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AP Biology Evolution Flashcards

6371307409	Carolus Linnaeus	-physician and botanist who sought to classify life's diversity -binomial nomenclature (Homo sapien) -nested classification system, placing similar species into general characters	0
6371307410	Fossils	-darwin drew from these (the remains or traces of organisms from the past)	1
6371307411	Strata	-new layers of sediment cover older ones and compress them into layers of rock called strata -strata reveal the pattern of evolution that a species may take	2
6371307412	Paleontology	-study of fossils, developed by Georges Cuvier 0noted that the older the stratum the more dissimilar fossils were to current life-forms -from one layer to the next, new species appeared while others disappeared -each boundary represented a sudden catastrophic event	3
6371307413	Charles Lyell	-incorporated Hutton's thinking into his proposal that the same geologic processes are operating today as in the past, and at the same rate	4
6371307414	Jean-Baptiste Lamarck	-found several lines of descent, a chronological series of older to younger fossils leading to a living species -use and disuse (giraffes' neck)	5
6371307415	Wallace	-writes a paper with a similar hypothesis to Darwin based on the Malay archipelago	6
6371307416	Darwin	-HMS beagle, interested in species in the galapagos (turtles, finches)	7
6371307417	Artificial Selection	-modification of other species over many generations by selecting and breeding individuals with desired traits	8
6371307418	Darwin's 2 Inferenences	-All species and produce more offspring than their enviorment can support and many of these offspring fail to survive and reproduce -This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations	9
6371307419	Homology	-similarity resulting from common ancestry	10
6371307420	Homologous Structures	-represent variations on a structural theme that was present in a common ancestor	11
6371307421	Vestigal Structures	-remnants of features that served a function in the organism's ancestors	12
6371307422	Convergent Evolution	-independent evolution of similar features in different lineages -ex: marsupials and sugar glider (same environment) -can occur when similar environmental pressures and natural selection exists	13
6371307423	Analogous	-species share features b/c of convergent evolution, share similar function but not common ancesty	14
6371307424	Biogeography	-scientific study of the geographic distributions of species	15
6371307425	Phylogeny	-evolutionary history of a species or group of species	16
6371307426	Systematics	-discipline focused on classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary realationships	17
6371307427	Taxonomy	-study of how organisms are named and classifed	18
6371307428	Order of Classification	Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genius, Species	19
6371307429	Sister Taxa	-groups of organism that share an immediate common ancestor	20
6371307430	Rooted	-branch point within the tree	21
6371307431	Polytomy	-branch point from which more than two descendant groups emerge	22
6371307432	Analogy	-similarity due to convergent evolution	23
6371307433	Homoplasies	-analogous structures that arose independently	24
6371307434	Cladistic	-common ancestry is the primary criterion used to classify organisms	25
6371307435	Clades	-each of which includes an ancestral species of all its descendants	26
6371307436	Monophyletic	-signifying that it consists of an ancestral species and all its descendants	27
6371307437	Paraphyletic	-consists of an ancestral species and some of its descendants	28
6371307438	Polyphyletic	-some of its members have different ancestors	29
6371307439	Shared Ancestral Character	-character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon	30
6371307440	Shared Derived Character	-evolutionary novelty unique to a clade	31
6371307441	Outgroup	-species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage including the species	32
6371307442	Maximum Parsimony	-we should first investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts	33
6371307443	Molecular Clock	-an approach for measuring the absolute time of evolutionary change based on the observation that some gens and other regions of genomes appear to evolve at constant rates	34
6371307444	Microevolution	-a change in allele frequencies in a population over generations	35
6371307445	Genetic Variation	-differences among individuals in the composition of their genes or other DNA sequences	36
6371307446	Population	-group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and interbreed creating fertile offspring	37
6371307447	Gene Pool	-all copies of every type of allele at every locus in all members of the population	38
6371307448	Hardy-Weinberg Conditions	-no mutations -random mating -no natural selection -very large population size -no gene flow	39
6371307449	Genetic Drift	-chance events can alter allele allele frequencies to fluctuate from one generation to another (especially in one generation to another)	40
6371307450	Founder Effect	-when few individuals become isolated from a larger population this smaller group may make a new population whose gene pool differs from the source population	41
6371307451	Bottleneck Effect	-a severe drop in population results in the over or under representation of certain alleles.	42
6371307452	Gene Flow	-transfer of allele into or out of a population from the movement of fertile individuals or their gametes	43
6371307453	Effects of Genetic Drift	-Genetic Drift is significant in small populations -Genetic drift can cause allele frequencies to change at random -Genetic drift can lead to a loss of genetic variation within populations -Genetic drift can cause harmful alleles to become fixed	44
6371307454	Adaptive Evolution	-NS increases the frequency of allele that provide an advantage and reproduce more	45
6371307455	Relative Fitness	-contribution an individual makes to the gene pool relative to the contributions of indivdauls	46
6371307456	Directional Selection	-conditions father shifting traits to one extreme	47
6371307457	Disruptive Selection	-conditions favor individuals at both extremes of a phenotypic range	48
6371307458	Stabilizing Selection	-reduces variation and gets rid of extreme phenotypes in the population	49
6371307459	Sexual Selection	-form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than others to obtain maits	50
6371307460	Sexual Dismorphism	-difference in secondary sexual characteristics between males and females of the same species	51
6371307461	Intersexual Selection	-individuals of one sex are choosy in selecting mates	52
6371307462	Neutral Variation	-differences in DNA sequence that do not confer a selective advantage or disadvantage	53
6371307463	Balancing Selection	-occurs when natural selection amintains two or more forms in a population	54
6371307464	Heterozygote Selection	-individuals who are heterozygotes at a particular locus have a greater fitness than both kinds of homozygotes	55
6371307465	Frequency Dependent Selection	-fitness of a phenotype depends on how commen it is	56
6371307466	Natural Selection Constraints	1. Selection can only act on existing variation 2. Evolution is limited by historical constraints 3. Adaptations are often compromises 4. Chance, NS and the environment interact	57
6371307467	Species (according to the biological species concept)	-group of population whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and have the potential to produce viable, fertile offspring but do not	58
6371307468	Macroevolution	-broad pattern of evolution above the species level	59
6371307469	Reproductive Isolation	-existance of biological barriers that impede members of two species from interbreeding and producing viable, fertile offspring	60
6371307470	Hybrid	-offspring from an interspecific mating	61
6371307471	Prezygotic Barriers	-block fertilization from occuring	62
6371307472	Postzygotic Barriers	-contribute to reproductive isolation after the hybrid zygote is formed	63
6371307473	Prezygotic Barrier Examples	1. Habtitat Isolation 2. Temporal Isolation (nocturnal) 3. Behavior Isolation (courtship rituals) 4. Mechanical Isolation (snail shells) 5. Genetic Isolation (sperm can't survive in reproductive tract) HTBMG	64
6371307474	Postzygotic Barrier Examples	1. Reduced Hybrid Viability (hybrid survivabilty is reduced) 2. Reduced Hybrid Fertility (mule) 3. Hybrid Breakdown (one hybrids mate with one another offspring of the next generation are feeble/sterile) VFB	65
6371307475	Morphological Species Concept	-characterization of a species by body shape and other structural features	66
6371307476	Ecological Species Concept	-species in terms of its ecological niche, the sum of how members interact with living and nonliving members of their enviorments	67
6371307477	Phylogenetic Species Concept	-species is the smallest group of individuals that share a common ancestor	68
6371307478	Allopatric Speciation + Evidence	-gene flow is interrupted when a population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations -ex: snapping shrimp 30 species off the isthmus of panama	69
6371307479	Sympatric Speciation	-speciation occurs in populations that live in the same geographic area	70
6371307480	Polyploidy	-species may originate from an accident during cell divison resulting in extra chromsomes	71
6371307481	Autopolypoid	-individual that has more than two chromosome sets that are all derived from the same species	72
6371307482	Allopolyploid	-various mechanisms can change a sterile hybrid into a fertile polyploid. They can only mate with other allopolyploids not parents	73
6371307483	Hybrid Zone	-region in which members of different species meet and mate, producing at least some offspring of mixed ancestry	74
6371307484	Fusion of Hybrid Zone	-the two species fuse	75
6371307485	Stability of Hybrid Zone	-continued production of a hybrid individual	76
6371307486	Reinforcement of Hybrid Zone	-strengthening or reproductive barriers--hybrids cease to be made	77
6371307487	Punctuated Equilibria	-Eldrege and Gould coined this to descibed these patterns in the fossil record: perioids of apparent stastis (moment of stability) punctuated by suddenc hange	78
6371307488	Radiometric Dating	-based on the decay or radioactive isotopes -radioactive "parent" isotopes decay to "daughter" isotopes at a characteristic rate called a HALF LIFE	79
6371307489	Geologic Record	-a standard time scale that divides the Earth's history into four eons and further subdivisions EON: Phanerozo(Mesozoic & Jurassic), Proterozoic, Archean, Hadean	80
6371307490	Mass Extinction	-large numbers of a species become extinct world wide, caused by disruptive changes to the global enviroment	81
6371307491	Adaptive Radiations	-periods of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill different ecological roles or niches in their communities	82
6371307492	Heterochromy	-evolutionary change in the rate or timing of developmental events (Fetus-->Adult Skull)	83
6371307493	Homeotic Genes	-master regulatory genes -determine basic features like the location of wings and legs on a bird -Hox genes provide information as to the positional information in an embryo	84
6371307494	Hypothesis for creation of Earth's First Life	1. Abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules, monomers 2. Joining of these small molecules into macromolecules like proteins and nucleic acids, polymers 3. Packaging of these molecules into protobiont cells- droplets with membranes that maintained an internal chemsitry different than their surrondings 4. Origin of self-replicating molecules that made inheritance possible	85
6371307495	Ribozyme	-RNA can perform many enzyme like, catalytic functions	86
6371307496	Endosymbiosis	A process in which a unicellular organism (the "host") engulfs another cell, which lives within the host cell and ultimately becomes an organelle in the host cell; also refers to the hypothesis that mitochondria and plastids were formerly small prokaryotes that began living within larger cells.	87

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Immune System - AP Biology Flashcards

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6325138564	Inflammatory Response	Vasodilation, phagocytosis, and increase in body temperature	0
6325138565	Histamines	chemical signals that trigger vasodilation, increasing blood supply to area and cause inflammation.	1
6325138566	Phagocytes	White blood cells that engulf invading pathogens e.g., neutrophils, macrophages	2
6325138567	Cytokine	chemical signals secreted by blood vessel cells that attract more white blood cells (phagocytes) to the area	3
6325138568	Specific immunity	B and T cells; humoral and cell-mediated response	4
6325138569	Lymphocyte	White blood cell in which B and T cells belong	5
6325138570	B Cells	Humoral response by producing antibodies; activated by T cells or free antigens	6
6325138571	T Cells	Cell-mediated response, stimulating by APCs (antigen presenting cells)	7
6325138572	Helper T Cell	Set off an alarm to the immune system that pathogens have broken through the body's line of defense; binds to class II MHC	8
6325138573	Cytotoxic T Cell	Kills body cells that have been infected with pathogens; stimulated by antigens and helper T-cells	9
6325138574	Macrophages	APC that engulfs large numbers of pathogens; presents antigen to activate T cells	10
6325138575	Interleukin 1	Chemokine/cytokine secreted by a macrophage after it engulfs and presents antigens on its surface; activates helper T cells	11
6325138576	Interleukin 2	Chemokine that stimulates B cells to become active antibody-secreting plasma cells; released by helper T cell	12
6325138577	MHC I	molecules found on every body cell that presents antigen; signals cytotoxic T to destroy	13
6325138578	MHC II	molecules found on macrophages, B cells, and activated T cells; signal helper T cells	14
6325138579	Memory Cells	Responsible for lifelong immunity by storing copy B and T cells to more quickly fight secondary infection	15
6325138580	Antibody	Y-shaped protein with variable antigen bind region; slows pathogens to facilitate destruction	16
6325138581	Antigen	Identifying marker on the outside of a pathogen	17
6325138582	Passive Immunity	Temporary immunity where antibodies are transferred from another animal ex: mother transfers some of her antibodies to her nursing child	18
6325138583	HIV	A retrovirus that attacks helper T cells	19
6325138584	Autoimmune disease	A mistake in the immune system where the body does not properly distinguish self from nonself	20
6325138585	Allergy	Hypersensitive immune response to certain substances that causes that release of histamine	21
6325138586	Dendritic Cells	During primary immune responses, the principle antigen-presenting cells in the lymph nodes	22
6325138587	Innate Immunity	General, non-specific protection to the body, including the skin (barrier), gastric acid, phagocytes, and lysozyme.	23
6325138588	Effector Cell	Short-lived lymphocyte such as a B cell or cytotoxic T lymphocyte that can take immediate action against an antigen.	24
6325138589	Natural Killer Cells	A type of white blood cell that can kill tumor cells and virus-infected cells; an important component of innate immunity.	25
6325138590	Mast Cells	Cells that release chemicals (such as histamine) that promote inflammation.	26
6325138591	Humoral Response	The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies, which defend against bacteria and viruses in body fluids.	27
6325138592	Cell-mediated Response	The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend against infected cells.	28
6325138593	Neutrophils	The most abundant type of white blood cell. Phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their lifespan to a few days. (aka: Pus)	29

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AP Euro Protestant Reformation Flashcards

For AP Euro quiz, be able to...
1. Analyze the causes of the Protestant Reformation.
2. Compare and contrast doctrines and practices of Lutheranism and Calvinism with those of Catholicism.
3. Analyze to what extent Renaissance humanism resulted in the Reformation.
4. Compare and contrast English Reformation with Luther's reformation in Germany
5. Analyze impact of Protestant Reformation on European politics and society in the sixteenth century. Be sure to consider Germany, England, France and the Netherlands.
6. Analyze to what extent to which the Catholic Church was successful in achieving its goals during the Counter-Reformation?
7. Analyze how Baroque art and architecture reflected ideals of the Catholic Reformation?

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5652124260	Jan Huss	Czech priest, philosopher, reformer, and master at Charles University in Prague. After John Wycliffe, the theorist of the ecclesiastical Reformation, he is considered the first Church reformer, as he lived before Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. Key predecessor to Protestant movement of sixteenth century; teachings were strongly influential in the the approval of a reformist Bohemian denomination and later on Martin Luther. Burned at stake of heresy; followers known as Hussites rebelled after his 1415 death against Roman Catholic rulers and defeated five consecutive papal crusades between 1420 and 1431. A century later, 90% of Czech inhabitants were non-Catholic.	0
5652124261	Charles V	Holy Roman Emperor and advocate of Catholicism. Eventually retired to monastery. Resented by German princes.	1
5652124262	Johann Tetzel	Roman Catholic German Dominican friar and preacher who became Grand Commissioner for indulgences in Germany. Known for granting indulgences for money; also came up with phrase "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs."	2
5652124263	Frederick of Saxony	Elector of Saxony from 1486 to his death. Son of Ernest, elector of Saxony and his wife Elisabeth, daughter of Albert III, Duke of Bavaria. Notable for being one of the most powerful early defenders of Martin Luther, Lutheranism, and the Protestant Reformation although he had little personal contact with Luther himself.	3
5652124264	John Calvin	Influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation who was the principal figure in the development of the Christian theology later called Calvinism. Originally trained as a humanist lawyer, he broke from the Church around 1530. Fled France to escape religious violence, eventually reaching Geneva, where he established a theocracy. Eventually forced out of city.	4
5652124265	Elizabeth I	Childless Queen of England from 1558 to 1603. Daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Established Protestant Church with Elizabethan Settlement, evolving into Church of England. Became famous for virginity. Remembered for moderation. Considered illegitimate by Catholic Church. Period famous for flourishing of English drama (Shakespeare, Marlowe, etc). Rival was Mary, Queen of Scots, whom she imprisoned and executed in 1587.	5
5652124266	Mary Tudor	Queen of England from 1553 to 1558 whose execution by Protestants earned her the nickname "Bloody Mary". She was the only child of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon who survived to adulthood. Half-brother Edward VI (son of Jane Seymour)had succeeded father, but fell mortally ill in 1553, when he attempted to remove Mary from line of succession because of religious differences. Remembered for restoration of Roman Catholicism after short-lived Protestant era of her half-brother. Later reversed by successor, Elizabeth I.	6
5652124267	Pope Paul III	Pope who comes to power following the sack of Rome in 1527, era when Catholic Church was rife with uncertainties. During his pontificate, new Catholic religious orders and societies, such as the Jesuits, Barnabites, and Congregation of Oratory gained popular following. Formed Council of Trent, significant patron of arts, but also denounced Copernicus' work "On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres".	7
5652124268	Catherine of Aragon	First wife of Henry VIII whom he eventually divorces.	8
5652124269	Anne Boleyn	Queen of England from 1533 to 1536 who was the second wife of Henry VIII. Henry's marriage to Anne, and her subsequent execution, made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that was the start of the English Reformation.	9
5652124270	Ignatius of Loyola	Spanish knight who founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), becoming its first Superior General in 1541. Emerged as religious leader during Counter-Reformation and was absolutely loyal to the Pope. Wounded at the Battle of Pamplona in 1521, undergoing spiritual conversion in recovery. Soon abandons military life for labor for God. Sees vision of Virgin Mary and infant Jesus in 1522, begins to pray seven hours a day and writes "Spiritual Exercises". Gained approval for Jesuits from Pope Paul III. Now officially a saint.	10
5652124271	Edward VI	King of England and Ireland from 1537 to 1553. Crowned at the age of nine. Son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, became third monarch in the Tudor Dynasty and first Protestant. Reign marked by economic problems and social unrest. Transformation into Church as Protestant institution occurred under Edward VI. Council drew up "Devise for the Succession", attempting to prohibit return to Catholicism. Named Lady Jane Grey heir, but half-sisters succeeded him.	11
5652124272	Mary Stuart Queen of Scots	Queen of Scotland from 1542 to 1567. Only legitimate child of King James V of Scotland, being six days old when she ascended to crown. Married to King Francis II, who died in 1561. Later married first cousin, Henry Stuart, who was found murdered in garden. Next married James Hepburn. Following uprising, forced into imprisonment at Loch Leven Castle. Forced to abdicate in favor James in 1567, her one-year-old son. Eventually found guilty of plot to assassinate Elizabeth, then executed.	12
5652124273	Pluralism	Holding of multiple Church offices by one person, usually involving neglect. Sign of disorder in Catholic Church; many practicers also made significant profit off titles. Came about largely through practice of buying Church positions, one of the main faults in the soon-to-be reformed Church.	13
5652124274	Nepotism	Act of appointing family members or close friends to position of favor, especially in the Church. Term derived from regular appoint of nephews by Renaissance popes.	14
5652124275	Sale of Indulgences	Sale of forgiveness during Renaissance Era. An indulgence is officially defined as "a remission before God of the temporal punishment due to sins whose guilt has already been forgiven, which the faithful Christian who is duly disposed gains...dispenses and applies with authority the treasury of the satisfactions of Christ and the saints". Highly controversial practice viewed as contributing factor to Protestant Reformation.	15
5652124276	Clerical Ignorance	Low-level clergy were often extremely under-educated on subjects that they were preaching, leading to discontent amongst many Christians. Many priests were virtually illiterate.	16
5652124277	Holy Roman Empire	Multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe during the medieval and early modern periods until its dissolution in 1806. Largest territory of empire was Kingdom of Germany, but also contained Bohemia, Burgundy, and Northern Italy. Founded in 800 when Pope Leo III crowned Frankish king Charlemagne Emperor. Term first used in 13th century. Office of HRE was elected. Never achieved true unity, instead was decentralized and featured limited elective monarchy. Power of emperor was limit; certain degree of de facto sovereignty in territories. Dissolved in 1806 after defeat by Napoleon.	17
5652124278	Hapsburg-Valois Wars	Frances vs. Hapsburgs. France tried to keep Germany divided. Led to slow unification of German states. Ended by Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, ending Hapbsurg-Valois Wars and giving Spain dominance over France. Involved states of Italy, Papal States, most of Western Europe, Ottoman Empire. Resulted in Hapsburg Spain becoming premier power and reducing power of Italy.	18
5652124279	95 Theses	Document published by Martin Luther in 1517 widely viewed as initial catalyst for Protestant Reformation. Disputation protests against nepotism, simony,usury, pluralism, and sale of indulgences to Wittenburg Church.	19
5652124280	"Brotherhood of All Believers"	Fundamental teaching of Martin Luther stating that ordinary Christians share common priesthood. Dismisses medieval view that Christians in present life were divided into "spiritual" and "secular" classes. Put forward doctrine that all baptized Christians are spiritual priests.	20
5652124281	Jesuits	Catholic order founded by Ignatius of Loyola. Were always at disposal of pope. They were to go wherever he ordered them to go to save souls. Never accepted bishopric unless ordered by pope. Wore no special habit. No special mortification. Excused from communal prayer and masses. Took three traditional monastic vows; elite take fourth vow of direct obedience to pope on foreign mission. Faith to be spread by preaching, spiritual exercises, etc. Emphasis on education and desire to create spiritual religious order.	21
5652124282	Act of Supremacy	1534 legislation that granted King Henry VIII of England Royal Supremacy, declaring himself the supreme head of the Church of England (Anglican Church). Still legal authority of the Sovereign of UK. Declared he was "only supreme head on earth of Church of England...all honors, duties, preeminences, jurisdictions, privileges, authorities, immunities, profits, and commodities to the said dignity".	22
5652124283	Siege of Münster	Attempt by radical Anabaptists to establish communal sectarian government in German city of Munster. City was under Anabaptist rule from 1534 to 1535. Polygamist colony. Later sacked by Protestant and Catholics.	23
5652124284	League of Schmalkalden	Defensive alliance of Lutheran princes within the Holy Roman Empire during the mid-16th century. Although originally started for religious motivations soon after the start of the Protestant Reformation, its members eventually intended for the League to replace the Holy Roman Empire as their source of political allegiance. Actually had substantial military to defend political and religious interests. Named after town in Germany.	24
5652124285	Elizabethan Settlement	Outward conformity to Church of England and uniformity in ceremonies but approval of Catholicism in private. Crated by Queen Elizabeth to promote peace in Europe.	25
5652124286	German Peasants' Revolts	In late 1524, peasants, craftsmen, and poor soldiers formed bands and pillaged throughout large area of HRE. Several groups met in Swabia during 1525. After series of battles, they were finally suppressed. More than 100,000 rebels and others killed.	26
5652124287	Politique	Public figure who placed politics before religion, believing that no religious truth was worth Civil War (examples include Queen Elizabeth and Henry of Navarre). Provided third choice for many European countries- people like Elizabeth I of England could unite country and stabilize it with toleration of religions.	27
5652124288	Index of Prohibited Books	Books supporting Protestantism or that were overly critical of Church (e.g. Erasmus) were banned from Catholic nations. Books containing supposed scientific errors also included. Certain rules dictated reading, selling, and pre-emptive censorship of books.	28
5652124289	Key Themes of Baroque	Exaggerated motion and clear , easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance and music. Began around 1600 in Rome before spreading around Europe. Encouraged by Church and at Council of Trent that arts should communicate religious themes. Palaces built around entrance of courts, grand stair cases, reception rooms.	29
5652124290	The Elevation of the Cross, Peter Paul Rubens	Painted by Flemish Baroque painter who was proponent of extravagant Baroque style that emphasized movement, color, and sensuality. Well known for Counter-Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and historical paintings of allegorical and mythological subjects. Ran large studio in Antwerp; also classically educated humanist scholar knighted in England and Spain. Painting shows influence of Renaissance and Baroque. Triptych- there frames. Center panel illustrates tension between multitude of finely muscled men attempting to lift cross and seemingly unbearable weight of Christ. Foreshortening is evident in contortion of men. Descent and ascent key themes. Motion, time, and space are illustrated along with struggle to upright cross. Dynamic color and chiaroscuro used.	30
5652124291	Council of Trent (1545-1563)	Redefined the doctrines of the Church and defined Catholic dogma. Salvation is by both good works and faith. The seven sacraments are valid. Transubstantiation is affirmed. Religious authority comes from the Bible, traditions, and the writings of the Church Fathers. Individuals cannot interpret the Bible without guidance from the Church. The only valid version of the Bible is the Vulgate. Monasticism with the celibacy of the clergy affirmed. Purgatory exists. Attempted to reform abuses: abuses of indulgences corrected, bishops given greater power, seminaries in each diocese to train priests.	31
5652124292	Catholic and Counter Reformations (1545-1563)	Roman Catholic Church response to both the criticisms of the reformers and the spread of Protestantism.	32
5652124293	Spanish Inquisition	Designed to encourage a sense of national unity based on Catholicism. Moslem Moors and Jews were driven into exile or forcibly converted. Later adapted to combat Protestantism and enforce orthodoxy.	33
5652124294	simony	Sale of church offices.	34
5652124295	indulgences	Sold by the Catholic Church to guarantee the remission of sins.	35
5652124296	Babylonian Captivity	Occurred in the 14th century when popes, subservient to the French king, took up residence in Avignon and lost prestige in the rest of Christendom.	36
5652124297	The Great Schism	Beginning in 1378, when French and anti-French cardinals elected two popes - one whom lived in Rome, the other in Avignon - and lasting over forty years.	37
5652124298	Martin Luther (1483-1546)	Condemned the sale of indulgences. Came to believe that the traditional means of attaining salvation were inadequate. Nailed 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenburg church, listing the points of his opposition to the indulgences and inviting debate. He was excommunicated by Leo X in 1520 after he refused to recant.	38
5652124299	Pope Leo X (r. 1513-1521)	Sent a papal bull to Luther demanding that he recant. When Luther refused, he excommunicated him (1520).	39
5652124300	transubstantiation	Belief that while the bread and wine of the Mass maintain their appearance, they are transformed into the Body and Blood of Christ.	40
5652124301	consubstantiation	Doctrine that the transformation of the bread and wine was not literal but that God was somehow actually present in more than a symbolic way.	41
5652124302	sacraments	baptism, confirmation, Eucharist or communion, matrimony, penance or reconciliation, anointing of the sick, holy orders	42
5652124303	salvation by faith alone	Faith alone is enough to go to Heaven.	43
5652124304	Diet of Worms (1521)	A tribunal of the Holy Roman Empire with the power to outlaw. Luther was called to appear, and the empire outlawed him. Frederick the Wise brought Luther to safety in Wittneberg, where he organized his reformed church, and translated the Bible into the vernacular.	44
5652124306	manorialism	The economic social order of medieval feudalism.	45
5652124307	Peasant's War (1524-1526)	Demanding abolition from manorialism caused German peasants to use force against landowners.	46
5652124308	Diet of Speyer (1529)	Refused to recognize the right of the German princes to determine the religion of their subjects.	47
5652124309	Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)	Establish Protestantism in Switzerland. Killed in a nationwide religious civil war. Argued the God's presence during communion is only symbolic.	48
5652124311	Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547)	Named "Defender of the Faith" by the Pope for his tract "Defense of the Seven Sacraments" in 1521, only to declare the English Church independent of Rome later on and be excommunicated. He wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon in order to marry Anne Boleyn but had been denied annulment.	49
5652124312	Thomas Cranmer	Appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 1533. Granted Henry VIII the divorce of Catherine of Aragon.	50
5652124313	theocracy	Government run by the church.	51
5652124314	predestination	There is nothing anyone can do to attain salvation.	52
5652124315	conversion	A mystical encounter with God.	53
5652124316	Elect or Saints	A select few saved only by God's love from corrupt humanity and given indications of their status by conversion or by material prosperity.	54
5652124317	Puritan or Protestant Ethic	Incentive to avoid poverty as a sign of damnation, and served to justify the rise of capitalism.	55
5652124318	Statute of the Six Articles (1539)	Approved by the English Parliament. Seven sacraments upheld, catholic theology was maintained, the authority of the monarch replaced the authority of the pope.	56
5652124320	Huguenots	French Calvinists.	57
5652124321	Puritans and Pilgrims	English Calvinists. Failed in their revolution in the 1600s but established a colony in New England.	58
5652124322	Inquisition (1542)	Clerical courts that tried and convicted religious dissenters who were subject to deportation, torture, or death. Controlled by Jesuits in Spain and Italy.	59
5652124323	Vulgate	St. Jerome's Latin translation of the Bible approved at the Council of Trent.	60
5652124324	Peace of Augsburg (1555)	German princes could choose the religion of their subjects, as long as it was Catholic or Lutheran. "Cuius regio, eius religio."	61
5652124325	Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)	Culminations of religious wars of the 16th century. German princes sought autonomy from the Holy Roman Empire. France sought to limit the power of the Hapsburgs. Hapsburgs sought to extend power in Germany. Sweden and Denmark hoped to strengthen their hold in the Baltic region.	62
5652124326	Bohemian Phase (1618-1625)	Calvinist Bohemians defenestrated the representatives of Catholic King Matthias and installed Calvinist Frederick V as king. Ferdinand II became Holy Roman Emperor and defeated the Bohemians at the Battle of While Mountain in 1620. Protestant land was given away, and the Spanish consolidated power along the Rhine River.	63
5652124327	Danish Phase (1625-1630)	Lutheran Christian IV of Denmark entered the war to aid Protestants and annex land. Ferdinand II commissioned Albert of Wallenstein to raise a mercenary army, which defeated the Danes in 1626.	64
5652124328	Edict of Restitution (1629)	Restored all the Catholic sates in Germany that had been secularized before the Peace of Augsburg.	65
5652124329	Swedish Phase (1630-1635)	Catholic regent of France Cardinal Richelieu offered subsidies to encourage Lutheran Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus to enter the war and check Hapsburg power. Decisive victories over Hapsburg forces, Adolphus and Wallenstein dead. Protestant states of Germany made peace with the emperor.	66
5652124330	Peace of Prague	Revoked the Edict of Restitution.	67
5652124331	The French Phase of the Thirty Years War (1635-1648)	France, Holland, and Savoy entered the war on the Swedish side. Spain supported the Austrian Hapsburgs. French general Henri Turenne defeated the Spanish at Rocroi.	68
5652124332	The Peace of Westphalia (1648)	Peace of Augsburg reinstated with Calvinism added as an acceptable religion. Edict of Restitution revoked. Switzerland and Holland granted independence. France, Sweden, and Brandenburg received territories. German princes made sovereign rules.	69
5652124333	Baroque Art	Intended to create unity where all forms of art in a single expressive purpose could converge toward a single aim - to engage the viewer physically and emotionally. Eccentric or fanciful. Instrument of the Counter Reformation. Artists frequently capitalized on the immediacy of these emotional reactions, and "spiritual" art became an art of sensation. Its effect was to stagger and overpower the senses.	70
5652124334	Rembrandt (1606-1669)	Baroque artist known for innovative portraits and use of light.	71
5652124335	Vermeer (1632-1675)	Baroque artist known for clear domestic scenes. Dutch Baroque Period	72
5652124336	Bernini (1598-1650)	Greatest sculptor of the Baroque era.	73
5652124337	Bach (1685-1750)	Ultimate Baroque composer.	74
5652124338	Rococo Art	Art characterized by elegance, pleasantness, and frivolity.	75
5652124339	Catholic Church	Leadership: pope and religious hierarchy Sacraments: seven Clergy: priests - only clergy may interpret scripture Salvation: through faith and works Role of State: pope is Catholic leader of sovereigns Eucharist: Transubstantiation	76
5652124340	Anglican Church	Leadership: king and religious hierarchy Sacraments: communion, baptism Clergy: married priests Salvation: through faith and works Role of State: sovereign controls the church	77
5652124341	Lutheranism	Sacraments: communion, baptism, absolutism Clergy: ministers and priesthood of all believers Salvation: through faith, justification from forgiveness and good works Role of State: religious choices are up to the individual who owes obedience to lawful ruler Eucharist: consubstantiation	78
5652124342	Calvinism	Leadership: ministerial government divinely ordained Sacraments: communion, baptism Clergy: ministers, elders, deacons, people Salvation: through faith, justification is wealth and possible good works, predestination Role of State: religious organization dominates the state and in fact is the state Eucharist: symbolic	79
5652124343	Ulrich Zwingli	Taught only 2 Sacraments like Luther communion, baptism Clergy: ministers Salvation: through faith, justification is God's endorsement of the morals of the individual Role of State: religion controls (and should) the state Eucharist: memorial	80
5652124344	Presbyterian	Sacraments: communion, baptism Clergy: ministers Salvation: through faith	81
5652124345	Anabaptists	Leadership: no head Sacraments: lord's supper, adult baptism Clergy: ministers, including women Salvation: through faith Role of State: separation of church and state Appealed to: Peasants Hated by everyone	82
5652479697	Henry IV	King of Navarre and France, Founder of the Bourbon Dynasty. Henry became Catholic to settle the Huguenot Wars and become king "Paris is worth a mass"	83
5652124346	Edict of Nantes	1598 after French religious wars, Henry IV gives Huguenots the right to practice their religion (not near Paris though). Evoked by Louis XIV in place of Edict of Fontainebleau which actively went against Huguenots	84
5652124347	St. Bartholomew's day massacre	Catholics kill Huguenots in France in a coordinated attack probably inspired by Catherine de Medici	85

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8013503335	What problems does the high cost of campaigns create?	a. People without funds can't run b. Spend too much time fundraising c. Campaign contributions may corrupt the system	0
8013505076	Buckley v. Valeo (1976)	People can spend as much of their own money as they want on their own campaign	1
8013508655	Citizens United vs. Federal Election Commission (2010)	Political spending is a form of speech protected under the First Amendment, and the government may not keep corporations or unions from spending money to support or denounce individual candidates in elections. While corporations or unions may not give money directly to campaigns, they may seek to persuade the voting public through other means, including ads	2
8021889723	political machine	a party organization that recruits voter loyalty with tangible incentives and is characterized by a high degree of control over member activity	3
8022169397	runoff primary	A second primary election between the two canidates recieving the greatest number of votes in the first primary	4
8022177874	electorate	citizens eligible to vote	5

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5804753400	ATP	The energy currency of cellular metabolism	0
5804766429	Phosphorylation	Chemical reaction resulting in the addition of a phosphate group to an organic molecule.	1
5804774233	Oxidation	Loss of an electron by an atom or molecule; often results in loss of a hydrogen ion as well.	2
5804782728	Reduction	The gain of an electron by an atom or molecule, often with an associated proton.	3
5804796462	Fermentation	Anaerobic respiration; extraction of energy from organic compounds without the use of oxygen.	4
5804806512	Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)	A series of reactions in the mitochondrial matrix that produces energy carriers (NADH, FADH2, ATP) and carbon dioxide	5
5804828506	Glycolysis	The anaerobic breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate; precursor to aerobic respiration	6
5804834007	Electron Transport Chain	The passage of electrons through a series of molecules embedded in the mitochondrial or chloroplast membranes.	7
5804838938	Chemiosmosis	The generation of ATP through an accumulation of protons on one side of a mitochondrial or chloroplast membrane.	8
5804853947	ATP Synthase	An enzyme in the membranes of chloroplasts or mitochondria that uses energy from the concentration of protons (created by chemiosmosis) to synthesize ATP.	9
5804872518	Light Reactions	Light energy is captured and used to produce ATP and NADPH in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts	10
5804886015	Calvin Cycle	A series of reactions in the chloroplast that use ATP, NADPH, and carbon dioxide to produce glucose.	11
5804895198	Thylakoid	Disk-like membranes inside the chloroplast where the light reactions of photosynthesis take place.	12
5804898117	NADH	An reduced energy carrier created by the Krebs cycle during cellular respiration that delivers high energy electrons used by the electron transport chain.	13
5804905992	FADH2	An reduced energy carrier created by the Krebs cycle during cellular respiration that delivers high energy electrons used by the electron transport chain.	14
5804907234	NADPH	A reduced energy carrier created by the Light Reactions of photosynthesis that delivers high energy electrons used to fuel the Calvin Cycle	15
5804924872	Pyruvate	A 3-carbon molecule produced by the digestion of glucose during glycolysis	16
5805263376	Photophosphyorylation	The synthesis of ATP from ADP during the light reactions using energy from sunlight	17
5805276994	Photosystem	A complex composed of chlorophyll, other pigments, and proteins that traps light energy as excited electrons.	18
5805282775	Photolysis	The separation of water into oxygen and hydrogen in the presence of light energy	19
5805293628	Carbon Fixation	The binding of carbon dioxide to a sugar as the first step in synthesis of glucose during photosynthesis	20
5805300114	Rubisco	An enzyme in plants that catalyzes the binding of atmospheric carbon dioxide to an organic compound	21
5805311828	Stomata	A small opening bordered by guard cells on the underside of a leaf that allows for gas exchange and transpiration	22
5805317714	Transpiration	The loss of water vapor by plant parts, caused mainly by evaporation of water leaving the stomata	23
5805322064	Phototropism	In plants, a growth response to a light stimulus	24
5805327463	Photoperiodism	When biological reactions vary based on the duration of day and night.	25

4953220422	Data	Facts, figures, or information that is stored or used by a computer.	0
4953220423	Data Type	A classification identifying one of various types of data. (Example: int,double,char)	1
4953222340	Primitive Type	A basic data type that is predefined by a programming language. In Java, the eight primitive types are: byte, short, int, long, float, double, boolean, & char.	2
4953222341	Integer	A number system that only contains whole, non decimal numbers(-2,-1,0,1,2)	3
4953222342	Character	A unit of information that corresponds to a single symbol or letter of the alphabet.	4
4953224566	int	A primitive data type which contains only whole numbers. (-1,-2,0,123141, etc.)	5
4953224567	double	A primitive data type that may contain decimal numbers. (1.0, 1.2313, -.06, etc.)	6
4953224568	char	A primitive data type that contains single characters. (a,b,c,d etc.)	7
4953224569	boolean	A primitive data type that contains either True or False.	8
4953224570	Expression	Any valid statement which resolves to a value.	9
4953226966	Evaluation	The process in which a program executes a statement.	10
4953226967	Operator	A symbol that tells a compiler to perform a specific mathematical, relational, or logical operation. Examples of operators include, +, -, %, <, <=	11
4953226968	Literal	A notation for representing a fixed value.	12
4953229509	Arithmetic Operator	A symbol that describes a mathematical operation.	13
4953229510	Mod Operator or Modulus	An operator used to find the remainder of an operation, represented by the % character. (Example: 5%4 yields 1)	14
4953232774	Numerator	The upper number in a common fraction. (Example: The 1 in 1/2)	15
4953232775	Denominator	The lower number in a common fraction. (Example: The 2 in 1/2)	16
4953232776	Precedence	The rules in which the operators in an expression are evaluated (PEMMDAS)	17
4953235023	Ambiguous	A statement that has multiple meanings or multiple potential meanings.	18
4953235024	Unary	Consisting of or involving a single component or element	19
4953235025	Unary Operators	An operator that performs an operation on a single input. Examples include, ! , ++ , --	20
4953237421	Multiplicative Operators	An operand that performs a mathematical multiplication statement.	21
4953237422	Additive Operators	An operand that performs a mathematical addition statement.	22
4953237423	Casting	A mechanism to change an entity of one data type into another.	23
4953237424	Variable	A variable is a reference to a value stored in memory, which can change over the lifetime of the program.	24
4953239859	Declaration	A declaration is something that specifies the properties of an identifier. Declarations are used to specify what a given identifier actually represents.	25
4953239860	Assignment	A mechanism that sets and/or resets the value stored in a variable.	26
4953239861	Concatenation	An operation in which two strings are combined in order to yield a single new string.	27
4953244572	Increment	An increase/addition, usually by a fixed value.	28
4953244573	Decrement	An decrease/subtraction, usually by a fixed value.	29
4953244574	for Loop	An iteration mechanism used to loop until a specific condition is satisfied. Example: for(int i=0; i<10; i++){ System.out.println(i); }	30
4953247803	Control Structure	A statement that analyzes variables and chooses a direction in which a program should be executed. Control Structures "Control" the flow of a program.	31
4953247804	Tracing	The process behind following the execution of a program.	32
4953247805	Nested for Loops	A nested for loop is a loop within a loop. Example: for(int x=0; x<10; x++){ for(int y=0; y<10; y++){ System.out.println("Value of x: "+x+" Value of y: "+y); } }	33
4953249889	Complexity	The process behind determining the amount of resources necessary to execute them.	34
4953249890	Scope	The section of a program where an entity, such as a variable, is valid.	35
4953249892	Local Variable	A variable with limited scope, commonly in contrast to a global variable.	36
4953252391	Infinite	Limitless or endless.	37
4953252392	Infinite Loop	A loop that lacks a functional exit, so it will repeat indefinitely.	38
4953252393	Pseudocode	A description of a program that follows the process of writing a program, without language specific syntax.	39
4953254123	Constant	An identifier with an associated value that cannot be changed during the execution of a program.	40
4953254124	Class Constant	A class is a template for creating objects. Within a class contains the outline for variables, and methods/functions.	41
4953254125	Initial	The first occurrence, or starting value.	42

5874092148	Argument	a statement put forth and supported by evidence; synonymous with a claim	0
5874094766	Assertion	an emphatic statement; declaration	1
5874119869	Bias	prejudice or predisposition toward one side of a subject or issue	2
5874098133	Claim	an assertion, usually supported by evidence	3
5874110738	Concede	a reluctant acknowledgement or yielding	4
5874103305	Counterargument	a challenge to a position; an opposing argument	5
5874140344	Inference	a conclusion reached based on logical evidence and reasoning	6
5874115946	Refute	to discredit an argument, particularly a counterargument	7
5874118043	Rebuttal	a refutation, or a contradiction	8
5874109071	Thesis	the central idea in a work to which all parts of the work refer	9
7249309763	Logic	the use and study of valid reasoning	10
7249310399	Rhetoric	the study of effective, persuasive language use; according to Aristotle, use of the "available means of persuasion"	11
7249312249	Ethos	A Greek term referring to the character of a person; an appeal to character; used to establish trust and credibility	12
7249313809	Logos	A Greek term that means "word"; an appeal to logic	13
7249315791	Pathos	A Greek term referring to "suffering" or "pity"; an emotional appeal	14
7249318405	Rhetorical appeals	ethos, logos, and pathos; when used in a balanced form, they create a sound argument	15
7249320562	Analogy	comparison between two things, typically on the basis of their structure and for the purpose of explanation or clarification; metaphors and similes are specific types	16
7249322490	Deductive reasoning	the process of reasoning from one or more statements to reach a logically certain conclusion; synonymous with syllogism; general to specific	17
7249324591	Inductive reasoning	reasoning in which the premises seek to supply strong evidence for (not absolute proof of) the truth of the conclusion; specific to general	18
7249327101	Premise	a proposition supporting or helping to support a conclusion; in logic, an argument requires at least two of these before reaching the conclusion	19
7249330184	Propaganda	information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote or publicize a particular political cause or point of view	20
7249332325	Syllogism	Greek for "conclusion," or "inference"; A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion	21
7282576601	Logical Fallacy	common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument	22
7282589488	Begging the Question	a logical fallacy in which the writer simply restates the claim in a different way (also called a circular argument)	23
7282594745	Enthymeme	an argumentative statement in which the writer or the speaker omits one of the major or minor premises, does not clearly pronounce it, or keeps the premise implied; however, the omitted premise in the statement remains understandable even if not clearly expressed	24
7282599448	Equivocation	a half-truth, or a statement that is partially correct but that purposefully obscures the entire truth	25
7282600997	False Analogy	an argument based on misleading, superficial, or implausible comparisons	26
7282603671	Hasty Generalization	drawing faulty conclusions based on insufficient evidence	27
7282605852	Non Sequitur	arguments that do not follow a logical sequence. The conclusion doesn't logically follow the explanation. An important logical step may be missing in such a claim	28
7282616575	Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc	arguments that assume a faulty causal relationship. One event following another in time does not mean that the first event caused the later event	29
7327017719	Ad hominem	Latin for "to the man"; an argument in which the speaker attacks an opponent's motives or character rather than the policy or position he/she maintains	30
7327020626	False Authority	a tactic used by many writers, especially in advertising, asking audiences to agree with the assertion of the writer based simply on his/her character or the authority of another person or institution who may not be fully qualified to offer that assertion	31
7327027353	Straw man	an argument based on misrepresentation of the opponent's argument in order to defeat him/her	32
7327031840	Bandwagon (ad populum)	argument that encourages an audience to agree with the writer because everyone else is doing so	33
7327035156	Either/or reasoning OR False dilemma	when the writer reduces an argument or issue to only two possible courses of action and ignores any alternatives (only two ways to view the issue; black and white; no gray)	34
7327038860	Invective or Polemic	"attack with words" or "warlike, hostile"; insulting, abusive or highly critical language; can be directed at a person, idea, concept, or system; name-calling	35
7327045936	Red herring	an argument used to refer to something that misleads or distracts from the relevant or important issue	36
7327049135	Slippery slope	an argument that suggests that one step in the wrong direction will inevitably lead to more negative steps	37

8189125186	photosynthesis	plants use the sun's energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugarsspe	0
8189110303	photosynthesis equation	6CO2 + 6H2O + light --> C6H12O6 + 6O2	1
8189110304	autotrophs	(producers) make organic molecules for food on their own	2
8189112591	photoautotrophs	organisms that use light as a source of energy to synthesize organic substances.	3
8189112592	heterotrophs	organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products.	4
8189112593	chlorophyll	green pigment in plants (chlorophyll) that absorbs light energy used to carry out photosynthesis	5
8189114984	stomata	the small openings on the undersides of most leaves through which oxygen and carbon dioxide can move	6
8189114985	mesophyll	spongy tissue in the interior of the leaf where most chloroplasts are found	7
8189117019	thylakoids	flattened membrane sac inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy to chemical energy.	8
8189117020	stroma	fluid portion of the chloroplast; outside of the thylakoids	9
8189190441	light reactions	first stage of photosynthesis, reactions of photosynthesis that use energy from light to produce ATP and NADPH	10
8189190442	NADP+	electron carrier molecule; when carrying excited electrons it becomes NADPH	11
8189196418	photophosphorylation	ATP (from ADP) is formed utilizing the energy of sunlight	12
8189204204	wavelength	horizontal distance between the crests or between the troughs of two adjacent waves	13
8189206578	electromagnetic spectrum	the entire frequency range of electromagnetic waves	14
8189206579	visible light	electromagnetic waves that are visible to the human eye	15
8189206580	photons	particles of light	16
8189213635	spectrophotometer	instrument that can measure transmitted light and compute the absorption	17
8189216061	absorption spectrum	range of a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light.	18
8189216062	chlorophyll a	type of blue-green photosynthetic pigment that participates directly in the light reactions.	19
8189218746	action spectrum	profile of the relative performance of different wavelengths of light.	20
8189222580	chlorophyll b	yellow-green accessory photosynthetic pigment that transfers energy to chlorophyll a.	21
8189224918	accessory pigment	compound other than chlorophyll that absorbs light at different wavelengths than chlorophyll	22
8189224919	cartenoids	absorb excessive light that would damage chlorophyll	23
8189227446	fluorescence	a process by which atoms release light energy	24
8189233399	photosystem	cluster of chlorophyll and proteins found in thylakoids	25
8189235478	reaction center complex	organized association of proteins holding a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules	26
8189235479	light harvesting complex	consists of various pigment molecules bound to proteins	27
8189238066	primary electron acceptor	in chloroplasts, an acceptor of electrons lost from chlorophyll a; found in the thylakoid membrane	28
8189243654	photosystem 2	P680 (red), a light reaction in which ATP and NADPH are formed, takes place first	29
8189243655	photosystem 1	P700 chlorophyll , makes NADPH, does not take place first	30
8189246223	linear electron flow	primary pathway: involves both photosystems and produces ATP and NADPH using light energy	31
8189251086	cyclic electron flow	an electron transport pathway that produces ATP without NADPH; associated with photosystem I	32
8189262237	glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate	(G3P) in step 5 of glycolysis, fructose-6, 1-biphosphate is split into two of these molecules.	33
8189196419	calvin cycle	a biochemical pathway of photosynthesis in which carbon dioxide is converted into glucose using ATP	34
8189276879	carbon fixation	incorporation of carbon from carbon dioxide into an organic compound by an autotrophic organism.	35
8189276880	reduction	gain of electrons	36
8189294414	regeneration of the co2 acceptor(RuBP)	last step of the calvin cycle, carbon skeletons of 5 molecules of G3P are rearranged into 3 molecules of ATP	37
8189294415	rubp	accepts co2 during calvin cycle	38
8189300482	photorespiration	reaction in which rubisco attaches oxygen instead of carbon dioxide to ribulose bisphosphate	39
8189303768	c4 plants	cells located toward the surface of a plant leaf; exposed to oxygen and have no RuBisCO to do photosynthesis	40
8189303769	mesophyll cells	loosely arranged photosynthetic cell located between the bundle sheath and the leaf surface.	41
8189306493	PEP carboxylase	enzyme in C4 plants that adds carbon dioxide (CO2) to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to form four carbon oxaloacetate; can fix CO2 even when CO2 concentrations are low	42
8189309746	bundle sheath cells	type of photosynthetic cell arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins of a leaf.	43
8189313235	crassulacean acid metabolism	metabolic adaptation employed by plants that live in hot, dry climates.	44
8189316007	CAM plants	open their stomata at night, incorporating CO2 into organic acids	45

10217152438	Anterior crest	Tibia	0
10217153915	carotid canal	temporal	1
10217156877	coracoid process	scapula	2
10217158638	cribriform plate	ethmoid	3
10217158639	crista galli	ethmoid	4
10217160034	deltoid tuberosity	Humerus	5
10217160973	external auditory meatus	temporal	6
10217162459	foramen magnum	occipital	7
10217163582	labella	frontal	8
10217164956	glenoid fossa	frontal	9
10217164957	lateral malleolus	fibula	10
10217165736	linea aspera	femur	11
10217167045	mastoid process	temporal	12
10217168322	obrulator foramen	os coxae	13
10217169177	olecranon fossa	humerus	14
10217170298	olecranon process	ulna	15
10217172153	optic foramen	sphenoid	16
10217173065	rams	mandible	17
10217174795	sella turcica	sphenoid	18
10217175572	supraorbital margin	frontal	19
10217175573	trochanter	femur	20
10217177187	diploid process	sternum	21

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