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AP Govt. Chapter 15 Flashcards

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8089085665Domestic policyPublic plans or courses of action that concern internal issues of national importance, such as poverty, health care, and the environment.0
8089085666Earned income tax credit (EITC) programA government program that helps low-income workers by giving back part or all of their Social Security taxes.1
8089085667Energy policyLaws concerned with how much energy is needed and used.2
8089085668Environmental impact statement (EIS)A report that must show the costs and benefits of major federal actions that could significantly affect the quality of the environment.3
8089085669Food stampsBenefits issued by the federal government to low-income individuals to be used for the purchase of food; originally provided as coupons, but now typically provided electronically through a card similar to a debit card.4
8089085670Income transferA transfer of income from some individuals in the economy to others, generally by government action.5
8089085671In-kind subsidyA good or service—such as food stamps, housing, or medical care—provided by the government to low-income groups.6
8089085672MedicaidA joint state-federal program that provides medical care to the poor (including indigent elderly persons in nursing homes). The program is funded out of general government revenues.7
8089085673MedicareA federal health insurance program that covers U.S. residents age 65 and older. The costs are met by a tax on wages and salaries.8
8089085674National health insuranceA plan under which the government provides basic health-care coverage to all citizens. Most such plans are funded by taxes on wages or salaries.9
8089085675Single-payer planA plan under which one entity has a monopoly on issuing a particular type of insurance. Typically, the entity is the government, and the insurance is basic health coverage.10
8089085676Supplemental Security Income (SSI)A federal program established to provide assistance to elderly persons and persons with disabilities.11
8089085677SustainabilityAchieving a balance between society and nature that will permit both to exist in harmony.12
8089085678Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF)A state-administered program in which grants from the national government are used to provide welfare benefits. The TANF program replaced the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program13
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AP Psychology Cognition Flashcards

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6394356714memoryany system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information0
6394356715information-processing modelcognitive understanding of memory emphasizing how information is changed1
6394356716encodingone of the three basic tasks of memory; involves modification of information2
6394356717storageone of the three basic tasks of memory; involves retention of encoded material over time3
6394356718retrievalone of the three basic tasks of memory; involves location and recovery of information4
6394356719eidetic imageryespecially clear form of memory; "photographic memory"5
6394356720sensory memorypreserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli6
6394356721short-term memory (STM)preserves recently perceived events for less than a minute7
6394356722long-term memory (LTM)largest memory capacity and duration; stores material organized by meaning8
6394356723chunkingorganizing pieces of information into smaller, more meaningful units9
6394356724maintenance rehearsalinformation is repeated or reviewed to keep from fading in working memory10
6394356725elaborative rehearsalinformation is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM11
6394356726acoustic encodingconversion of information to sound patterns12
6394356727levels-of-processing theoryinformation that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long-term memory will be remembered better13
6394356728procedural memorystores memories for how things are done14
6394356729declarative memorystores facts15
6394356730episodic memorystores memory for personal events16
6394356731semantic memorystores general knowledge, including meanings of words17
6394356732anterograde amnesiainability to for memories for new information18
6394356733consolidationprocess by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories19
6394356734retrograde amnesiainability to remember information previously stored in memory20
6394356735flashbulb memoryclear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful event21
6394356736implicit memorymemory that was not deliberately learned22
6394356737explicit memorymemory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled23
6394356738retrieval cuesstimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness24
6394356739primingtechnique for curing implicit memories tha provides cues to stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection25
6394356740recallretrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented information26
6394356741recognitionretrieval method in one must identify present stimuli as being previously presented27
6394356742mood-congruent memorymemory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one's mood28
6394356743forgetting curvegraph plotting amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material29
6394356744proactive interferencecause of forgetting in which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information30
6394356745retroactive interferencecause of forgetting by which newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored material31
6394356746suggestibilitymemory distortion as the result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion32
6394356747misinformation effectdistortion of memory by suggestion or misinformaiton33
6394356748expectancy biasa tendency to distort recalled events to make them fit one's expectations34
6394356749self-consistency biascommonly held idea that we are more consistent in our beliefs and ideas than we actually are35
6394356750persistencememory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind36
6394356751mnemonicstechniques for improving memory by making connections between new material and information already in LTM37
6394356752method of locimnemonic device that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations38
6394356753language acquisition device (LAD)biologically organized mental structure that facilitates learning of language because (according to Chomsky) it is innately programmed with grammatical rules39
6394356754grammarrules of a language, specifying how to use stuff to make other stuff make sense40
6394356755morphemesmeaningful units of language that make up words41
6394356756overregularizationapplying a grammatical rule too widely and creating incorrect forms42
6394356757conceptsmental representations of categories of items or ideas based on experience43
6394356758prototypeideal or most representative example of a conceptual category44
6394356759concept hierarchieslevels of concepts in which a more general level includes more specific concepts45
6394356760schemaknowledge luster or general conceptual framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, etc.46
6394356761algorithmsproblem-solving procedures or formulas47
6394356762heuristicscognitive strategies or "rules of thumb" used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks48
6394356763mental settendency to respond to a new problem in the strategy used for a previous problem49
6394356764functional fixednessinability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose50
6394356765hindsight biastendency, after learning about an event, to "second guess" that one could have predicted the events51
6394356766anchoring biasfaulty heuristic caused by basing an estimate on an unrelated quantity52
6394356767representativeness biasfaulty heuristic based on the presumption that once people or events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category53
6394356768availability biasfaulty heuristic that estimates probabilities on information that can be recalled54
6394356769distributed learningtechnique where learner spaces learning sessions over time55
6394356770overlearningstartegy when the learner continues to study and rehearse the material after it has been brought to mastery56
6394356771working memorycombines STM and LTM57
6394356772Insighta sudden realization of a solution58
6394356773confirmation biasonly paying attention to things that confirm your belief59
6394356774phonemesthe smallest individual sounds in a language60
6394356775automatic processingencoding of information with little to no effort61
6394356776effortful processingencoding of information in which a lot of work is needed62
6394356777deep processingencoding of information with a large amount of understanding63
6394356778shallow processingencoding of information that does not included a much understanding64
6394356779iconic memorymomentary visual processing65
6394356780echoic memorymomentary auditory processing66
6394356781state-dependent memoryretrieval of information when a person is in the same state of consciousness67
6394356782rehearsalthe repetition of information68
6394356783serial position effectretrieving information most effectively from the beginning and the end69
6394356784constructed memorymemories that are distorted70
6394356785source amnesiathe inability to retrieve where information was learned from71
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AP Lang List 4 Flashcards

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6933277497Belligerenthostile and aggressive.0
6933277498Pretentiousattempting to impress by pretending to have greater importance, talent, culture, etc., than is actually possessed.1
6933277499Asyndetonthe omission or absence of a conjunction between parts of a sentence. Ex: I came, I saw, I conquered.2
6933277500Exemplifybe a typical example of.3
6933277501Exactingmaking great demands on one's skill, attention, or other resources.4
6933277502Detachedseparate or disconnected, in particular.5
6933277503Haughtyarrogantly superior and disdainful.6
6933277504Circumspectionthe quality of being wary and unwilling to take risks; prudence.7
6933277505Chiasmusa rhetorical strategy in which words or phrases are placed in reverse order, or a modified form; Ex: Poetry is the record of the best and happiest moments of the happiest and best minds.8
6933277506Fallacya failure in reasoning that renders an argument invalid.9
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AP Government Chapter 16 Flashcards

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6190531658standing to sueThe requirement that plaintiffs have a serious interest in a case, which depends on whether they have sustained or are likely to sustain a direct and substantial injury from another party or from an action of government.0
6190531659class action suitsLawsuits in which a small number of people sue on behalf of all people in similar circumstances.1
6190531660justiciable disputesIssues capable of being settled as a matter of law.2
6190531661amicus curiae briefsLegal briefs submitted by a "friend of the court" for the purpose of influencing a court's decision by raising additional points of view and presenting information not contained in the briefs of the formal parties.3
6190531662original jurisdictionThe jurisdiction of courts that hear a case first, usually in a trial. These are the courts that determine the facts about a case.4
6190531663appellate jurisdictionThe jurisdiction of courts that hear cases brought to them on appeal from lower courts. These courts do not review the factual record, only the legal issues involved.5
6190531664district courtsThe 94 federal courts of original jurisdiction They are the only federal courts in which trials are held and in which juries may be impaneled.6
6190531665courts of appealAppellate courts empowered to review all final decisions of district courts, except in rare cases. In addition, they also hear appeals to orders of many federal regulatory agencies.7
6190531666Supreme CourtThe pinnacle of the American judicial system. The Court ensures uniformity in interpreting national laws, resolves conflicts among states, and maintains national supremacy in law. it has both original jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction.8
6190531667senatorial courtesyAn unwritten tradition whereby nominations for state-level federal judicial posts are usually not confirmed if they are opposed by a senator of the president's party from the state in which the nominee will serve.9
6190531668solicitor generalA presidential appointee and the third-ranking office in the Department of Justice. The solicitor general is in charge of the appellate court litigation of the federal government.10
6190531669majority opinionA statement of legal reasoning behind a judicial decision. The content of an opinion may be as important as the decision itself.11
6190531670stare decisisA latin phrase meaning "let the decision stand." Most cases reaching appellate courts are settled on this principle.12
6190531671precedentHow similar cases have been decided in the past. Lower courts, of course, are expected to follow the precedents of higher courts in their decision making.13
6190531672judicial implementationHow and whether court decisions are translated into actual policy, thereby affecting the behavior of others. The courts rely on other units of government to enforce their decisions.14
6190531673original intentA view that the Constitution should be interpreted according to the original intent of the Framers. Many conservatives support this view.15
6190531674judicial reviewThe power of the courts to determine whether acts of Congress and, by implication, the executive are in accord with the U.S. Constitution. Judicial review was established by John Marshall and his associates in Marbury v. Madison.16
6190531675judicial restraintA judicial philosophy in which judges play minimal policy making roles, leaving that duty strictly to the legislatures.17
6190531676judicial activismA judicial philosophy in which judges make bold policy decisions, even charting new constitutional ground. Advocates of this approach emphasize that the courts can correct pressing needs, especially those unmet by the majoritarian political process.18
6190531677political questionsA doctrine developed by the federal courts and used as a means to avoid deciding some cases, principally those involving conflicts between the president and Congress.19
6190531679per curiamDecision without explanation; Resolve the immediate case but have no value as precedent because the court does not offer reasoning that would guide lower courts in future decisions.20
6190567890dissenting opinionopinion written by justices who are opposed to the majority decision21
6190594116concurring opinionopinion written to support a majority opinion, but for different constitutional or legal basis22
6201456317Brown v. Board of EducationThe Supreme Court held that "separate but equal" facilities are inherently unequal and violate the protections of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.23
6201459252Gideon v. WainwrightThe Court held that it was consistent with the Constitution to require state courts to appoint attorneys for defendants who could not afford to retain counsel on their own.24
6201463245Miranda v. ArizonaThe Supreme Court held that the Fifth Amendment's protection against self-incrimination is available in all settings. Therefore suspect should be aware that he has the right to remain silent, right to an attorney present, etc25
6201468868Roe v. WadeThe Court held that a woman's right to an abortion fell within the right to privacy protected by the Fourteenth Amendment.26
6201472951Heart of Atlanta v. USThe Court held that the Commerce Clause allowed Congress to regulate local incidents of commerce, and that the Civil Right Act of 1964 passed constitutional muster.27
6201480741Tinker v. Des MoinesStudents wore black armbands to protest the Vietnam War. The Court held that the students did not lose their First Amendment rights to freedom of speech when they stepped onto school property28
6201495573Engel v. Vitalesaid that school prayer was unconstitutional29
6201507168Mapp v. OhioCourt ruled that according to the 4th Amendment, evidence obtained illegally could not be admitted to states courts30
6201515416Texas v. JohnsonCourt ruled that burning of the US flag was protected expression under the First Amendment31
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Soil and Agriculture APES Flashcards

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9496750440AgricultureThe practice of raising of raising crops and livestock for human use and consumption.0
9496750441SoilA complex mixture of weathered mineral materials from rocks, partially decomposed organic molecules, and a host of living organisms1
9496750442Soil degradationDamage to soil - for example, as a result of deforestation or the removal of topsoil from bare land by water and wind erosion.2
9496750443MonocultureFarming strategy in which large fields are planted with a single crop, year after year. Seen mainly in industrialized agriculture.3
9496750444TerracingThe shaping the land to create level shelves of earth to hold water and soil; requires extensive hand labor or expensive machinery, but it enables farmers to farm very steep hillsides.4
9496750445Traditional agricultureProducing enough food for a farm family's survival and perhaps a surplus that can be sold.5
9496750446Intensive agricultureA form of subsistence agriculture in which farmers must expend a relatively large amount of effort to produce the maximum feasible yield from a parcel of land.6
9496750447Industrialized AgricultureUsing large inputs of energy from fossil fuels (especially oil and natural gas), water, fertilizer, and pesticides to produce large quantities of crops and livestock for domestic and foreign sale.7
9496750448PolycultureComplex form of intercropping in which a large number of different plants maturing at different times are planted together. Seen mainly in traditional agriculture.8
9496750449Green RevolutionTerm used to describe the transformation of agriculture in many developing nations that led to significant increases in agricultural production between the 1940s and 1960s.9
9496750450Parent materialBasic geological material in a particular location from which soil is made through the weathering process.10
9496750451BedrockSolid unweathered rock lying beneath surface deposits of soil.11
9496750452WeatheringThe decomposition and disintegration of rocks and minerals at the earth's surface by a mechanical and chemical process into smaller particles.12
9496750453ErosionThe process by which wind, water, ice, or gravity transports soil and sediment from one location to another13
9496750454HumusRich, dark organic material formed by decay of vegetable matter, essential to soil's fertility.14
9496750455HorizonEach layer of soil is termed a __________.15
9496750456Soil profileA vertical section through a soil showing its succession of horizons and the underlying parent material.16
9496750457O Horizon(Organic) top layer, Surface plant and animal litter forms hummus. Able to retain water and nutrients. Has an organic composition from 20%-30%17
9496750458A HorizonTopsoil layer(below O horizon), is a porous mixture of the partially decomposed bodies of dead plants/animals called "humus" and inorganic materials such as clay, silt, and sand. Very fertile soil that produces high crop yields.18
9496750459E HorizonZone of Leaching, Light in color, composed of coarse silt. Fine particles are removed by eluviation, which is materials being removed by sinking downward.19
9496750460EluviationThe washing out of fine soil components from the A horizon by downward-percolating water.20
9496750461B HorizonAlso called, "subsoil" (right below the E Horizon) and usually consists of clay and other particles washed down from the topsoil layer(A Horizon).21
9496750462C HorizonThis horizon lies on a base of unweathered parent material, which is often bedrock. (Below B and above R)22
9496750463R HorizonThe lowermost layer of pure parent material.23
9496750464TopsoilThe first true layer of soil; layer in which organic material is mixed with mineral particles.24
9496750465LeachingProcess in which various chemicals in upper layers of soil are dissolved and carried to lower layers and, in some cases, to groundwater.25
9496750466ClayThe finest soil, made up of particles that are less than 0.002 mm in diameter.26
9496750467SiltSoil with particles between 0.002 and 0.05 mm in diameter.27
9496750468SandA loose material consisting of grains of rock or coral 0.05 to 2.0 mm in diameter28
9496750469LoamPerfect agricultural soil with equal portions of sand, silt, and clay.29
9496750470Soil StructureHow the particles that make up a soil are organized and clumped together.30
9496750471PlowpanA hard layer resulting from repeated plowing that resists water infiltration and root penetration31
9496750472Cation exchangeA process in which positively charged minerals are made available to a plant when hydrogen ions in the soil displace mineral ions from the clay particles.32
9496750473Cation exchange capacityThe capacity of a soil for ion exchange of cations between the soil and the soil solution. CEC is used as a measure of fertility, nutrient retention capacity, and the capacity to protect groundwater from cation contamination33
9496750474Swidden AgricultureAlso called slash and burn agriculture, it is a form of cultivation in which forrested or brushy plots are cleared of vegetation burned then planted to crops only to be abandoned a few years later when soil fertility declines. Prevalent in rain forests.34
9496750475DepositionThe arrival of eroded material at its new location.35
9496750476Splash erosionErosion caused by the direct force of falling drops of rain on bare soil. Causes splashing in which soil particles are lifted and then dropped into a new position.36
9496750477Sheet ErosionA type of surface water erosion caused by runoff that occurs when water flowing as sheets picks up sediments and carries them away37
9496750478Rill ErosionErosion where numerous small channels are formed serveral inches deep, occcurs mainly in recently cultivated soils. May later form gullies.38
9496750479Gully ErosionSoil erosion produced by running water and resulting in the formation of gullies, Occurs when rivulets of fast-flowing water join together to cut wider and deeper ditches or gullies.39
9496750480DesertificationDegradation of land which results in a loss of 10% or more in productivity, especially in semiarid areas, primarily because of human actions like excessive crop planting, animal grazing, and tree cutting.40
9496750481Dust BowlParts of Oklahoma, Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas that were hit hard by dry topsoil and high winds that created blinding dust storms; this area of the Great Plains became called that because winds blew away crops and farms, and blew dust from Oklahoma to Albany, New York. --> lead to formation of the NRCS41
9496750482Soil Conservation Act1935 Act that established the soil conservation service, which deals with soil erosion problems, carries out soil surveys, and does research on soil salinity., Also appropriated funds for soil conservation paymnets to farmers who would remove land from production.42
9496750483Soil Conservation ServiceConducted research into controlling wind and water erosion, set up demonstration project and technical assistance to farmers. Now called the Natural Resources Conservation Service.43
9496750484Hugh BennettA soil scientist in the 1920s and 1930s for the U.S. Department of Agriculture. He spoke about the danger of soil erosion. Became director of SCS.44
9496750485Crop RotationThe practice of rotating use of different fields from crop to crop each year, to avoid exhausting the soil.45
9496750486Contour FarmingPlowing and planting across the changing slope of land, rather than in straight lines, to help retain water and reduce soil erosion.46
9496750487Cover cropsPlants such a rye, alfalfa, or clover, that can be planted immediately after harvest to hold an protect the soil.47
9496750488IntercroppingAn agricultural method in which two or more crop species are planted in the same field at the same time to promote a synergistic interaction and reduce erosion.48
9496750489ShelterbeltsA wider area than a windbreak that contains trees as well as shrubs to help reduce wind erosion, retain soil moisture, provide habitats for wildlife and fuel.49
9496750503Alley cropping50
9496750490No till agricultureAn agriculture process where weeds are killed, usually with chemicals, without tilling the land to reduce erosion.51
9496750491Green manureFreshly cut or still-growing green vegetation that is plowed into the soil to increase the organic matter and humus available to support crop growth.52
9496750492IrrigationThe process of supplying water to areas of land to make them suitable for growing crops.53
9496750493WaterloggingSaturation of soil with irrigation water or excessive precipitation so that the water table rises close to the surface which then makes plant roots unable to make adequate gas exchanges and ultimately leads to plant death.54
9496750494SalinizationProcess that occurs when soils in arid areas are brought under cultivation through irrigation. In arid climates, water evaporates quickly off the ground surface, leaving salty residues that render the soil infertile.55
9496750495Drip irrigationA process by which precisely controlled amounts of water drip directly onto plants from pipes, thus preserving precious water resources in dry areas56
9496750496Center pivot irrigationAn irrigation system comsisting of a spray arm several hundred meters long supported by wheels pivoting around a central well from which water is pumped.57
9496750497FertilizerAny substance such as manure or a mixture of nitrates used to make soil more fertile.58
9496750498Organic fertilizerA fertilizer made up of natural materials (largely the remains or wastes of organisms), including animal manure, crop residues, fresh vegetation, and compost.59
9496750499Inorganic fertilizerA fertilizer that consists of mined or synthetically manufactured mineral supplements. Generally more susceptible than organic fertilizers to leaching and runoff and may be more likely to cause unintended off-site impacts.60
9496750500CompostA mixture of various decaying organic substances, as dead leaves or manure, used for fertilizing soil61
9496750501OvergrazingDestruction of vegetation when too many grazing animals feed too long and exceed the carrying capacity of a rangeland or pasture area.62
9496750502Taylor Grazing Act1934 United States federal law that regulates grazing on federal public land(140 million acres). The Secretary of the Interior has the authority to handle all of the regulations, and he became responsible for establishing grazing districts. Before these districts are created there must be a hearing held by the state.63
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AP CSP Unit 3 Flashcards

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5847838820AlgorithmA precise sequence of instructions for processes that can be executed by a computer0
5847844341FunctionA piece of code that you can easily call over and over again.1
5847853493APIa collection of commands made available to a programmer2
5847856487Documentationa description of the behavior of a command, function, library, API, etc.3
5847857987Librarya collection of commands / functions, typically with a shared purpose4
5847859760ParameterAn extra piece of information that you pass to the function to customize it for a specific need.5
5847865837For LoopA particular kind of looping construct provided in many languages. Typically defines a counting variable that is checked and incremented on each iteration in order to loop a specific number of times.6
5847869470LoopThe action of doing something over and over again.7
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AP Psychology Famous People Flashcards

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8972250707Charles DarwinTheory of evolution, survival of the fittest-origin of the species.0
8972250708Wilhelm WundtIntrospection-psychology became the scientific study of conscious experience (rather than science). Father of modern or scientific psychology. Structuralism was the approach and introspection was the methodology. Established first psychology laboratory.1
8972250709John WatsonFounder of behaviorism & generalization. Applied classical conditioning skills to advertising. Most famous for Little Albert experiment, where he first trained Albert to be afraid of rats and then to generalize his fear to all small, white animals.2
8972250710Alfred AdlerNeo-Freudian who believed that childhood social, not sexual, tensions are crucial for personality formations. Believed that people are primarily searching for self-esteem and achieving the ideal self.3
8972250711Carl JungDisciple of Freud who extended his theories. Believed in a collective unconscious as well as a personal unconscious that is aware of ancient archetypes which we inherit from our ancestors and we see in myths (young warrior, wise man of the village, loving mother, etc.). Coined the terms introversion and extroversion. Neo-Freudian, believed with Freud's "personal unconscious" but also though humans have a collective unconscious - a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history. Also studied persona - different "masks" we wear in social situations.4
8972250712Gordon AllportThree levels of traits: 1. Cardinal: dominant trait that characterized your life 2. Central trait: common to all people 3. Secondary trait: surfaces in some situations and not others5
8972250713Albert EllisFather of Rational Emotive Therapy, which focuses on altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotion (like, "if I fail the AP exam my life will come to an end"). Helped patients overcome unrealistic expectations - taught to eliminate self-defeating thoughts while focusing on those that were beneficial.6
8972250714Abraham MaslowHumanist psychologist who said we have a series of needs which must be met. You can't achieve the top level, self- actualization, unless the previous levels have been achieved; from bottom to top the levels are physiological needs, safety, belonging, self-esteem, self-actualization. Hierarchy of Needs. Lower needs dominate and individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied. Founded Humanistic Psychology, which focused on the individual and self directed choices that influenced behavior.7
8972250715Carl RogersHumanistic psychologist who believed in unconditional positive regard. People will naturally strive for self-actualization and high self-esteem, unless society taints them. Reflected back clients thoughts so that they developed a self-awareness or their feelings. Client-centered therapy - unconditional positive regard by supporting the client regardless of what is said.8
8972250716B.F. SkinnerOperant conditioning-- techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior. Skinner box. Believed psychology was not scientific enough. Wanted it to be believed everyone is born tableau rosa (blank slate); NOT concerned with unconscious or cause, only behavior.9
8972250717Ivan PavlovFather of classical conditioning - an unconditional stimulus naturally elicits a reflexive behavior called an unconditional response, but with repeated pairings with a neutral stimulus, the neutral stimulus will elicit the response. Also spontaneous recovery.10
8972250718Noam ChomskyBelieved there are an infinite number of sentences in a language and that humans have an inborn native ability to develop language. Words and concepts are learned but the brain is hardwired for grammar and language. Theory of generative grammar emphasizes universal grammar. Linguistic knowledge was innate.11
8972250719Jean PiagetFour-state theory of cognitive development-- sensorimotor (object permanence and stranger anxiety), preoperational (egocentrism), concrete operational (conservation), and formal operational (abstract concepts). Two basic processes (assimilation and accommodation) work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth.12
8972250720Erik EriksonPeople evolve through 8 states over the life span. Each state is marked by psychological crisis that involves confronting "who am I". Neo-Freudian, most famous for stages in psychosocial development, which are based on Freud's five stages.13
8972250721Lawrence KohlbergHis theory states that there are 3 levels of moral reasoning (pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional) and each level can be divided into 2 stages. Pre-conventional (acted whether they would fain rewards or punishment), conventional morality (actions that uphold social rules in intent to be liked by others and gain approval), and post-conventional (abstract reasoning for their actions).14
8972250722Hans EysenckPersonality is determined to a large extent by genes. Used the terms extroversion (introversion) and emotional stability or neuroticism (instability). Stated that intelligence was largely inherited and believed that all personality traits could be summarized by two dimensions.15
8972250723Stanley Schachter and Jerome SingerBelieved that to experience emotions one must be physically aroused and must then label the arousal. Developed two-factor theory of emotion which simply states that emotions are comprised of physical arousal and a cognitive label. They also said that emotional experience requires conscious interpretation of the arousal.16
8972250724Benjamin WhorfHis hypothesis is that language determines the way we think. One's language and grammar patterns shape one's view of reality - linguistic relativity.17
8972250725Robert SternbergTriarchic theory of intelligence- [1] academic problem-solving intelligence [2] practical intelligence [3] creative intelligence. Contributed to the idea that there is more to creativity than that which intelligence tests reveals.18
8972250726Howard GardnerTheory of multiple intelligences. Opposed Spearman's ideas of one general intelligence. Believed there are eight 'smarts', which are visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal (others), intrapersonal (oneself), linguistic, and logical-mathematical.19
8972250727Albert BanduraObservational learning- allows you to profit immediately from the mistakes and successes of others. His experiment had adult models punching BoBo dolls and then observed children whom watched begin to exhibit many of the same behaviors. Social learning theory.20
8972250728Edward ThorndikeLaw of effect-the principle that behavior followed by favorable consequences becomes more likely and vice versa.21
8972250729Alfred BinetGeneral IQ tests. Hired by French public school system to find children that needed special help. First used the IQ formula: (mental age/physical age) * 100. Influenced the Stanford-Binet Test.22
8972250730Lewis TermanRevised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children. Invented Stanford-Binet IQ Test. Believed that children who scored high on his IQ tests were "gifted" and likely to become society's leaders in adulthood.23
8972250731David WeschlerEstablished an intelligence test especially for adults (Weschler Intelligence Test for Adults).24
8972250732Charles SpearmanFound that specific mental talents were highly correlated. Concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he label "g" for general intelligence.25
8972250733Hermann RorschachDeveloped one of the first projective tests, the Inkblot Test where the subject reads the inkblots and projects to the observer aspects of their personality, reflect unconscious parts of the personality that "project" onto the stimuli.26
8972250734Philip ZimbardoConducted the famous Standford Prison Experiment. Studied the power of social roles to influence peoples behavior. Proved people's behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play. Experiment had to be stopped because it got out of control.27
8972250735David RosenhanConducted a hospital experiment to test the diagnosis that hospitals make on patients. Doctors can't distinguish between the sane from the insane in such environment. Wanted to see the impact of behavior on being a patient. Proved that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, your care would not be very good in a mental hospital setting. Tested validity of psychiatric diagnosis of insanity.28
8972250736Solomon AschStudy of conformity. Experiment had a subject unaware of his situation to test if he would conform if all the members of a group gave an obviously incorrect answer.29
8972250737Stanley MilgramConducted a study on obedience when he had a subject shock a patient to the extent that they would be seriously injuring the patient. Proved that people will do things mainly because an authority figure had prompted the teacher to do so.30
8972250738Harry HarlowStudied theory of attachment in infant Rhesus monkeys. Also experimented on the effects of social isolation in young monkeys and observed that they become severely emotionally disturbed and never recover fully. Raised monkeys with two artificial mothers. One represented nourishment, other contact/comfort. Discovered monkeys would feed from harsh mom with the food, but quickly return to soft cloth mom for a safe/secure base. Humans act the same way, we are social creatures who need contact to thrive.31
8972250739Sigmund FreudPsychoanalytical theory that focuses on the unconscious. Id (pleasure), ego (reality principle), superego (social morals); believed innate drives for sex and aggression are the primary motives for our behavior and personalities. Theories include the ideas of the stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal, phallic, latent, genital). Often know as the father of modern psychology and psychoanalysis. Believed that the unconscious determines everything we do. Believed that dreams, free association, and hypnosis could reveal the unconscious mind.32
8972250740Karen HorneyCriticized Freud and said that personality is continually molded by current fears and impulses rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences. Saw humans as craving love and social interaction to drive their needs. Neo-Freudian, named parental indifference the true culprit behind neurosis and said the key to understanding this phenomenon is the child's perception - children can overcome Oedipus Complex if they have loving parents. Womb envy - men's innate jealousy of a woman's ability to give birth33
8972250741Martin SeligmanLearned helplessness is the giving up reaction that occurs from the experience that whatever you do you cannot change your situation. One will start to act helpless in a situation if they find that they can't stop the harmful stimulus, even if they do have the power to stop it.34
8972250742Hermann EbbinghausFirst to conduct scientific studies on memory and forgetting. Learning curves. Forgetting Curves: We forget the most information within the first 20 minutes, then an hour, then a day. Is exponential.35
8972250743Ernst WeberPioneered the first study on JND (just noticeable difference), which become Weber's Law. The JND between stimuli is a constant proportion of the intensity of the standard stimulus. Sensation and difference thresholds.36
8972250744Elizabeth Kubler-RossTheory proposes that the terminally ill pass through a sequence of 5 stages- [1]denial, [2]anger/resentment, [3]bargaining, [4]depression, [5]acceptance.37
8972250745Paul EkmanTheory that facial expressions are universal. Studied facial expressions and how they reflected emotions. He believed there were six basic emotions that were universal and expressed in the same way in any culture. They are anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.38
8972250746Mary AinsworthMost famous for her work in early emotional attachment with "The Strange Situation" Experiment. The child's reactions are observed while playing for 20 minutes while caregivers and strangers enter and leave the room, recreating the flow of the familiar and unfamiliar presence in most children's lives. The effects vary in stressfulness.39
8972250747Aaron BeckThe father of cognitive therapy, specializes in clinical depression. Developed the cognitive triad of depression: people who are depressed have negative thoughts about themselves, their future, and the world in which they live.40
8972250748Paul BrocaPhysician that reported after damage to specific area of the left frontal lobe, Broca's Area, a person would have trouble forming words but still be able to comprehend speech41
8972250749Raymond CattellBest known for discovery of 16 underlying personality traits and his methods for measuring the traits are known as the 16 personality factor model and the 16 PF questionnaire. Used factor analysis.42
8972250750Phineas GageA railroad worker who had a large iron rod go completely through his left frontal lobe while working. Became angry after accident. Concluded that specific areas of the brain affect personality.43
8972250751Ernest HilgardBest known for his research on hypnosis. Creator of the hypnosis theory of a "hidden observer" where a person undergoing hypnosis can observe his or her pain without feeling any actual suffering.44
8972250752William JamesWrote the first influential textbook on psychology, called Principles of Psychology (1890), a leading psychologist in the Functionalism movement, which emphasized the function (rather than the structure) of consciousness.45
8972250753William James and Carl LangeCame up with the theory that proposes that emotions occur because of physiological reactions to event. This means that based on how your body physically reacts to an event, your mind will decide the emotion you are feeling.46
8972250754GarciaDiscovered taste aversion when looking at effects of radiation on rats. Rats became nauseous from the radiation, but since the taste of water from a plastic bottle was accidentally paired with this radiation, the rats developed an aversion for this water.47
8972250755Elizabeth LoftusKnown for her work in the study of false memory formation and the misinformation effect. Famous for her car-crash experiment - After viewing a video, those who were asked the question with the smashed wording were much likely to "remember" seeing broken glass in a later question (in reality, no glass had been broken in the accident). They also remembered the car as driving much faster.48
8972250756Konrad LorenzRediscovered imprinting (phase-sensitive learning) which famously included acting as the mother figure for Mallard Ducks. There is a critical period for attachment.49
8972250757Hans SelyeResponsible for the idea of General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). First is the "alarm reaction" where we prepare for "fight or flight". Second is resistance, where the resistance of stress is built. After a long duration of stress, the body enters the third stage - exhaustion. This last stage is most hazardous to your health and has the long term effects.50
8972250758Edward TolmanMost famous for his studies on behavioral psychology, studied latent learning. He is known for his study of learning with rats in mazes, rats who run the maze without a reward still learn how to complete the maze.51
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