... CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)	149
9684128984	Watson's experiment	white rat was given to Little Albert Step 1: US (noise) -> UR (cry) Step 2: NS (rat) -> US (noise) -> UR (cry) Later... CS (rat) -> CR (cry)	150
9684128985	generalization	any small, white fluffy creature will make Albert cry now	151
9684128986	discriminate	any large, white fluffy creature won't make Albert cry	152
9684128987	extinction	stop "treating" with conditioned response	153
9684128988	spontaneous recovery	bring stimulus back after a while	154
9684128989	operant conditioning	control by organism	155
9684128990	Skinner's experiment	operant chamber / Skinner box (lead to shaping)	156
9684128991	shaping	get animal closer to doing what you want them to do	157
9684128992	reinforcers	want to continue behavior (positive reinforcement: give money to do laundry) (negative reinforcement: do to avoid nagging)	158
9684128993	punishments	want to stop behavior (positive reinforcement: smack) (negative reinforcement: take away phone)	159
9684128994	fixed ratio	happens a certain number of times (Starbucks punch card)	160
9684128995	variable ratio	happens an unpredictable number of times (winning the lottery)	161
9684128996	organism must do these (2 times)	fixed ratio and variable ratio	162
9684128997	fixed interval	happens at a certain time (mailman comes to the house at 10:00 AM)	163
9684128998	variable interval	happens at any time (receive texts from friends)	164
9684128999	these things happen regardless (2 times)	fixed interval and variable interval	165
9684129000	Which (fixed/variable) conditions better?	variable	166
9684129001	criticisms of Skinner	doesn't take into account intrinsic motivation	167
9684129002	intrinsic motivation	doing something for yourself, not the reward	168
9684129003	extrinsic motivation	doing something for reward	169
9684129004	Skinner's legacy	use it personally, at school, and at work	170
9684129005	famous observational experiment	Bandura's Bobo doll	171
9684129006	famous observational psychologist	Bandura	172
9684129007	mirror neurons	"feel" what is observed happens in higher order animals	173
9684129008	Bobo doll experiment legacy	violent video games/movies desensitize us see good: do good see evil: do evil	174
9684129009	observational learning	biological behaviors work best	175
9684129010	habituation	get used to it -> stop reacting	176
9684129011	examples for observational learning	lectures and reading	177
9684129012	serotonin involved with memory	speeds the connection between neurons	178
9684129013	LTP	((long-term potentiation)) strengthens potential neural forming (associated with speed)	179
9684129014	CREB	protein that can switch genes on/off with memory and connection of memories	180
9684129015	glutamate involved with memory	neurotransmitter that enhances LTP	181
9684129016	glucose involved with memory	released during strong emotions ((signaling important event to be remembered))	182
9684129017	flashbulb memory	type of memory remembered because it was an important/quick moment	183
9684129018	amygdala (memory)	boosts activity of proteins in memory-forming areas to fight/flight	184
9684129019	cerebellum (memory)	forms and stores implicit memories ((classical conditioning))	185
9684129020	hippocampus (memory)	active during sleep (forming memories) ((information "moves" after 48 hours))	186
9684129021	memory	learning over time contains information that can be retrieved	187
9684129022	processing stages	encoding -> storage -> retrieval	188
9684129023	encoding	information going in	189
9684129024	storage	keeping information in	190
9684129025	retrieval	taking information out	191
9684129026	How long is sensory memory stored?	seconds	192
9684129027	How long is short-term memory stored?	less than a minute	193
9684129028	How many bits of information is stored in short-term memory?	7	194
9684129029	How many chunks of information is stored in short-term memory?	4	195
9684129030	How many seconds of words is stored in short-term memory?	2	196
9684129031	short term memory goes to ______________	working memory	197
9684129032	working memory	make a connection and process information to mean something	198
9684129033	working memory goes to _________________	long-term memory	199
9684129034	How much is stored in long-term memory?	LIMITLESS	200
9684129035	implicit memory	naturally do	201
9684129036	explicit memory	need to explain	202
9684129037	automatic processing	space, time, frequency, well-learned information	203
9684129038	effortful processing	processing that requires effort	204
9684129039	spacing effect	spread out learning over time	205
9684129040	serial position effect	primary/recency effect	206
9684129041	primary effect	remember the first things in a list	207
9684129042	recency effect	remember the last things in a list	208
9684129043	effortful processing (4 things)	1. recency effect 2. spacing effect 3. testing effect 4. serial position effect	209
9684129044	semantic encoding (1) meaning (2) how to	make meaning out of something --- chunk, hierarchy, or connect to you	210
9684129045	if we can't remember a memory...	1. change memory to suit us 2. fill in the blanks with logical story	211
9684129046	misinformation effect	not correct information	212
9684129047	imagination inflation	imagine or visualize something that isn't real	213
9684129048	source amnesia	what is the truth? (is it a dream, story, memory, etc.?)	214
9684129049	priming	association (setting you up)	215
9684129050	context	environment helps with memory	216
9684129051	state-dependency	you may remember something if you go back to the state you were in (go back to high)	217
9684129052	mood-congruency	emotion will bring back similar emotional memories	218
9684129053	forgetting curve	forget after 5 days forget after 5 years	219
9684129054	the forgetting curve was created by	Ebbinghaus	220
9684129055	proactive interference	old information interferes with the new	221
9684129056	retroactive interference	new information interferes with the old	222
9684129057	children can't remember before age __	3	223
9684129058	Loftus	connected to abuse cases/childhood	224
9684129059	prototypes	generalize	225
9684129060	problem-solving (4)	trial + error algorithms heuristic (representative + availability) insight - "AHA!"	226
9684129061	against problem-solving	fixation	227
9684129062	mental set	what has worked in the past	228
9684129063	functional fixedness	only way to do this is with this	229
9684129064	Chomsky (nature or nurture?)	"born with language" (nature)	230
9684129065	Skinner (nature or nurture?)	language is learned (nurture)	231
9684129066	grammar is _________	universal	232
9684129067	phonemes	smallest sound unit	233
9684129068	morphemes	smallest meaning unit	234

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APES The Atmosphere Flashcards

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9706125122	composition of the atmosphere	78% nitrogen (N2) 21% Oxygen (O2) 0-4% Water vapor (H2O) <<1% Carbon dioxide (CO2) <<<1% methane (CH4) <<<1% nitrous oxide (N2O) <<<1% ozone (O3)	0
9706152030	Nitrogen (N2)	- 78% of atmosphere - needed for life - deposits on earth through nitrogen fixation - returns to atmosphere through combustion of biomass and denitrification	1
9706163959	Oxygen (O2)	- 21% of atmosphere - produced through photosynthesis - used in cellular respiration	2
9706172073	Water Vapor (H2O)	- 0-4% of the atmosphere - largest amts near equator, over oceans, in tropics - low amts in polar areas, deserts	3
9706183418	Carbon dioxide (CO2)	- <<1% of the atmosphere - Has increased by 1/4 in the past 300 years cause of fossil fuels, deforestation - produced during respiration, decay of organic matter - used in photosynthesis - major greenhouse has - is in the atmosphere for ~ 100 yrs :/	4
9706202394	Methane (CH4)	- <<<1% of the atmosphere - contributes to greenhouse effect - increased about 150% in the last 250 yrs b/c of coal mining, fossil fuels, grazing animals, and flooding of rice fields - 1 molecule stays in atmosphere for ~10 yrs	5
9706206517	Nitrous Oxide (N2O)	- <<<1% of the atmosphere - inc about 0.3%/yr - from fossil fuels, fertilizers, burning biomass, deforestation, conversion to agricultural land - contributes to greenhouse effect - most important substance reducing stratospheric ozone; just as bad as CFCs	6
9706284382	Ozone (O3)	- <<<1% of atmosphere - 97% in stratosphere in the ozone layer - absorbs UV radiation - produced when photochemical smog is produced - hole over Antarctica - CFCs are primary cause of breakdown	7
9706664523	layers of the atmosphere	ionosphere mesosphere stratosphere (ozone layer) troposphere	8
9706677845	troposphere	- 0-7 mi above earth - 3/4 of Earth's atmosphere's mass - temp dec w altitude - weather - hurtful ozone	9
9706700476	stratosphere	- 31 ish miles above - temp inc with altitude bc the ozone absorbs UV - contains ozone layer - ozone produced by UV radiation, lightning - helpful ozone, protective	10
9706722307	mesosphere	- 56 mi above - temp dec w altitude - coldest layer - ice clouds - meteors burn up here	11
9706729734	thermosphere/ionosphere	- 217 mi above - temp inc with altitude b/c of gamma rays, x rays, UV radiation - northern lights (d/t molecules being converted into ions)	12
9706753161	changes in temp in the atmosphere		13
9706763821	weather is caused by	- transfer of energy d/t the unequal heating of the Earth's surface by the sun - energy transferred whenever there is a temp difference - energy transferred through radiation, conduction, convection	14
9706840455	radiation	- the flow of electromagnetic radiation - method by which Earth receives solar energy	15
9747448310	conduction	- involves the transfer of heat through solid substances and results from a difference in temperature between different parts of the substance	16
9747455347	factors influencing climate	- air mass - air pressure - albedo - altitude - angle of sunlight - clouds - distance to oceans - fronts - heat - human activity - humidity / moisture content of air - land changes - latitude - location - mountain ranges - pollution - rotation - wind patterns - your mom	17
9747468797	convection	- primary way energy is transferred from hotter to colder regions in atmosphere - determines weather patterns - involves the movement of the warmer, more energetic molecules in air - both vertical and horizontal convenction - ground air becomes warm, which means it's also less dense, so it rises; pressure differences develop because of the temp difference --> creates convection	18
9747484108	regions near the equator receive (more, less, =) solar energy than the poles; therefore they are (hotter, colder, the same temp)	more; hotter	19
9747487578	global convection	because poles are colder & have less solar energy than the equator = latitudinal differences in surface temp = global convection = major weather patters - without convection the equator would be 27 def F warmer and the Arctic would be 45 def F colder	20
9747497517	air mass	- a large body of air with similar temp and moisture content - can be equatorial, tropical, polar, arctic, continental, or maritime	21
9747503225	air pressure	- 99% of mass of atmosphere is within 20 miles of Earth's surface - gravity on air mass results in air pressure - measured in millibars, inches of mercury, or hectopascals (hPa) - decreases with altitude - LOW pressure = CLOUDY and STORMY - HIGH pressure = SUNNY; cool, dense air that descends and warms	22
9747516293	albedo	- reflectivity - ocean water = low albedo - land masses = moderate albedo - snow, ice = high albedo - dust in atmosphere from dry climate periods, volcanic eruptions, meteor impacts = high albedo - forms veil around Earth and reflects solar radiation	23
9747529841	altitude	- for every 1000 ft, there is a 3 deg F drop in temp - for every 300 ft its equivalent to shifting 62 miles N in latitudej	24
9747536399	angle of sunlight	- areas closest to equator receive the most sunlight, have higher temperatures	25
9747542748	carbon cycle	- consumption of carbon in the form of CO2 results in cooling (consumption via carbonate rock weathering and silicate rock weathering): PRODUCT is carbon dioxide (left side of formula) and COOLS - production of carbon in the form of CO2 results in warming (production via carbonate formation in the oceans and metamorphic breakdown of carbonate): YIELDS carbon dioxide (right side of formula) and WARMS	26
9748251765	clouds	- water droplets or ice crystals in atmosphere - warm air rises, it expands d/t decreasing air pressure --> drops in temp t/f cannot hold much water vapor --> vapor condenses forming tiny water particles or ice crystal - high level clouds (prefix cirr-) mostly ice crystals - mid level clouds (prefix alto-) and low level clouds (prefix strat-) mostly water droplets, some ice or snow	27
9748269467	distance to oceans	- oceans more thermally stable because they have a high specific heat	28
9748271271	fronts	- front = boundary between two different air masses - fronts vary in temp, dew point, wind direction	29
9748288958	warm front	- boundary between advancing warm air mass and the cooler one it is replacing - warm air is less dense t/f rises and cools, releases the moisture it has as rain	30
9748313850	cold front	- leading edge of an advancing mass of cold air - thunderhead clouds, high surface winds, thunderstorms - after it passes the weather is usually cool with clear skies	31
9748322047	greenhouse effect	- most impt greenhouse gasses: water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O)	32
9748329125	heat (convection)	- influences climate by how heat energy is exchanged between air over the oceans and the air over land	33
9748332035	land changes	- urbanization, deforestation influences climate	34
9748338444	landmass distribution	- ocean water absorbs a lot of solar radiation; land reflects a lot more - low latitudes (equator) get a lot more radiation than near the poles - so a planet with land clustered at low lats would be cooler than a planet with only land at poles	35
9748358570	moisture content of air (humidity)	- determines plant growth and distribution and biome type (ex desert vs forest vs tropical forest) - atmospheric water vapor supplies moisture for clouds, rainfall, plays role in atmospheric energy exchanges - water vapor is a greenhouse gas b/c it traps heat leaving the surface	36
9748449483	dew point	- the temperature at which water vapor in the air (at constant barometric pressure) condenses into liquid water at the same rate at which it evaporates - at temperature below the dew point, water will leave the air	37
9748453497	mountain ranges	- rain shadow effect: side of mntns facing ocean is "windward side" get a ton of rain; side opposite ocean is "leeward side", gets little rain - temp dec as altitude inc - orographic lifting: warm moist air rises to top of mountain, where the atmospheric pressure dec (b/c of in altitude) the air expands and cools to reach the dew point; at dew point moisture condenses onto mountain and it precipitates; air then descends onto other side (leeward side) but that side doesn't get any rain cause it already rained!	38
9748463592	orographic lifting	- when an air mass is forced from a low elevation to a higher elevation as it moves over rising terrain like a mountain - as it gains altitude it expands and cools, which can raise relative humidity and create clouds and sometimes precipitation	39
9748473841	plate tectonics and volcanoes	- volcanoes produce CO2 - if/when supercontinents stabilize, global volcanism slows, less CO2 in atmosphere --> global cooling - inc volcanism --> more CO2 in atmosphere --> greenhouse warming	40
9748481395	pollution	- greenhouse gases emitted from natural sources like volcaoes or anthropogenic sources like industry, transportation - why am i writing this	41
9748487728	precession	- the wobble of earth on it's axis - changes the amt of energy received by the sun - changes in the orientation (tilt) of Earth in space also affects climate	42
9748491951	rotation	- rotation affects day/night t/f affects daily temp cycles - night heat escapes - daily min temp occurs right before sunrise	43
9748498038	solar output	- times of sunspot activity (once every 11, 90, 180 yrs) correspond to decreases in solar radiation reaching earth - changes of solar output can affect earth's temp - sun's magnetic field reverses every 22 years	44
9748505325	volcanoes	- sulfur rich eruptions -> stuff into atmosphere -> cooling in troposphere, warming in stratosphere - volcanic aerosols -> 1-3 yrs in atmosphere -> tropospheric cooling, when in stratosphere can help destroy ozone - over long ass time ash in oceans can make it more iron-y, which promote biotic activity, which can lower the CO2 concentration of seawater, and hence atmospheric CO2 levels, and t/f global cooling	45
9748555960	wind patterns	- are influenced by temp, pressure differences (gradients), and Coriolis effect - sun heats atmosphere unevenly - air closest to surface is warmer and rises - air at high elevations is cooler, sinks - aka our good friend, convection! causes winds	46
9748568028	global air circulation is caused and affected by:	- uneven heating of Earth's surface - seasons - Coriolis effect - the amt of solar radiation reaching Earth's surface - convection cells created by areas of warm ocean water which are caused by differences in water density, winds, and Earth's rotation	47
9748575394	land and sea breezes	- sunny days: land warms up faster than sea (has a lower specific heat) - t/f the air above the land is less dense than that over the sea - t/f sea breeze (sea --> land) - calm, clear nights: land cools down faster than sea - air over land is more dense than air over sea - t/f land breeze (land --> sea)	48
9748588831	Coriolis Force	- deflection in path - caused by Earth's rotation - N hemisphere moves R - S hemisphere moves left - greater deflection the greater the speed and the lat - more deflection @ high speeds, at poles - is 0 at equator	49
9748608975	human activity	deforestation, urbanization, heat island effects, release of pollutants/greenhouse gases, burning of fossil fuels, production of acid rain - in pollution with an increase in conventional uplift in urban area = more rainfall in urban areas	50
9748662923	2 000 000 BCE to 12 000 BCE: The Pleistocene Ice Age	- glacial sheets - interglacial periods: warmer so glaciers retreated - glacial periods: colder so they advanced	51
9748671526	12 000 BCE to 3 000 BCE	- warming of earth and glacial retreat began - sudden cooling period b/w 10 000 and 8 500 BCE; possibly d/t fresh water trapped behind ice in NA draining into oceans and f*ing with the currents which exchange heat energy with the atmosphere - warming resumes 8 500 BCE CLIMATIC OPTIMUM: 5000 to 3000 BCE: max global temp reached: avg global temp 2-4 deg F warmer than they are today; ancient civs began	52
9748725783	3000 BCE to 750 BCE	- 3000 to 2000 BCE = cooling trend --> caused drop in sea lvls, many islands and coasts emerged - 2000 to 1500 BCE = warming - 1500 to 750 BCE = renewed ice growth in continental glaciers and alpine glaciers and sea lvl drop	53
9748754535	750 BCE to 900 CE	- 750 BCE to 150 BCE = warming - 150 BCE - 300 CE (roman empire) - 900 CE = cooling, Nile R and Black Sea froze :/	54
9748766210	900 CE to 1200 CE (Little Climatic Optimum)	- warm period - Vikings est on Greenland, Iceland - followed by cooler, more extreme weather ex floods, droughts, seasonal fluctuatios up to 1400s	55
9748774070	1500 CE to 1850 CE (Little Ice Age)	1550 to 1850 CE: cold af	56
9748775618	1850 - now	general warming	57
9748781448	why does Sun heat atmosphere unevenly?	- rotation of Earth on axis - rotation around the sun, - tilt of axis	58
9748794019	global air circulation is affected by:	- convection cells created by warm ocean waters (commonly lead to hurricanes) - uneven heating of surface - seasons - coriolis effect - amt of solar radiation reaching earth over long periods of time - ocean currents caused by differences in water density - winds - earth's rotation	59
9748804831	trade winds	- blow from NE in N H, from SE in S H - strengthen during winter - blow tropical storms that form over Atlantic, Pacific, south Indian oceans over to N Am, SE Asia, India - steer African dust W into Caribbean sea	60
9748817807	wind moves from ___ pressure to ___ pressure	high; low	61
9748819358	wind speed is determined by	pressure differences between air masses; the greater the pressure the greater the speed; measured by an anemometer if you're looking at isobars; the closer together they are the stronger the wind	62
9748829552	The Coriolis effect causes winds in the N hemisphere to spiral _____ in high pressure areas and spiral out _______ in low pressure areas	clockwise in high pressure; counter clockwise in low pressure; opposite in S H	63
9748869797	Hadley Cells	- next to equator - creates trade winds - equatorial regions: (0 deg) LOW PRESSURE so air RISES high humidity, high clouds, heavy rains no winter tropical rain forest - subtropical regions: (30 deg) - next to Ferrel cells - HIGH PRESSURE so air FALLS - low humidity, little clouds, deserts	64
9748892467	Ferrel Cells	- 30 deg to 50 deg - HIGH pressure at 30 deg so air FALLS; LOW pressure at 60 deg so air RISES - creates Westerlies -temperate zone	65
9748913493	Polar Cells	60 deg to 90 deg 60 deg - next to Ferrel cells LOW PRESSURE so moist warm air RISES 90 deg- HIGH PRESSURE so cold dry air FALLS creates Polar fronts - tundra and taiga cold deserts	66
9748943437	Air Circulation Cells		67
9748950995	hurricanes	- begin over warm ocean where trade winds converge - subtropical high pressure zone = high daytime temps w/ low humidity t/f lots of ocean evaporation - coriolis effect makes them spin - thunderstorms develop over tropical oceans and coriolis effect makes them spin - center is "eye" - low pressure, descending air - energy dissipates as it moves	68
9748970128	tornadoes vs hurricanes	- both have eyes w/ low pressure - tornadoes are smaller - tornadoes are produced from 1 convective storm like a thunderstorm- - hurricanes are huge - hurricanes are made from many convective storms - tornadoes mostly on land b/c solar heating of land surface helps create the thunderstorm - tropical cyclones mostly ocean, die out over land d/t no moisture	69
9748988741	monsoons	- strong violent winds, change direction w/ season - blow from cold to warm regions b/c cold air takes up more space than warm air	70
9749017754	Normal State (not el niño o la niña; aka "La Nada")	- easterly trade winds move water and air moved by sun to W (Walker circulation) - trade winds pile up water in W Pacific which makes a deep warm layer in W - pushes thermocline down in W, and it rises in E - shallow E thermocline allows winds to pull up old nutrient rich water from below - W side of equatorial Pacific has warm, wet low pressure weather, typhoons and thunderstorms	71
9749036237	El Niño / El Niño - Southern Oscillation (ENSO)	- air pressure patterns in S Pacific reverse direction - trade winds DEC in strength, reverse direction - normal flow of water away from S Am dec - ocean water piles up near S Am - thermocline is pushed deeper - upwelling of nutrient rich deep water is DEC --> fish kills off coast of S Am - E Pacific surface temp INC d/t deeper thermocline, dec westward transport of water - shift of precailling rain pattern from normal W Pacific to central Pacific; rainfall is more common in central Pacific while W Pacific becomes drier - warm phase of ENSO	72
9749082684	La Niña	- opposite of El Niño - trade winds are stronger - inc upwelling off S Am - cooler than normal sea surface temps - rain pattern shifts W - winds pile up warm surface water in W Pacific - cold ocean temps in E equatorial Pacific - inc in hurricanes in S/E US - heavier monsoons in India, S/E Asia	73
9749085097	climatological effects of el niño		74
9749117643	climatological effects of la niña		75
9749128995	List 3 facts about each of the following gases in the atmosphere: a. nitrogen b. oxygen c. water vapor d. carbon dixoide e. methane f. nitrous oxide g. ozone	pgs 109-110	76
9749141315	describe each of the following layers of the atmosphere: a. troposphere b. stratosphere c. mesosphere d. ionosphere	pgs 110-111	77
9749143329	describe the difference between weather and climate	pg 111	78
9749146335	describe the difference between radiation, conduction, and convection	pg 111	79
9749148070	name and describe 5 factors that influence climate	pgs 112-117	80
9749151089	describe 3 major climatic periods during Earth's history	pgs 117-118	81
9749152553	describe how a convection cell works	pg 119	82
9749154139	describe the Coriolis effect	pg 119	83
9749156780	describe the characteristics of Hadley, Ferrel, and polar cells	pgs 120-122	84
9749158194	describe how hurricanes and tornadoes form	pgs 123-124	85
9749162959	describe how monsoons form and where they occur	pg 124	86
9749164865	describe the "rain shadow effect"	pg 125	87
9749166554	describe how El Niño forms	pgs 125-126	88
9749168949	describe how La Niña forms	pg 127	89
9749172532	MC questions - WIP (if anyone wants to add the MC Qs from the Barron's book be my guest <3)		90

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8896664795	The motives of European states in establishing colonies can be summarized as all but which of the following	Guilt	0
8896664796	Examples of major nation states are	Japan and Denmark	1
8896664797	The first widespread use of the nation state concept came in	Western europe	2
8896664798	The worlds largest state	Russia	3
8896664799	A territory tied to a state rather than being completely independent	colony	4
8896664800	Korea is a good example of a(n)	ethnicity divided between more than one state.	5
8896664801	The United Nations is primarily what kind of cooperative effort?	political	6
8896664802	The most populous country that is not a member of the United nations	Taiwan	7
8896664803	Over the past half century the number of sovereign states in the world	Has increased by more than a hundred	8
8896664804	Ancient Mesopotamia	City state	9
8896664805	To be a nation state you need to have	Ethnic homogenity	10
8896664806	The best example of a state among the following is	A mountainous region inhabited by heterogeneous ethnicities which share responsibility for maintaining an independent government and a standing army	11
8896737335	#15	Popular media of a nation culture	12

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