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AP Psychology AP Review Flashcards

9769030912	psychology	the study of behavior and mental processes	0
9769030913	psychology's biggest question	Which is more important in determining behavior, nature or nurture?	1
9769030914	psychology's three levels of analysis	biopsychosocial approach (looks at the biological, psychological, and social-cultural approaches together)	2
9769030915	biological approach	genetics, close-relatives, body functions	3
9769030916	evolutionary approach	species - helped with survival (ancestors)	4
9769030917	psychodynamic approach	(Freud) subconscious, repressed feelings, unfulfilled wishes	5
9769030918	behavioral approach	learning (classical and operant) observed	6
9769030919	cognitive approach	thinking affects behavior	7
9769030920	humanistic approach	becoming a better human (behavior, acceptance)	8
9769030921	social-cultural approach	cultural, family, environment	9
9769030922	two reasons of why experiments are important	hindsight bias + overconfidence	10
9769030923	types of research methods	descriptive, correlational, and experimental	11
9769030924	descriptive methods	case study survey naturalistic observation (DON'T SHOW CAUSE/EFFECT)	12
9769030925	case study	studies one person in depth may not be typical of population	13
9769030926	survey	studies lots of people not in depth	14
9769030927	naturalistic observation	observe + write facts without interference	15
9769030928	correlational method	shows relation, but not cause/effect scatterplots show research	16
9769030929	correlation coefficient	+ 1.0 (both increase) 0 (no correlation - 1.0 (one increases, other decreases)	17
9769030930	experimental method	does show cause and effect	18
9769030931	population	type of people who are going to be used in experiment	19
9769030932	sample	actual people who will be used (randomness reduces bias)	20
9769030933	random assignment	chance selection between experimental and control groups	21
9769030934	control group	not receiving experimental treatment receives placebo	22
9769030935	experimental group	receiving treatment/drug	23
9769030936	independent variable	drug/procedure/treatment	24
9769030937	dependent variable	outcome of using the drug/treatment	25
9769030938	confounding variable	can affect dependent variable beyond experiment's control	26
9769030939	scientific method	theory hypothesis operational definition revision	27
9769030940	theory	general idea being tested	28
9769030941	hypothesis	measurable/specific	29
9769030942	operational definition	procedures that explain components	30
9769030943	mode	appears the most	31
9769030944	mean	average	32
9769030945	median	middle	33
9769030946	range	highest - lowest	34
9769030947	standard deviation	how scores vary around the mean	35
9769030948	central tendency	single score that represents the whole	36
9769030949	bell curve	(natural curve)	37
9769030950	ethics of testing on animals	need to be treated humanly basically similar to humans	38
9769030951	ethics of testing on humans	consent debriefing no unnecessary discomfort/pain confidentiality	39
9769030952	sensory neurons	travel from sensory receptors to brain	40
9769030953	motor neurons	travel from brain to "motor" workings	41
9769030954	interneurons	(in brain and spinal cord) connecting motor and sensory neurons	42
9769031148	neuron		43
9769030955	dendrites	receive messages from other neurons	44
9769030956	myelin sheath	protects the axon	45
9769030957	axon	where charges travel from cell body to axon terminal	46
9769030958	neurotransmitters	chemical messengers	47
9769030959	reuptake	extra neurotransmitters are taken back	48
9769030960	excitatory charge	"Let's do it!"	49
9769030961	inhibitory charge	"Let's not do it!"	50
9769030962	central nervous system	brain and spinal cord	51
9769030963	peripheral nervous system	somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system	52
9769030964	somatic nervous system	voluntary movements	53
9769030965	autonomic nervous system	involuntary movements (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems)	54
9769030966	sympathetic nervous system	arousing	55
9769030967	parasympathetic nervous system	calming	56
9769030968	neural networks	more connections form with greater use others fall away if not used	57
9769030969	spinal cord	expressway of information bypasses brain when reflexes involved	58
9769030970	endocrine system	slow uses hormones in the blood system	59
9769030971	master gland	pituitary gland	60
9769030972	brainstem	extension of the spinal cord responsible for automatic survival	61
9769030973	reticular formation (if stimulated)	sleeping subject wakes up	62
9769030974	reticular formation (if damaged)	coma	63
9769030975	brainstem (if severed)	still move (without purpose)	64
9769030976	thalamus	sensory switchboard (does not process smell)	65
9769030977	hypothalamus	basic behaviors (hunger, thirst, sex, blood chemistry)	66
9769030978	cerebellum	nonverbal memory, judge time, balance emotions, coordinate movements	67
9769030979	cerebellum (if damaged)	difficulty walking and coordinating	68
9769030980	amygdala	aggression, fear, and memory associated with these emotions	69
9769030981	amygdala (if lesioned)	subject is mellow	70
9769030982	amygdala (if stimulated)	aggressive	71
9769030983	hippocampus	process new memory	72
9769030984	cerebrum	two large hemispheres perceiving, thinking, and processing	73
9769030985	cerebral cortex	only in higher life forms	74
9769030986	association areas	integrate and interpret information	75
9769030987	glial cells	provide nutrients to myelin sheath marks intelligence higher proportion of glial cells to neurons	76
9769030988	frontal lobe	judgement, personality, processing (Phineas Gage accident)	77
9769030989	parietal lobe	math and spatial reasoning	78
9769030990	temporal lobe	audition and recognizing faces	79
9769030991	occipital lobe	vision	80
9769030992	corpus callosum	split in the brain to stop hyper-communication (eliminate epileptic seizures)	81
9769030993	Wernicke's area	interprets auditory and hearing	82
9769030994	Broca's area	speaking words	83
9769030995	plasticity	ability to adapt if damaged	84
9769030996	sensation	what our senses tell us	85
9769030997	bottom-up processing	senses to brain	86
9769030998	perception	what our brain tells us to do with that information	87
9769030999	top-down processing	brain to senses	88
9769031000	inattentional blindness	fail to "gorilla" because attention is elsewhere	89
9769031001	cocktail party effect	even with tons of stimuli, we are able to pick out our name, etc.	90
9769031002	change blindness	giving directions and person is changed and we don't notice	91
9769031003	choice blindness	when defending the choice we make, we fail to notice choice was changed	92
9769031004	absolute threshold	minimum stimulation needed in order to notice 50% of the time	93
9769031005	signal detection theory	we notice what is more important to us (rather hear a baby crying)	94
9769031006	JND (just noticeable difference)	(Weber's law) difference between different stimuli noticed in proportion	95
9769031007	sensory adaptation	tired of noticing (Brain says, "Been there, done that. Next?"	96
9769031008	rods	night time	97
9769031009	cones	color	98
9769031010	parallel processing	notice color, form, depth, movement, etc.	99
9769031011	Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory	3 corresponding color receptors (RGB)	100
9769031012	Hering's opponent-process theory	after image in opposite colors (RG, YB, WB)	101
9769031013	trichromatic + opponent-process	Young-Helmholtz -> color stimuli Hering -> en route to cortex	102
9769031014	frequency we hear most	human voice	103
9769031015	Helmoltz (hearing)	we hear different pitches in different places in basilar membrane (high pitches)	104
9769031016	frequency theory	impulse frequency (low pitches)	105
9769031017	Helmholtz + frequency theory	middle pitches	106
9769031018	Skin feels what?	warmth, cold, pressure, pain	107
9769031019	gate-control theory	small fibers - pain large fibers - other senses	108
9769031020	memory of pain	peaks and ends	109
9769031021	smell	close to memory section (not in thalamus)	110
9769031022	grouping	Gestalt make sense of pieces create a whole	111
9769031023	grouping groups	proximity similarity continuity connectedness closure	112
9769031024	make assumptions of placement	higher - farther smaller - farther blocking - closer, in front	113
9769031025	perception =	mood + motivation	114
9769031026	consciousness	awareness of ourselves and the environment	115
9769031027	circadian rhythm	daily biological clock and regular cycle (sleep and awake)	116
9769031028	circadian rhythm pattern	- activated by light - light sensitive retinal proteins signal brains SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) - pineal gland decreases melatonin	117
9769031029	What messes with circadian rhythm?	artificial light	118
9769031030	The whole sleep cycle lasts how long?	90 minutes	119
9769031031	sleep stages	relaxed stage (alpha waves) stage 1 (early sleep) (hallucinations) stage 2 (sleep spindles - bursts of activity) (sleep talk) stage 3 (transition phase) (delta waves) stage 4 (delta waves) (sleepwalk/talk + wet the bed) stage 5 (REM) (sensory-rich dreams) (paradoxical sleep)	120
9769031032	purpose of sleep	1. recuperation - repair neurons and allow unused neural connections to wither 2. making memories 3. body growth (children sleep more)	121
9769031033	insomnia	can't sleep	122
9769031034	narcolepsy	fall asleep anywhere at anytime	123
9769031035	sleep apnea	stop breathing in sleep	124
9769031036	night terrors	prevalent in children	125
9769031037	sleepwalking/sleeptalking	hereditary - prevalent in children	126
9769031038	dreaming (3)	1. vivid bizarre intense sensory experiences 2. carry fear/survival issues - vestiges of ancestors' survival ideas 2. replay previous day's experiences/worries	127
9769031039	purpose of dreaming (5 THEORIES)	1. physiological function - develop/preserve neural pathways 2. Freud's wish-fulfillment (manifest/latent content) 3. activation synthesis - make sense of stimulation originating in brain 4. information processing 5. cognitive development - reflective of intelligence	128
9769031040	1. Can hypnosis bring you back in time? 2. Can hypnosis make you do things you wouldn't normally do? 3. Can it alleviate pain? 4. What state are you in during hypnosis? 5. Who is more susceptible?	1. cannot take you back in time 2. cannot make you do things you won't do 3. can alleviate pain 4. fully conscious ((IMAGINATIVE PEOPLE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE))	129
9769031041	depressants	slows neural pathways	130
9769031042	alcohol	((depressant)) disrupts memory formation (REM) lowers inhibition expectancy effect	131
9769031043	barbituates (tranquilizers)	((depressant)) reduce anxiety	132
9769031044	opiates	((depressant)) pleasure reduce anxiety/pain	133
9769031045	stimulants	hypes neural processing	134
9769031046	methamphetamine	((stimulant)) heightens energy euphoria affects dopamine	135
9769031047	caffeine	((stimulant))	136
9769031048	nicotine	((stimulant)) CNS releases neurotransmitters calm anxiety reduce pain affects (nor)epinephrine and dopamine	137
9769031049	cocaine	((stimulant)) euphoria affects dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine	138
9769031050	hallucinogen	excites neural activity	139
9769031051	ecstasy	((hallucinogen)) reuptake is blocked affects dopamine and serotonin	140
9769031052	LSD	((hallucinogen)) affects sensory/emotional "trip" (+/-) affects serotonin	141
9769031053	marijuana	((hallucinogen)) amplify sensory experience disrupts memory formation	142
9769031054	learning	organism changing behavior due to experience (association of events)	143
9769031055	types of learning	classical operant observational	144
9769031056	famous classical psychologists	Pavlov and Watson	145
9769031057	famous operant psychologist	Skinner	146
9769031058	famous observational psychologists	Bandura	147
9769031059	classical conditioning	outside stimulus	148
9769031060	Pavlov's experiment	Step 1: US (food) -> UR (salivation) Step 2: NS (bell) -> US (food) -> UR (salivation) Later... CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)	149
9769031061	Watson's experiment	white rat was given to Little Albert Step 1: US (noise) -> UR (cry) Step 2: NS (rat) -> US (noise) -> UR (cry) Later... CS (rat) -> CR (cry)	150
9769031062	generalization	any small, white fluffy creature will make Albert cry now	151
9769031063	discriminate	any large, white fluffy creature won't make Albert cry	152
9769031064	extinction	stop "treating" with conditioned response	153
9769031065	spontaneous recovery	bring stimulus back after a while	154
9769031066	operant conditioning	control by organism	155
9769031067	Skinner's experiment	operant chamber / Skinner box (lead to shaping)	156
9769031068	shaping	get animal closer to doing what you want them to do	157
9769031069	reinforcers	want to continue behavior (positive reinforcement: give money to do laundry) (negative reinforcement: do to avoid nagging)	158
9769031070	punishments	want to stop behavior (positive reinforcement: smack) (negative reinforcement: take away phone)	159
9769031071	fixed ratio	happens a certain number of times (Starbucks punch card)	160
9769031072	variable ratio	happens an unpredictable number of times (winning the lottery)	161
9769031073	organism must do these (2 times)	fixed ratio and variable ratio	162
9769031074	fixed interval	happens at a certain time (mailman comes to the house at 10:00 AM)	163
9769031075	variable interval	happens at any time (receive texts from friends)	164
9769031076	these things happen regardless (2 times)	fixed interval and variable interval	165
9769031077	Which (fixed/variable) conditions better?	variable	166
9769031078	criticisms of Skinner	doesn't take into account intrinsic motivation	167
9769031079	intrinsic motivation	doing something for yourself, not the reward	168
9769031080	extrinsic motivation	doing something for reward	169
9769031081	Skinner's legacy	use it personally, at school, and at work	170
9769031082	famous observational experiment	Bandura's Bobo doll	171
9769031083	famous observational psychologist	Bandura	172
9769031084	mirror neurons	"feel" what is observed happens in higher order animals	173
9769031085	Bobo doll experiment legacy	violent video games/movies desensitize us see good: do good see evil: do evil	174
9769031086	observational learning	biological behaviors work best	175
9769031087	habituation	get used to it -> stop reacting	176
9769031088	examples for observational learning	lectures and reading	177
9769031089	serotonin involved with memory	speeds the connection between neurons	178
9769031090	LTP	((long-term potentiation)) strengthens potential neural forming (associated with speed)	179
9769031091	CREB	protein that can switch genes on/off with memory and connection of memories	180
9769031092	glutamate involved with memory	neurotransmitter that enhances LTP	181
9769031093	glucose involved with memory	released during strong emotions ((signaling important event to be remembered))	182
9769031094	flashbulb memory	type of memory remembered because it was an important/quick moment	183
9769031095	amygdala (memory)	boosts activity of proteins in memory-forming areas to fight/flight	184
9769031096	cerebellum (memory)	forms and stores implicit memories ((classical conditioning))	185
9769031097	hippocampus (memory)	active during sleep (forming memories) ((information "moves" after 48 hours))	186
9769031098	memory	learning over time contains information that can be retrieved	187
9769031099	processing stages	encoding -> storage -> retrieval	188
9769031100	encoding	information going in	189
9769031101	storage	keeping information in	190
9769031102	retrieval	taking information out	191
9769031103	How long is sensory memory stored?	seconds	192
9769031104	How long is short-term memory stored?	less than a minute	193
9769031105	How many bits of information is stored in short-term memory?	7	194
9769031106	How many chunks of information is stored in short-term memory?	4	195
9769031107	How many seconds of words is stored in short-term memory?	2	196
9769031108	short term memory goes to ______________	working memory	197
9769031109	working memory	make a connection and process information to mean something	198
9769031110	working memory goes to _________________	long-term memory	199
9769031111	How much is stored in long-term memory?	LIMITLESS	200
9769031112	implicit memory	naturally do	201
9769031113	explicit memory	need to explain	202
9769031114	automatic processing	space, time, frequency, well-learned information	203
9769031115	effortful processing	processing that requires effort	204
9769031116	spacing effect	spread out learning over time	205
9769031117	serial position effect	primary/recency effect	206
9769031118	primary effect	remember the first things in a list	207
9769031119	recency effect	remember the last things in a list	208
9769031120	effortful processing (4 things)	1. recency effect 2. spacing effect 3. testing effect 4. serial position effect	209
9769031121	semantic encoding (1) meaning (2) how to	make meaning out of something --- chunk, hierarchy, or connect to you	210
9769031122	if we can't remember a memory...	1. change memory to suit us 2. fill in the blanks with logical story	211
9769031123	misinformation effect	not correct information	212
9769031124	imagination inflation	imagine or visualize something that isn't real	213
9769031125	source amnesia	what is the truth? (is it a dream, story, memory, etc.?)	214
9769031126	priming	association (setting you up)	215
9769031127	context	environment helps with memory	216
9769031128	state-dependency	you may remember something if you go back to the state you were in (go back to high)	217
9769031129	mood-congruency	emotion will bring back similar emotional memories	218
9769031130	forgetting curve	forget after 5 days forget after 5 years	219
9769031131	the forgetting curve was created by	Ebbinghaus	220
9769031132	proactive interference	old information interferes with the new	221
9769031133	retroactive interference	new information interferes with the old	222
9769031134	children can't remember before age __	3	223
9769031135	Loftus	connected to abuse cases/childhood	224
9769031136	prototypes	generalize	225
9769031137	problem-solving (4)	trial + error algorithms heuristic (representative + availability) insight - "AHA!"	226
9769031138	against problem-solving	fixation	227
9769031139	mental set	what has worked in the past	228
9769031140	functional fixedness	only way to do this is with this	229
9769031141	Chomsky (nature or nurture?)	"born with language" (nature)	230
9769031142	Skinner (nature or nurture?)	language is learned (nurture)	231
9769031143	grammar is _________	universal	232
9769031144	phonemes	smallest sound unit	233
9769031145	morphemes	smallest meaning unit	234

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ap Flashcards

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6101787486	related cells that live and work together in cell communities	tissues	0
6101794885	four main functions of epithelial tissues	1. protection 2. absorption 3. sensation 4. secretion	1
6101799139	main function: protection	from bacteria	2
6101801677	main function: absorption	substances entering/ leaving must cross an epithelium	3
6101804945	main function: sensation	provide information about external environment	4
6101806773	main function: secretion	secretes various substances	5
6101813822	main characteristics: cellularity	mostly sheets of cells	6
6101819971	main characteristics: specialized contacts	holds cells together(cell junction)	7
6101823042	main characteristic: polarity	apical and basical surfaces	8
6101827820	main characteristic: attachment	base of epithelium attached to basal lamina (composed of proteins)	9
6101834441	main characteristic: avascular	no blood vessels	10
6101836888	main characteristic; regeneration	cell division	11
6101841324	impermeable junctions prevent molecules from passing the intercellular space	tight junction	12
6101846381	bind adjacent cells together and help form an internal tension- reducing network of fibers	desmosomes	13
6101849665	communicating allow ions and small molecules to pass from 1 cell to the next	gap junctions	14
6101856085	border of epithelial and connective tissue, composed of proteins	basal lamina	15
6101859911	______ are deep to the basal lamina from connective tissue	reticular fibers	16
6101864327	includes the basal lamina and the reticular fibers (reticular lamina)	basement membrane	17
6101867123	allows movement of substances over the cells	cilia	18
6101870238	allows absorption of substances into cell, folds are to increase surface area	microvilli	19
6101871963	specialized secretions	glands	20
6101877117	lack ducts, secrete directly into tissue fluid that surrounds them, release hormone into blood	endocrine	21
6101883559	have ducts, secretes products onto body surfaces(skin) or into body cavities(digestive tube)	exocrine	22
6101883560	the pancreas includes	both endocrine and exocrine	23
6101893334	simplest of the epithelia, allows passage of materials by diffusion in the lungs	simple squamous	24
6101899344	thick membrane composed of several cell layers, protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion in the skin	stratified squamous	25
6101907433	single layer of cube like cells with large spherical central nuclei, secretion and absorption in the kidneys	simple cuboidal	26
6101912717	single layer of tall cells with round oval nuclei, absorption in the digestive tract	simple columnar	27
6101925271	single layer of cells at different heights some not reaching free surface, secrete substance particularly mucus, propulsion of mucus by ciliary action in the trachea	pseudostratified columnar	28
6101935657	resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal, stretches readily and permits distension of urinary organ by contained urine in the urinary bladder	transitional	29

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AP Psychology AP Review Flashcards

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9772993268	psychology	the study of behavior and mental processes	0
9772993269	psychology's biggest question	Which is more important in determining behavior, nature or nurture?	1
9772993270	psychology's three levels of analysis	biopsychosocial approach (looks at the biological, psychological, and social-cultural approaches together)	2
9772993271	biological approach	genetics, close-relatives, body functions	3
9772993272	evolutionary approach	species - helped with survival (ancestors)	4
9772993273	psychodynamic approach	(Freud) subconscious, repressed feelings, unfulfilled wishes	5
9772993274	behavioral approach	learning (classical and operant) observed	6
9772993275	cognitive approach	thinking affects behavior	7
9772993276	humanistic approach	becoming a better human (behavior, acceptance)	8
9772993277	social-cultural approach	cultural, family, environment	9
9772993278	two reasons of why experiments are important	hindsight bias + overconfidence	10
9772993279	types of research methods	descriptive, correlational, and experimental	11
9772993280	descriptive methods	case study survey naturalistic observation (DON'T SHOW CAUSE/EFFECT)	12
9772993281	case study	studies one person in depth may not be typical of population	13
9772993282	survey	studies lots of people not in depth	14
9772993283	naturalistic observation	observe + write facts without interference	15
9772993284	correlational method	shows relation, but not cause/effect scatterplots show research	16
9772993285	correlation coefficient	+ 1.0 (both increase) 0 (no correlation - 1.0 (one increases, other decreases)	17
9772993286	experimental method	does show cause and effect	18
9772993287	population	type of people who are going to be used in experiment	19
9772993288	sample	actual people who will be used (randomness reduces bias)	20
9772993289	random assignment	chance selection between experimental and control groups	21
9772993290	control group	not receiving experimental treatment receives placebo	22
9772993291	experimental group	receiving treatment/drug	23
9772993292	independent variable	drug/procedure/treatment	24
9772993293	dependent variable	outcome of using the drug/treatment	25
9772993294	confounding variable	can affect dependent variable beyond experiment's control	26
9772993295	scientific method	theory hypothesis operational definition revision	27
9772993296	theory	general idea being tested	28
9772993297	hypothesis	measurable/specific	29
9772993298	operational definition	procedures that explain components	30
9772993299	mode	appears the most	31
9772993300	mean	average	32
9772993301	median	middle	33
9772993302	range	highest - lowest	34
9772993303	standard deviation	how scores vary around the mean	35
9772993304	central tendency	single score that represents the whole	36
9772993305	bell curve	(natural curve)	37
9772993306	ethics of testing on animals	need to be treated humanly basically similar to humans	38
9772993307	ethics of testing on humans	consent debriefing no unnecessary discomfort/pain confidentiality	39
9772993308	sensory neurons	travel from sensory receptors to brain	40
9772993309	motor neurons	travel from brain to "motor" workings	41
9772993310	interneurons	(in brain and spinal cord) connecting motor and sensory neurons	42
9772993503	neuron		43
9772993311	dendrites	receive messages from other neurons	44
9772993312	myelin sheath	protects the axon	45
9772993313	axon	where charges travel from cell body to axon terminal	46
9772993314	neurotransmitters	chemical messengers	47
9772993315	reuptake	extra neurotransmitters are taken back	48
9772993316	excitatory charge	"Let's do it!"	49
9772993317	inhibitory charge	"Let's not do it!"	50
9772993318	central nervous system	brain and spinal cord	51
9772993319	peripheral nervous system	somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system	52
9772993320	somatic nervous system	voluntary movements	53
9772993321	autonomic nervous system	involuntary movements (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems)	54
9772993322	sympathetic nervous system	arousing	55
9772993323	parasympathetic nervous system	calming	56
9772993324	neural networks	more connections form with greater use others fall away if not used	57
9772993325	spinal cord	expressway of information bypasses brain when reflexes involved	58
9772993326	endocrine system	slow uses hormones in the blood system	59
9772993327	master gland	pituitary gland	60
9772993328	brainstem	extension of the spinal cord responsible for automatic survival	61
9772993329	reticular formation (if stimulated)	sleeping subject wakes up	62
9772993330	reticular formation (if damaged)	coma	63
9772993331	brainstem (if severed)	still move (without purpose)	64
9772993332	thalamus	sensory switchboard (does not process smell)	65
9772993333	hypothalamus	basic behaviors (hunger, thirst, sex, blood chemistry)	66
9772993334	cerebellum	nonverbal memory, judge time, balance emotions, coordinate movements	67
9772993335	cerebellum (if damaged)	difficulty walking and coordinating	68
9772993336	amygdala	aggression, fear, and memory associated with these emotions	69
9772993337	amygdala (if lesioned)	subject is mellow	70
9772993338	amygdala (if stimulated)	aggressive	71
9772993339	hippocampus	process new memory	72
9772993340	cerebrum	two large hemispheres perceiving, thinking, and processing	73
9772993341	cerebral cortex	only in higher life forms	74
9772993342	association areas	integrate and interpret information	75
9772993343	glial cells	provide nutrients to myelin sheath marks intelligence higher proportion of glial cells to neurons	76
9772993344	frontal lobe	judgement, personality, processing (Phineas Gage accident)	77
9772993345	parietal lobe	math and spatial reasoning	78
9772993346	temporal lobe	audition and recognizing faces	79
9772993347	occipital lobe	vision	80
9772993348	corpus callosum	split in the brain to stop hyper-communication (eliminate epileptic seizures)	81
9772993349	Wernicke's area	interprets auditory and hearing	82
9772993350	Broca's area	speaking words	83
9772993351	plasticity	ability to adapt if damaged	84
9772993352	sensation	what our senses tell us	85
9772993353	bottom-up processing	senses to brain	86
9772993354	perception	what our brain tells us to do with that information	87
9772993355	top-down processing	brain to senses	88
9772993356	inattentional blindness	fail to "gorilla" because attention is elsewhere	89
9772993357	cocktail party effect	even with tons of stimuli, we are able to pick out our name, etc.	90
9772993358	change blindness	giving directions and person is changed and we don't notice	91
9772993359	choice blindness	when defending the choice we make, we fail to notice choice was changed	92
9772993360	absolute threshold	minimum stimulation needed in order to notice 50% of the time	93
9772993361	signal detection theory	we notice what is more important to us (rather hear a baby crying)	94
9772993362	JND (just noticeable difference)	(Weber's law) difference between different stimuli noticed in proportion	95
9772993363	sensory adaptation	tired of noticing (Brain says, "Been there, done that. Next?"	96
9772993364	rods	night time	97
9772993365	cones	color	98
9772993366	parallel processing	notice color, form, depth, movement, etc.	99
9772993367	Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory	3 corresponding color receptors (RGB)	100
9772993368	Hering's opponent-process theory	after image in opposite colors (RG, YB, WB)	101
9772993369	trichromatic + opponent-process	Young-Helmholtz -> color stimuli Hering -> en route to cortex	102
9772993370	frequency we hear most	human voice	103
9772993371	Helmoltz (hearing)	we hear different pitches in different places in basilar membrane (high pitches)	104
9772993372	frequency theory	impulse frequency (low pitches)	105
9772993373	Helmholtz + frequency theory	middle pitches	106
9772993374	Skin feels what?	warmth, cold, pressure, pain	107
9772993375	gate-control theory	small fibers - pain large fibers - other senses	108
9772993376	memory of pain	peaks and ends	109
9772993377	smell	close to memory section (not in thalamus)	110
9772993378	grouping	Gestalt make sense of pieces create a whole	111
9772993379	grouping groups	proximity similarity continuity connectedness closure	112
9772993380	make assumptions of placement	higher - farther smaller - farther blocking - closer, in front	113
9772993381	perception =	mood + motivation	114
9772993382	consciousness	awareness of ourselves and the environment	115
9772993383	circadian rhythm	daily biological clock and regular cycle (sleep and awake)	116
9772993384	circadian rhythm pattern	- activated by light - light sensitive retinal proteins signal brains SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) - pineal gland decreases melatonin	117
9772993385	What messes with circadian rhythm?	artificial light	118
9772993386	The whole sleep cycle lasts how long?	90 minutes	119
9772993387	sleep stages	relaxed stage (alpha waves) stage 1 (early sleep) (hallucinations) stage 2 (sleep spindles - bursts of activity) (sleep talk) stage 3 (transition phase) (delta waves) stage 4 (delta waves) (sleepwalk/talk + wet the bed) stage 5 (REM) (sensory-rich dreams) (paradoxical sleep)	120
9772993388	purpose of sleep	1. recuperation - repair neurons and allow unused neural connections to wither 2. making memories 3. body growth (children sleep more)	121
9772993389	insomnia	can't sleep	122
9772993390	narcolepsy	fall asleep anywhere at anytime	123
9772993391	sleep apnea	stop breathing in sleep	124
9772993392	night terrors	prevalent in children	125
9772993393	sleepwalking/sleeptalking	hereditary - prevalent in children	126
9772993394	dreaming (3)	1. vivid bizarre intense sensory experiences 2. carry fear/survival issues - vestiges of ancestors' survival ideas 2. replay previous day's experiences/worries	127
9772993395	purpose of dreaming (5 THEORIES)	1. physiological function - develop/preserve neural pathways 2. Freud's wish-fulfillment (manifest/latent content) 3. activation synthesis - make sense of stimulation originating in brain 4. information processing 5. cognitive development - reflective of intelligence	128
9772993396	1. Can hypnosis bring you back in time? 2. Can hypnosis make you do things you wouldn't normally do? 3. Can it alleviate pain? 4. What state are you in during hypnosis? 5. Who is more susceptible?	1. cannot take you back in time 2. cannot make you do things you won't do 3. can alleviate pain 4. fully conscious ((IMAGINATIVE PEOPLE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE))	129
9772993397	depressants	slows neural pathways	130
9772993398	alcohol	((depressant)) disrupts memory formation (REM) lowers inhibition expectancy effect	131
9772993399	barbituates (tranquilizers)	((depressant)) reduce anxiety	132
9772993400	opiates	((depressant)) pleasure reduce anxiety/pain	133
9772993401	stimulants	hypes neural processing	134
9772993402	methamphetamine	((stimulant)) heightens energy euphoria affects dopamine	135
9772993403	caffeine	((stimulant))	136
9772993404	nicotine	((stimulant)) CNS releases neurotransmitters calm anxiety reduce pain affects (nor)epinephrine and dopamine	137
9772993405	cocaine	((stimulant)) euphoria affects dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine	138
9772993406	hallucinogen	excites neural activity	139
9772993407	ecstasy	((hallucinogen)) reuptake is blocked affects dopamine and serotonin	140
9772993408	LSD	((hallucinogen)) affects sensory/emotional "trip" (+/-) affects serotonin	141
9772993409	marijuana	((hallucinogen)) amplify sensory experience disrupts memory formation	142
9772993410	learning	organism changing behavior due to experience (association of events)	143
9772993411	types of learning	classical operant observational	144
9772993412	famous classical psychologists	Pavlov and Watson	145
9772993413	famous operant psychologist	Skinner	146
9772993414	famous observational psychologists	Bandura	147
9772993415	classical conditioning	outside stimulus	148
9772993416	Pavlov's experiment	Step 1: US (food) -> UR (salivation) Step 2: NS (bell) -> US (food) -> UR (salivation) Later... CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)	149
9772993417	Watson's experiment	white rat was given to Little Albert Step 1: US (noise) -> UR (cry) Step 2: NS (rat) -> US (noise) -> UR (cry) Later... CS (rat) -> CR (cry)	150
9772993418	generalization	any small, white fluffy creature will make Albert cry now	151
9772993419	discriminate	any large, white fluffy creature won't make Albert cry	152
9772993420	extinction	stop "treating" with conditioned response	153
9772993421	spontaneous recovery	bring stimulus back after a while	154
9772993422	operant conditioning	control by organism	155
9772993423	Skinner's experiment	operant chamber / Skinner box (lead to shaping)	156
9772993424	shaping	get animal closer to doing what you want them to do	157
9772993425	reinforcers	want to continue behavior (positive reinforcement: give money to do laundry) (negative reinforcement: do to avoid nagging)	158
9772993426	punishments	want to stop behavior (positive reinforcement: smack) (negative reinforcement: take away phone)	159
9772993427	fixed ratio	happens a certain number of times (Starbucks punch card)	160
9772993428	variable ratio	happens an unpredictable number of times (winning the lottery)	161
9772993429	organism must do these (2 times)	fixed ratio and variable ratio	162
9772993430	fixed interval	happens at a certain time (mailman comes to the house at 10:00 AM)	163
9772993431	variable interval	happens at any time (receive texts from friends)	164
9772993432	these things happen regardless (2 times)	fixed interval and variable interval	165
9772993433	Which (fixed/variable) conditions better?	variable	166
9772993434	criticisms of Skinner	doesn't take into account intrinsic motivation	167
9772993435	intrinsic motivation	doing something for yourself, not the reward	168
9772993436	extrinsic motivation	doing something for reward	169
9772993437	Skinner's legacy	use it personally, at school, and at work	170
9772993438	famous observational experiment	Bandura's Bobo doll	171
9772993439	famous observational psychologist	Bandura	172
9772993440	mirror neurons	"feel" what is observed happens in higher order animals	173
9772993441	Bobo doll experiment legacy	violent video games/movies desensitize us see good: do good see evil: do evil	174
9772993442	observational learning	biological behaviors work best	175
9772993443	habituation	get used to it -> stop reacting	176
9772993444	examples for observational learning	lectures and reading	177
9772993445	serotonin involved with memory	speeds the connection between neurons	178
9772993446	LTP	((long-term potentiation)) strengthens potential neural forming (associated with speed)	179
9772993447	CREB	protein that can switch genes on/off with memory and connection of memories	180
9772993448	glutamate involved with memory	neurotransmitter that enhances LTP	181
9772993449	glucose involved with memory	released during strong emotions ((signaling important event to be remembered))	182
9772993450	flashbulb memory	type of memory remembered because it was an important/quick moment	183
9772993451	amygdala (memory)	boosts activity of proteins in memory-forming areas to fight/flight	184
9772993452	cerebellum (memory)	forms and stores implicit memories ((classical conditioning))	185
9772993453	hippocampus (memory)	active during sleep (forming memories) ((information "moves" after 48 hours))	186
9772993454	memory	learning over time contains information that can be retrieved	187
9772993455	processing stages	encoding -> storage -> retrieval	188
9772993456	encoding	information going in	189
9772993457	storage	keeping information in	190
9772993458	retrieval	taking information out	191
9772993459	How long is sensory memory stored?	seconds	192
9772993460	How long is short-term memory stored?	less than a minute	193
9772993461	How many bits of information is stored in short-term memory?	7	194
9772993462	How many chunks of information is stored in short-term memory?	4	195
9772993463	How many seconds of words is stored in short-term memory?	2	196
9772993464	short term memory goes to ______________	working memory	197
9772993465	working memory	make a connection and process information to mean something	198
9772993466	working memory goes to _________________	long-term memory	199
9772993467	How much is stored in long-term memory?	LIMITLESS	200
9772993468	implicit memory	naturally do	201
9772993469	explicit memory	need to explain	202
9772993470	automatic processing	space, time, frequency, well-learned information	203
9772993471	effortful processing	processing that requires effort	204
9772993472	spacing effect	spread out learning over time	205
9772993473	serial position effect	primary/recency effect	206
9772993474	primary effect	remember the first things in a list	207
9772993475	recency effect	remember the last things in a list	208
9772993476	effortful processing (4 things)	1. recency effect 2. spacing effect 3. testing effect 4. serial position effect	209
9772993477	semantic encoding (1) meaning (2) how to	make meaning out of something --- chunk, hierarchy, or connect to you	210
9772993478	if we can't remember a memory...	1. change memory to suit us 2. fill in the blanks with logical story	211
9772993479	misinformation effect	not correct information	212
9772993480	imagination inflation	imagine or visualize something that isn't real	213
9772993481	source amnesia	what is the truth? (is it a dream, story, memory, etc.?)	214
9772993482	priming	association (setting you up)	215
9772993483	context	environment helps with memory	216
9772993484	state-dependency	you may remember something if you go back to the state you were in (go back to high)	217
9772993485	mood-congruency	emotion will bring back similar emotional memories	218
9772993486	forgetting curve	forget after 5 days forget after 5 years	219
9772993487	the forgetting curve was created by	Ebbinghaus	220
9772993488	proactive interference	old information interferes with the new	221
9772993489	retroactive interference	new information interferes with the old	222
9772993490	children can't remember before age __	3	223
9772993491	Loftus	connected to abuse cases/childhood	224
9772993492	prototypes	generalize	225
9772993493	problem-solving (4)	trial + error algorithms heuristic (representative + availability) insight - "AHA!"	226
9772993494	against problem-solving	fixation	227
9772993495	mental set	what has worked in the past	228
9772993496	functional fixedness	only way to do this is with this	229
9772993497	Chomsky (nature or nurture?)	"born with language" (nature)	230
9772993498	Skinner (nature or nurture?)	language is learned (nurture)	231
9772993499	grammar is _________	universal	232
9772993500	phonemes	smallest sound unit	233
9772993501	morphemes	smallest meaning unit	234

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AP Psychology AP Review Flashcards

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9779931634	psychology	the study of behavior and mental processes	0
9779931635	psychology's biggest question	Which is more important in determining behavior, nature or nurture?	1
9779931636	psychology's three levels of analysis	biopsychosocial approach (looks at the biological, psychological, and social-cultural approaches together)	2
9779931637	biological approach	genetics, close-relatives, body functions	3
9779931638	evolutionary approach	species - helped with survival (ancestors)	4
9779931639	psychodynamic approach	(Freud) subconscious, repressed feelings, unfulfilled wishes	5
9779931640	behavioral approach	learning (classical and operant) observed	6
9779931641	cognitive approach	thinking affects behavior	7
9779931642	humanistic approach	becoming a better human (behavior, acceptance)	8
9779931643	social-cultural approach	cultural, family, environment	9
9779931644	two reasons of why experiments are important	hindsight bias + overconfidence	10
9779931645	types of research methods	descriptive, correlational, and experimental	11
9779931646	descriptive methods	case study survey naturalistic observation (DON'T SHOW CAUSE/EFFECT)	12
9779931647	case study	studies one person in depth may not be typical of population	13
9779931648	survey	studies lots of people not in depth	14
9779931649	naturalistic observation	observe + write facts without interference	15
9779931650	correlational method	shows relation, but not cause/effect scatterplots show research	16
9779931651	correlation coefficient	+ 1.0 (both increase) 0 (no correlation - 1.0 (one increases, other decreases)	17
9779931652	experimental method	does show cause and effect	18
9779931653	population	type of people who are going to be used in experiment	19
9779931654	sample	actual people who will be used (randomness reduces bias)	20
9779931655	random assignment	chance selection between experimental and control groups	21
9779931656	control group	not receiving experimental treatment receives placebo	22
9779931657	experimental group	receiving treatment/drug	23
9779931658	independent variable	drug/procedure/treatment	24
9779931659	dependent variable	outcome of using the drug/treatment	25
9779931660	confounding variable	can affect dependent variable beyond experiment's control	26
9779931661	scientific method	theory hypothesis operational definition revision	27
9779931662	theory	general idea being tested	28
9779931663	hypothesis	measurable/specific	29
9779931664	operational definition	procedures that explain components	30
9779931665	mode	appears the most	31
9779931666	mean	average	32
9779931667	median	middle	33
9779931668	range	highest - lowest	34
9779931669	standard deviation	how scores vary around the mean	35
9779931670	central tendency	single score that represents the whole	36
9779931671	bell curve	(natural curve)	37
9779931672	ethics of testing on animals	need to be treated humanly basically similar to humans	38
9779931673	ethics of testing on humans	consent debriefing no unnecessary discomfort/pain confidentiality	39
9779931674	sensory neurons	travel from sensory receptors to brain	40
9779931675	motor neurons	travel from brain to "motor" workings	41
9779931676	interneurons	(in brain and spinal cord) connecting motor and sensory neurons	42
9779931869	neuron		43
9779931677	dendrites	receive messages from other neurons	44
9779931678	myelin sheath	protects the axon	45
9779931679	axon	where charges travel from cell body to axon terminal	46
9779931680	neurotransmitters	chemical messengers	47
9779931681	reuptake	extra neurotransmitters are taken back	48
9779931682	excitatory charge	"Let's do it!"	49
9779931683	inhibitory charge	"Let's not do it!"	50
9779931684	central nervous system	brain and spinal cord	51
9779931685	peripheral nervous system	somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system	52
9779931686	somatic nervous system	voluntary movements	53
9779931687	autonomic nervous system	involuntary movements (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems)	54
9779931688	sympathetic nervous system	arousing	55
9779931689	parasympathetic nervous system	calming	56
9779931690	neural networks	more connections form with greater use others fall away if not used	57
9779931691	spinal cord	expressway of information bypasses brain when reflexes involved	58
9779931692	endocrine system	slow uses hormones in the blood system	59
9779931693	master gland	pituitary gland	60
9779931694	brainstem	extension of the spinal cord responsible for automatic survival	61
9779931695	reticular formation (if stimulated)	sleeping subject wakes up	62
9779931696	reticular formation (if damaged)	coma	63
9779931697	brainstem (if severed)	still move (without purpose)	64
9779931698	thalamus	sensory switchboard (does not process smell)	65
9779931699	hypothalamus	basic behaviors (hunger, thirst, sex, blood chemistry)	66
9779931700	cerebellum	nonverbal memory, judge time, balance emotions, coordinate movements	67
9779931701	cerebellum (if damaged)	difficulty walking and coordinating	68
9779931702	amygdala	aggression, fear, and memory associated with these emotions	69
9779931703	amygdala (if lesioned)	subject is mellow	70
9779931704	amygdala (if stimulated)	aggressive	71
9779931705	hippocampus	process new memory	72
9779931706	cerebrum	two large hemispheres perceiving, thinking, and processing	73
9779931707	cerebral cortex	only in higher life forms	74
9779931708	association areas	integrate and interpret information	75
9779931709	glial cells	provide nutrients to myelin sheath marks intelligence higher proportion of glial cells to neurons	76
9779931710	frontal lobe	judgement, personality, processing (Phineas Gage accident)	77
9779931711	parietal lobe	math and spatial reasoning	78
9779931712	temporal lobe	audition and recognizing faces	79
9779931713	occipital lobe	vision	80
9779931714	corpus callosum	split in the brain to stop hyper-communication (eliminate epileptic seizures)	81
9779931715	Wernicke's area	interprets auditory and hearing	82
9779931716	Broca's area	speaking words	83
9779931717	plasticity	ability to adapt if damaged	84
9779931718	sensation	what our senses tell us	85
9779931719	bottom-up processing	senses to brain	86
9779931720	perception	what our brain tells us to do with that information	87
9779931721	top-down processing	brain to senses	88
9779931722	inattentional blindness	fail to "gorilla" because attention is elsewhere	89
9779931723	cocktail party effect	even with tons of stimuli, we are able to pick out our name, etc.	90
9779931724	change blindness	giving directions and person is changed and we don't notice	91
9779931725	choice blindness	when defending the choice we make, we fail to notice choice was changed	92
9779931726	absolute threshold	minimum stimulation needed in order to notice 50% of the time	93
9779931727	signal detection theory	we notice what is more important to us (rather hear a baby crying)	94
9779931728	JND (just noticeable difference)	(Weber's law) difference between different stimuli noticed in proportion	95
9779931729	sensory adaptation	tired of noticing (Brain says, "Been there, done that. Next?"	96
9779931730	rods	night time	97
9779931731	cones	color	98
9779931732	parallel processing	notice color, form, depth, movement, etc.	99
9779931733	Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory	3 corresponding color receptors (RGB)	100
9779931734	Hering's opponent-process theory	after image in opposite colors (RG, YB, WB)	101
9779931735	trichromatic + opponent-process	Young-Helmholtz -> color stimuli Hering -> en route to cortex	102
9779931736	frequency we hear most	human voice	103
9779931737	Helmoltz (hearing)	we hear different pitches in different places in basilar membrane (high pitches)	104
9779931738	frequency theory	impulse frequency (low pitches)	105
9779931739	Helmholtz + frequency theory	middle pitches	106
9779931740	Skin feels what?	warmth, cold, pressure, pain	107
9779931741	gate-control theory	small fibers - pain large fibers - other senses	108
9779931742	memory of pain	peaks and ends	109
9779931743	smell	close to memory section (not in thalamus)	110
9779931744	grouping	Gestalt make sense of pieces create a whole	111
9779931745	grouping groups	proximity similarity continuity connectedness closure	112
9779931746	make assumptions of placement	higher - farther smaller - farther blocking - closer, in front	113
9779931747	perception =	mood + motivation	114
9779931748	consciousness	awareness of ourselves and the environment	115
9779931749	circadian rhythm	daily biological clock and regular cycle (sleep and awake)	116
9779931750	circadian rhythm pattern	- activated by light - light sensitive retinal proteins signal brains SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) - pineal gland decreases melatonin	117
9779931751	What messes with circadian rhythm?	artificial light	118
9779931752	The whole sleep cycle lasts how long?	90 minutes	119
9779931753	sleep stages	relaxed stage (alpha waves) stage 1 (early sleep) (hallucinations) stage 2 (sleep spindles - bursts of activity) (sleep talk) stage 3 (transition phase) (delta waves) stage 4 (delta waves) (sleepwalk/talk + wet the bed) stage 5 (REM) (sensory-rich dreams) (paradoxical sleep)	120
9779931754	purpose of sleep	1. recuperation - repair neurons and allow unused neural connections to wither 2. making memories 3. body growth (children sleep more)	121
9779931755	insomnia	can't sleep	122
9779931756	narcolepsy	fall asleep anywhere at anytime	123
9779931757	sleep apnea	stop breathing in sleep	124
9779931758	night terrors	prevalent in children	125
9779931759	sleepwalking/sleeptalking	hereditary - prevalent in children	126
9779931760	dreaming (3)	1. vivid bizarre intense sensory experiences 2. carry fear/survival issues - vestiges of ancestors' survival ideas 2. replay previous day's experiences/worries	127
9779931761	purpose of dreaming (5 THEORIES)	1. physiological function - develop/preserve neural pathways 2. Freud's wish-fulfillment (manifest/latent content) 3. activation synthesis - make sense of stimulation originating in brain 4. information processing 5. cognitive development - reflective of intelligence	128
9779931762	1. Can hypnosis bring you back in time? 2. Can hypnosis make you do things you wouldn't normally do? 3. Can it alleviate pain? 4. What state are you in during hypnosis? 5. Who is more susceptible?	1. cannot take you back in time 2. cannot make you do things you won't do 3. can alleviate pain 4. fully conscious ((IMAGINATIVE PEOPLE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE))	129
9779931763	depressants	slows neural pathways	130
9779931764	alcohol	((depressant)) disrupts memory formation (REM) lowers inhibition expectancy effect	131
9779931765	barbituates (tranquilizers)	((depressant)) reduce anxiety	132
9779931766	opiates	((depressant)) pleasure reduce anxiety/pain	133
9779931767	stimulants	hypes neural processing	134
9779931768	methamphetamine	((stimulant)) heightens energy euphoria affects dopamine	135
9779931769	caffeine	((stimulant))	136
9779931770	nicotine	((stimulant)) CNS releases neurotransmitters calm anxiety reduce pain affects (nor)epinephrine and dopamine	137
9779931771	cocaine	((stimulant)) euphoria affects dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine	138
9779931772	hallucinogen	excites neural activity	139
9779931773	ecstasy	((hallucinogen)) reuptake is blocked affects dopamine and serotonin	140
9779931774	LSD	((hallucinogen)) affects sensory/emotional "trip" (+/-) affects serotonin	141
9779931775	marijuana	((hallucinogen)) amplify sensory experience disrupts memory formation	142
9779931776	learning	organism changing behavior due to experience (association of events)	143
9779931777	types of learning	classical operant observational	144
9779931778	famous classical psychologists	Pavlov and Watson	145
9779931779	famous operant psychologist	Skinner	146
9779931780	famous observational psychologists	Bandura	147
9779931781	classical conditioning	outside stimulus	148
9779931782	Pavlov's experiment	Step 1: US (food) -> UR (salivation) Step 2: NS (bell) -> US (food) -> UR (salivation) Later... CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)	149
9779931783	Watson's experiment	white rat was given to Little Albert Step 1: US (noise) -> UR (cry) Step 2: NS (rat) -> US (noise) -> UR (cry) Later... CS (rat) -> CR (cry)	150
9779931784	generalization	any small, white fluffy creature will make Albert cry now	151
9779931785	discriminate	any large, white fluffy creature won't make Albert cry	152
9779931786	extinction	stop "treating" with conditioned response	153
9779931787	spontaneous recovery	bring stimulus back after a while	154
9779931788	operant conditioning	control by organism	155
9779931789	Skinner's experiment	operant chamber / Skinner box (lead to shaping)	156
9779931790	shaping	get animal closer to doing what you want them to do	157
9779931791	reinforcers	want to continue behavior (positive reinforcement: give money to do laundry) (negative reinforcement: do to avoid nagging)	158
9779931792	punishments	want to stop behavior (positive reinforcement: smack) (negative reinforcement: take away phone)	159
9779931793	fixed ratio	happens a certain number of times (Starbucks punch card)	160
9779931794	variable ratio	happens an unpredictable number of times (winning the lottery)	161
9779931795	organism must do these (2 times)	fixed ratio and variable ratio	162
9779931796	fixed interval	happens at a certain time (mailman comes to the house at 10:00 AM)	163
9779931797	variable interval	happens at any time (receive texts from friends)	164
9779931798	these things happen regardless (2 times)	fixed interval and variable interval	165
9779931799	Which (fixed/variable) conditions better?	variable	166
9779931800	criticisms of Skinner	doesn't take into account intrinsic motivation	167
9779931801	intrinsic motivation	doing something for yourself, not the reward	168
9779931802	extrinsic motivation	doing something for reward	169
9779931803	Skinner's legacy	use it personally, at school, and at work	170
9779931804	famous observational experiment	Bandura's Bobo doll	171
9779931805	famous observational psychologist	Bandura	172
9779931806	mirror neurons	"feel" what is observed happens in higher order animals	173
9779931807	Bobo doll experiment legacy	violent video games/movies desensitize us see good: do good see evil: do evil	174
9779931808	observational learning	biological behaviors work best	175
9779931809	habituation	get used to it -> stop reacting	176
9779931810	examples for observational learning	lectures and reading	177
9779931811	serotonin involved with memory	speeds the connection between neurons	178
9779931812	LTP	((long-term potentiation)) strengthens potential neural forming (associated with speed)	179
9779931813	CREB	protein that can switch genes on/off with memory and connection of memories	180
9779931814	glutamate involved with memory	neurotransmitter that enhances LTP	181
9779931815	glucose involved with memory	released during strong emotions ((signaling important event to be remembered))	182
9779931816	flashbulb memory	type of memory remembered because it was an important/quick moment	183
9779931817	amygdala (memory)	boosts activity of proteins in memory-forming areas to fight/flight	184
9779931818	cerebellum (memory)	forms and stores implicit memories ((classical conditioning))	185
9779931819	hippocampus (memory)	active during sleep (forming memories) ((information "moves" after 48 hours))	186
9779931820	memory	learning over time contains information that can be retrieved	187
9779931821	processing stages	encoding -> storage -> retrieval	188
9779931822	encoding	information going in	189
9779931823	storage	keeping information in	190
9779931824	retrieval	taking information out	191
9779931825	How long is sensory memory stored?	seconds	192
9779931826	How long is short-term memory stored?	less than a minute	193
9779931827	How many bits of information is stored in short-term memory?	7	194
9779931828	How many chunks of information is stored in short-term memory?	4	195
9779931829	How many seconds of words is stored in short-term memory?	2	196
9779931830	short term memory goes to ______________	working memory	197
9779931831	working memory	make a connection and process information to mean something	198
9779931832	working memory goes to _________________	long-term memory	199
9779931833	How much is stored in long-term memory?	LIMITLESS	200
9779931834	implicit memory	naturally do	201
9779931835	explicit memory	need to explain	202
9779931836	automatic processing	space, time, frequency, well-learned information	203
9779931837	effortful processing	processing that requires effort	204
9779931838	spacing effect	spread out learning over time	205
9779931839	serial position effect	primary/recency effect	206
9779931840	primary effect	remember the first things in a list	207
9779931841	recency effect	remember the last things in a list	208
9779931842	effortful processing (4 things)	1. recency effect 2. spacing effect 3. testing effect 4. serial position effect	209
9779931843	semantic encoding (1) meaning (2) how to	make meaning out of something --- chunk, hierarchy, or connect to you	210
9779931844	if we can't remember a memory...	1. change memory to suit us 2. fill in the blanks with logical story	211
9779931845	misinformation effect	not correct information	212
9779931846	imagination inflation	imagine or visualize something that isn't real	213
9779931847	source amnesia	what is the truth? (is it a dream, story, memory, etc.?)	214
9779931848	priming	association (setting you up)	215
9779931849	context	environment helps with memory	216
9779931850	state-dependency	you may remember something if you go back to the state you were in (go back to high)	217
9779931851	mood-congruency	emotion will bring back similar emotional memories	218
9779931852	forgetting curve	forget after 5 days forget after 5 years	219
9779931853	the forgetting curve was created by	Ebbinghaus	220
9779931854	proactive interference	old information interferes with the new	221
9779931855	retroactive interference	new information interferes with the old	222
9779931856	children can't remember before age __	3	223
9779931857	Loftus	connected to abuse cases/childhood	224
9779931858	prototypes	generalize	225
9779931859	problem-solving (4)	trial + error algorithms heuristic (representative + availability) insight - "AHA!"	226
9779931860	against problem-solving	fixation	227
9779931861	mental set	what has worked in the past	228
9779931862	functional fixedness	only way to do this is with this	229
9779931863	Chomsky (nature or nurture?)	"born with language" (nature)	230
9779931864	Skinner (nature or nurture?)	language is learned (nurture)	231
9779931865	grammar is _________	universal	232
9779931866	phonemes	smallest sound unit	233
9779931867	morphemes	smallest meaning unit	234

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Ap Flashcards

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4804361751	Abnegation	The act of renouncing or rejecting something	0
4804361752	Amible	Displaying a friendly and pleasant manner	1
4804361753	Candor	Quality of open and honest in expression; frankness	2
4804361754	Daunting	Seeming difficult to deal with in anticipation;intimidating	3
4804361755	Erudite	Having or showing great knowledge or learning	4
4804361756	Ignominious	Deserving or causing public disgrace or shame	5
4804361757	Inundate	T overwhelm (someone) with things or people to deal with	6
4804361758	Frenetic	Fast and energetic in a rather wild and uncontrolled way	7

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AP Flashcards

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4780532431	Agricultural Density	The ratio of the number of farmers to the total amount of land suitable for agriulture	0
4780556082	Arithmetic Density	The total number of people divided by the total land area	1
4780571155	Base Line	An east-west line designated under the Land Ordinance of 1785 to facilitate the surveying and numbering of township in the United States	2
4787337365	Cartography	The science of making maps	3
4787344926	Concentration	The spread of something over a given area	4
4787743004	Connection	Relationships among people and objects across the barrier of space	5
4787752970	Contagious diffusion	The rapid, widespread diffusion of a feature or trend throughout a population	6
4787799406	Cultural ecology	Geographic approach that emphasizes human- environment relationships	7
4787817799	Cultural landscape	Fashioning of a natural landscape by a cultural group	8
4788078255	Cultural	The body of customary beliefs, social forms, and materials traits that together constitute a group's distinct tradition	9
4788104836	Density	The frequency with which something exist within a given unit of area	10
4788114787	Diffusion	The process of spread of a feature or trend from one place to another over time	11
4788123623	Distance decay	The diminishing in importance and eventual disappearance of a phenomenon with increasing distance from its origin	12
4791936049	Distribution	Thee arrangement of something across the Earth's surface	13
4791960043	Environmental Determinism	A 19-and early 20 century approach to the study of geography which argued that the general law sought by human geographers could be found in the physical science. Geography was therefore the study of how the physical environment caused human activities.	14
4792006010	Expansion diffusion	The spread of a feature or trend among people from one area to another in a snowballing process	15
4802613176	Formal region	An area in which everyone shares in one or more distinctive characteristics	16
4807522187	Functional region	An area organized around a node or focal point	17
4787874761	Longitude	The numbering systems used to indicate thee location of meridians drawn on a globe and measuring distance north and south of the equator	18
4788064559	Land of Ordinance of 1785	A that divided much of the United States into townships to facilitate the sales of land to settlers	19
4788040355	Latitude	The numbering system used to indicate the location of parallels drawn on a globe and measuring distance east and west of the equator	20
4807543145	Geographic information system (GIS)	A computer system that stores, organizes ,analyzes, and displays geographic data.	21
4792235930	Global Positioning System (GPS )	A system that determines the precise position of something on Earth through a series of satellites, tracking stations, and receivers.	22
4792214268	Globalization	Action or processes that involves the entire world and result in making something worldwide in scope.	23
4792191475	Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)	The time in that zone encompassing the prime meridian or 0 longitude	24
4787845078	Location	The position of anything on Earth's surface	25
4787831465	Map	A two- dimensional , or flat, representation of Earth's surface or portion of it	26
4792023272	International Date Line	An are that the most part follow 180 longitude, although it deviate in several places to avoid dividing land areas. When you cross the International Date Line heading east ( towards America), the clock moves 24 hours, or one whole day. When you go west ( towards Asia ), the calendar moves ahead one day.	27
4792082585	Hearth	The region from which innovation ideas originate	28
4792069154	Hierarchical diffusion	The spread of a feature or trend from one key person or node of authority or power to other persons or places	29

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AP Psychology AP Review Flashcards

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9795471647	psychology	the study of behavior and mental processes	0
9795471648	psychology's biggest question	Which is more important in determining behavior, nature or nurture?	1
9795471649	psychology's three levels of analysis	biopsychosocial approach (looks at the biological, psychological, and social-cultural approaches together)	2
9795471650	biological approach	genetics, close-relatives, body functions	3
9795471651	evolutionary approach	species - helped with survival (ancestors)	4
9795471652	psychodynamic approach	(Freud) subconscious, repressed feelings, unfulfilled wishes	5
9795471653	behavioral approach	learning (classical and operant) observed	6
9795471654	cognitive approach	thinking affects behavior	7
9795471655	humanistic approach	becoming a better human (behavior, acceptance)	8
9795471656	social-cultural approach	cultural, family, environment	9
9795471657	two reasons of why experiments are important	hindsight bias + overconfidence	10
9795471658	types of research methods	descriptive, correlational, and experimental	11
9795471659	descriptive methods	case study survey naturalistic observation (DON'T SHOW CAUSE/EFFECT)	12
9795471660	case study	studies one person in depth may not be typical of population	13
9795471661	survey	studies lots of people not in depth	14
9795471662	naturalistic observation	observe + write facts without interference	15
9795471663	correlational method	shows relation, but not cause/effect scatterplots show research	16
9795471664	correlation coefficient	+ 1.0 (both increase) 0 (no correlation - 1.0 (one increases, other decreases)	17
9795471665	experimental method	does show cause and effect	18
9795471666	population	type of people who are going to be used in experiment	19
9795471667	sample	actual people who will be used (randomness reduces bias)	20
9795471668	random assignment	chance selection between experimental and control groups	21
9795471669	control group	not receiving experimental treatment receives placebo	22
9795471670	experimental group	receiving treatment/drug	23
9795471671	independent variable	drug/procedure/treatment	24
9795471672	dependent variable	outcome of using the drug/treatment	25
9795471673	confounding variable	can affect dependent variable beyond experiment's control	26
9795471674	scientific method	theory hypothesis operational definition revision	27
9795471675	theory	general idea being tested	28
9795471676	hypothesis	measurable/specific	29
9795471677	operational definition	procedures that explain components	30
9795471678	mode	appears the most	31
9795471679	mean	average	32
9795471680	median	middle	33
9795471681	range	highest - lowest	34
9795471682	standard deviation	how scores vary around the mean	35
9795471683	central tendency	single score that represents the whole	36
9795471684	bell curve	(natural curve)	37
9795471685	ethics of testing on animals	need to be treated humanly basically similar to humans	38
9795471686	ethics of testing on humans	consent debriefing no unnecessary discomfort/pain confidentiality	39
9795471687	sensory neurons	travel from sensory receptors to brain	40
9795471688	motor neurons	travel from brain to "motor" workings	41
9795471689	interneurons	(in brain and spinal cord) connecting motor and sensory neurons	42
9795471881	neuron		43
9795471690	dendrites	receive messages from other neurons	44
9795471691	myelin sheath	protects the axon	45
9795471692	axon	where charges travel from cell body to axon terminal	46
9795471693	neurotransmitters	chemical messengers	47
9795471694	reuptake	extra neurotransmitters are taken back	48
9795471695	excitatory charge	"Let's do it!"	49
9795471696	inhibitory charge	"Let's not do it!"	50
9795471697	central nervous system	brain and spinal cord	51
9795471698	peripheral nervous system	somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system	52
9795471699	somatic nervous system	voluntary movements	53
9795471700	autonomic nervous system	involuntary movements (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems)	54
9795471701	sympathetic nervous system	arousing	55
9795471702	parasympathetic nervous system	calming	56
9795471703	neural networks	more connections form with greater use others fall away if not used	57
9795471704	spinal cord	expressway of information bypasses brain when reflexes involved	58
9795471705	endocrine system	slow uses hormones in the blood system	59
9795471706	master gland	pituitary gland	60
9795471707	brainstem	extension of the spinal cord responsible for automatic survival	61
9795471708	reticular formation (if stimulated)	sleeping subject wakes up	62
9795471709	reticular formation (if damaged)	coma	63
9795471710	brainstem (if severed)	still move (without purpose)	64
9795471711	thalamus	sensory switchboard (does not process smell)	65
9795471712	hypothalamus	basic behaviors (hunger, thirst, sex, blood chemistry)	66
9795471713	cerebellum	nonverbal memory, judge time, balance emotions, coordinate movements	67
9795471714	cerebellum (if damaged)	difficulty walking and coordinating	68
9795471715	amygdala	aggression, fear, and memory associated with these emotions	69
9795471716	amygdala (if lesioned)	subject is mellow	70
9795471717	amygdala (if stimulated)	aggressive	71
9795471718	hippocampus	process new memory	72
9795471719	cerebrum	two large hemispheres perceiving, thinking, and processing	73
9795471720	cerebral cortex	only in higher life forms	74
9795471721	association areas	integrate and interpret information	75
9795471722	glial cells	provide nutrients to myelin sheath marks intelligence higher proportion of glial cells to neurons	76
9795471723	frontal lobe	judgement, personality, processing (Phineas Gage accident)	77
9795471724	parietal lobe	math and spatial reasoning	78
9795471725	temporal lobe	audition and recognizing faces	79
9795471726	occipital lobe	vision	80
9795471727	corpus callosum	split in the brain to stop hyper-communication (eliminate epileptic seizures)	81
9795471728	Wernicke's area	interprets auditory and hearing	82
9795471729	Broca's area	speaking words	83
9795471730	plasticity	ability to adapt if damaged	84
9795471731	sensation	what our senses tell us	85
9795471732	bottom-up processing	senses to brain	86
9795471733	perception	what our brain tells us to do with that information	87
9795471734	top-down processing	brain to senses	88
9795471735	inattentional blindness	fail to "gorilla" because attention is elsewhere	89
9795471736	cocktail party effect	even with tons of stimuli, we are able to pick out our name, etc.	90
9795471737	change blindness	giving directions and person is changed and we don't notice	91
9795471738	choice blindness	when defending the choice we make, we fail to notice choice was changed	92
9795471739	absolute threshold	minimum stimulation needed in order to notice 50% of the time	93
9795471740	signal detection theory	we notice what is more important to us (rather hear a baby crying)	94
9795471741	JND (just noticeable difference)	(Weber's law) difference between different stimuli noticed in proportion	95
9795471742	sensory adaptation	tired of noticing (Brain says, "Been there, done that. Next?"	96
9795471743	rods	night time	97
9795471744	cones	color	98
9795471745	parallel processing	notice color, form, depth, movement, etc.	99
9795471746	Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory	3 corresponding color receptors (RGB)	100
9795471747	Hering's opponent-process theory	after image in opposite colors (RG, YB, WB)	101
9795471748	trichromatic + opponent-process	Young-Helmholtz -> color stimuli Hering -> en route to cortex	102
9795471749	frequency we hear most	human voice	103
9795471750	Helmoltz (hearing)	we hear different pitches in different places in basilar membrane (high pitches)	104
9795471751	frequency theory	impulse frequency (low pitches)	105
9795471752	Helmholtz + frequency theory	middle pitches	106
9795471753	Skin feels what?	warmth, cold, pressure, pain	107
9795471754	gate-control theory	small fibers - pain large fibers - other senses	108
9795471755	memory of pain	peaks and ends	109
9795471756	smell	close to memory section (not in thalamus)	110
9795471757	grouping	Gestalt make sense of pieces create a whole	111
9795471758	grouping groups	proximity similarity continuity connectedness closure	112
9795471759	make assumptions of placement	higher - farther smaller - farther blocking - closer, in front	113
9795471760	perception =	mood + motivation	114
9795471761	consciousness	awareness of ourselves and the environment	115
9795471762	circadian rhythm	daily biological clock and regular cycle (sleep and awake)	116
9795471763	circadian rhythm pattern	- activated by light - light sensitive retinal proteins signal brains SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) - pineal gland decreases melatonin	117
9795471764	What messes with circadian rhythm?	artificial light	118
9795471765	The whole sleep cycle lasts how long?	90 minutes	119
9795471766	sleep stages	relaxed stage (alpha waves) stage 1 (early sleep) (hallucinations) stage 2 (sleep spindles - bursts of activity) (sleep talk) stage 3 (transition phase) (delta waves) stage 4 (delta waves) (sleepwalk/talk + wet the bed) stage 5 (REM) (sensory-rich dreams) (paradoxical sleep)	120
9795471767	purpose of sleep	1. recuperation - repair neurons and allow unused neural connections to wither 2. making memories 3. body growth (children sleep more)	121
9795471768	insomnia	can't sleep	122
9795471769	narcolepsy	fall asleep anywhere at anytime	123
9795471770	sleep apnea	stop breathing in sleep	124
9795471771	night terrors	prevalent in children	125
9795471772	sleepwalking/sleeptalking	hereditary - prevalent in children	126
9795471773	dreaming (3)	1. vivid bizarre intense sensory experiences 2. carry fear/survival issues - vestiges of ancestors' survival ideas 2. replay previous day's experiences/worries	127
9795471774	purpose of dreaming (5 THEORIES)	1. physiological function - develop/preserve neural pathways 2. Freud's wish-fulfillment (manifest/latent content) 3. activation synthesis - make sense of stimulation originating in brain 4. information processing 5. cognitive development - reflective of intelligence	128
9795471775	1. Can hypnosis bring you back in time? 2. Can hypnosis make you do things you wouldn't normally do? 3. Can it alleviate pain? 4. What state are you in during hypnosis? 5. Who is more susceptible?	1. cannot take you back in time 2. cannot make you do things you won't do 3. can alleviate pain 4. fully conscious ((IMAGINATIVE PEOPLE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE))	129
9795471776	depressants	slows neural pathways	130
9795471777	alcohol	((depressant)) disrupts memory formation (REM) lowers inhibition expectancy effect	131
9795471778	barbituates (tranquilizers)	((depressant)) reduce anxiety	132
9795471779	opiates	((depressant)) pleasure reduce anxiety/pain	133
9795471780	stimulants	hypes neural processing	134
9795471781	methamphetamine	((stimulant)) heightens energy euphoria affects dopamine	135
9795471782	caffeine	((stimulant))	136
9795471783	nicotine	((stimulant)) CNS releases neurotransmitters calm anxiety reduce pain affects (nor)epinephrine and dopamine	137
9795471784	cocaine	((stimulant)) euphoria affects dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine	138
9795471785	hallucinogen	excites neural activity	139
9795471786	ecstasy	((hallucinogen)) reuptake is blocked affects dopamine and serotonin	140
9795471787	LSD	((hallucinogen)) affects sensory/emotional "trip" (+/-) affects serotonin	141
9795471788	marijuana	((hallucinogen)) amplify sensory experience disrupts memory formation	142
9795471789	learning	organism changing behavior due to experience (association of events)	143
9795471790	types of learning	classical operant observational	144
9795471791	famous classical psychologists	Pavlov and Watson	145
9795471792	famous operant psychologist	Skinner	146
9795471793	famous observational psychologists	Bandura	147
9795471794	classical conditioning	outside stimulus	148
9795471795	Pavlov's experiment	Step 1: US (food) -> UR (salivation) Step 2: NS (bell) -> US (food) -> UR (salivation) Later... CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)	149
9795471796	Watson's experiment	white rat was given to Little Albert Step 1: US (noise) -> UR (cry) Step 2: NS (rat) -> US (noise) -> UR (cry) Later... CS (rat) -> CR (cry)	150
9795471797	generalization	any small, white fluffy creature will make Albert cry now	151
9795471798	discriminate	any large, white fluffy creature won't make Albert cry	152
9795471799	extinction	stop "treating" with conditioned response	153
9795471800	spontaneous recovery	bring stimulus back after a while	154
9795471801	operant conditioning	control by organism	155
9795471802	Skinner's experiment	operant chamber / Skinner box (lead to shaping)	156
9795471803	shaping	get animal closer to doing what you want them to do	157
9795471804	reinforcers	want to continue behavior (positive reinforcement: give money to do laundry) (negative reinforcement: do to avoid nagging)	158
9795471805	punishments	want to stop behavior (positive reinforcement: smack) (negative reinforcement: take away phone)	159
9795471806	fixed ratio	happens a certain number of times (Starbucks punch card)	160
9795471807	variable ratio	happens an unpredictable number of times (winning the lottery)	161
9795471808	organism must do these (2 times)	fixed ratio and variable ratio	162
9795471809	fixed interval	happens at a certain time (mailman comes to the house at 10:00 AM)	163
9795471810	variable interval	happens at any time (receive texts from friends)	164
9795471811	these things happen regardless (2 times)	fixed interval and variable interval	165
9795471812	Which (fixed/variable) conditions better?	variable	166
9795471813	criticisms of Skinner	doesn't take into account intrinsic motivation	167
9795471814	intrinsic motivation	doing something for yourself, not the reward	168
9795471815	extrinsic motivation	doing something for reward	169
9795471816	Skinner's legacy	use it personally, at school, and at work	170
9795471817	famous observational experiment	Bandura's Bobo doll	171
9795471818	famous observational psychologist	Bandura	172
9795471819	mirror neurons	"feel" what is observed happens in higher order animals	173
9795471820	Bobo doll experiment legacy	violent video games/movies desensitize us see good: do good see evil: do evil	174
9795471821	observational learning	biological behaviors work best	175
9795471822	habituation	get used to it -> stop reacting	176
9795471823	examples for observational learning	lectures and reading	177
9795471824	serotonin involved with memory	speeds the connection between neurons	178
9795471825	LTP	((long-term potentiation)) strengthens potential neural forming (associated with speed)	179
9795471826	CREB	protein that can switch genes on/off with memory and connection of memories	180
9795471827	glutamate involved with memory	neurotransmitter that enhances LTP	181
9795471828	glucose involved with memory	released during strong emotions ((signaling important event to be remembered))	182
9795471829	flashbulb memory	type of memory remembered because it was an important/quick moment	183
9795471830	amygdala (memory)	boosts activity of proteins in memory-forming areas to fight/flight	184
9795471831	cerebellum (memory)	forms and stores implicit memories ((classical conditioning))	185
9795471832	hippocampus (memory)	active during sleep (forming memories) ((information "moves" after 48 hours))	186
9795471833	memory	learning over time contains information that can be retrieved	187
9795471834	processing stages	encoding -> storage -> retrieval	188
9795471835	encoding	information going in	189
9795471836	storage	keeping information in	190
9795471837	retrieval	taking information out	191
9795471838	How long is sensory memory stored?	seconds	192
9795471839	How long is short-term memory stored?	less than a minute	193
9795471840	How many bits of information is stored in short-term memory?	7	194
9795471841	How many chunks of information is stored in short-term memory?	4	195
9795471842	How many seconds of words is stored in short-term memory?	2	196
9795471843	short term memory goes to ______________	working memory	197
9795471844	working memory	make a connection and process information to mean something	198
9795471845	working memory goes to _________________	long-term memory	199
9795471846	How much is stored in long-term memory?	LIMITLESS	200
9795471847	implicit memory	naturally do	201
9795471848	explicit memory	need to explain	202
9795471849	automatic processing	space, time, frequency, well-learned information	203
9795471850	effortful processing	processing that requires effort	204
9795471851	spacing effect	spread out learning over time	205
9795471852	serial position effect	primary/recency effect	206
9795471853	primary effect	remember the first things in a list	207
9795471854	recency effect	remember the last things in a list	208
9795471855	effortful processing (4 things)	1. recency effect 2. spacing effect 3. testing effect 4. serial position effect	209
9795471856	semantic encoding (1) meaning (2) how to	make meaning out of something --- chunk, hierarchy, or connect to you	210
9795471857	if we can't remember a memory...	1. change memory to suit us 2. fill in the blanks with logical story	211
9795471858	misinformation effect	not correct information	212
9795471859	imagination inflation	imagine or visualize something that isn't real	213
9795471860	source amnesia	what is the truth? (is it a dream, story, memory, etc.?)	214
9795471861	priming	association (setting you up)	215
9795471862	context	environment helps with memory	216
9795471863	state-dependency	you may remember something if you go back to the state you were in (go back to high)	217
9795471864	mood-congruency	emotion will bring back similar emotional memories	218
9795471865	forgetting curve	forget after 5 days forget after 5 years	219
9795471866	the forgetting curve was created by	Ebbinghaus	220
9795471867	proactive interference	old information interferes with the new	221
9795471868	retroactive interference	new information interferes with the old	222
9795471869	children can't remember before age __	3	223
9795471870	Loftus	connected to abuse cases/childhood	224
9795471871	prototypes	generalize	225
9795471872	problem-solving (4)	trial + error algorithms heuristic (representative + availability) insight - "AHA!"	226
9795471873	against problem-solving	fixation	227
9795471874	mental set	what has worked in the past	228
9795471875	functional fixedness	only way to do this is with this	229
9795471876	Chomsky (nature or nurture?)	"born with language" (nature)	230
9795471877	Skinner (nature or nurture?)	language is learned (nurture)	231
9795471878	grammar is _________	universal	232
9795471879	phonemes	smallest sound unit	233
9795471880	morphemes	smallest meaning unit	234

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AP Psychology AP Review Flashcards

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9795645633	psychology	the study of behavior and mental processes	0
9795645634	psychology's biggest question	Which is more important in determining behavior, nature or nurture?	1
9795645635	psychology's three levels of analysis	biopsychosocial approach (looks at the biological, psychological, and social-cultural approaches together)	2
9795645636	biological approach	genetics, close-relatives, body functions	3
9795645637	evolutionary approach	species - helped with survival (ancestors)	4
9795645638	psychodynamic approach	(Freud) subconscious, repressed feelings, unfulfilled wishes	5
9795645639	behavioral approach	learning (classical and operant) observed	6
9795645640	cognitive approach	thinking affects behavior	7
9795645641	humanistic approach	becoming a better human (behavior, acceptance)	8
9795645642	social-cultural approach	cultural, family, environment	9
9795645643	two reasons of why experiments are important	hindsight bias + overconfidence	10
9795645644	types of research methods	descriptive, correlational, and experimental	11
9795645645	descriptive methods	case study survey naturalistic observation (DON'T SHOW CAUSE/EFFECT)	12
9795645646	case study	studies one person in depth may not be typical of population	13
9795645647	survey	studies lots of people not in depth	14
9795645648	naturalistic observation	observe + write facts without interference	15
9795645649	correlational method	shows relation, but not cause/effect scatterplots show research	16
9795645650	correlation coefficient	+ 1.0 (both increase) 0 (no correlation - 1.0 (one increases, other decreases)	17
9795645651	experimental method	does show cause and effect	18
9795645652	population	type of people who are going to be used in experiment	19
9795645653	sample	actual people who will be used (randomness reduces bias)	20
9795645654	random assignment	chance selection between experimental and control groups	21
9795645655	control group	not receiving experimental treatment receives placebo	22
9795645656	experimental group	receiving treatment/drug	23
9795645657	independent variable	drug/procedure/treatment	24
9795645658	dependent variable	outcome of using the drug/treatment	25
9795645659	confounding variable	can affect dependent variable beyond experiment's control	26
9795645660	scientific method	theory hypothesis operational definition revision	27
9795645661	theory	general idea being tested	28
9795645662	hypothesis	measurable/specific	29
9795645663	operational definition	procedures that explain components	30
9795645664	mode	appears the most	31
9795645665	mean	average	32
9795645666	median	middle	33
9795645667	range	highest - lowest	34
9795645668	standard deviation	how scores vary around the mean	35
9795645669	central tendency	single score that represents the whole	36
9795645670	bell curve	(natural curve)	37
9795645671	ethics of testing on animals	need to be treated humanly basically similar to humans	38
9795645672	ethics of testing on humans	consent debriefing no unnecessary discomfort/pain confidentiality	39
9795645673	sensory neurons	travel from sensory receptors to brain	40
9795645674	motor neurons	travel from brain to "motor" workings	41
9795645675	interneurons	(in brain and spinal cord) connecting motor and sensory neurons	42
9795645867	neuron		43
9795645676	dendrites	receive messages from other neurons	44
9795645677	myelin sheath	protects the axon	45
9795645678	axon	where charges travel from cell body to axon terminal	46
9795645679	neurotransmitters	chemical messengers	47
9795645680	reuptake	extra neurotransmitters are taken back	48
9795645681	excitatory charge	"Let's do it!"	49
9795645682	inhibitory charge	"Let's not do it!"	50
9795645683	central nervous system	brain and spinal cord	51
9795645684	peripheral nervous system	somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system	52
9795645685	somatic nervous system	voluntary movements	53
9795645686	autonomic nervous system	involuntary movements (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems)	54
9795645687	sympathetic nervous system	arousing	55
9795645688	parasympathetic nervous system	calming	56
9795645689	neural networks	more connections form with greater use others fall away if not used	57
9795645690	spinal cord	expressway of information bypasses brain when reflexes involved	58
9795645691	endocrine system	slow uses hormones in the blood system	59
9795645692	master gland	pituitary gland	60
9795645693	brainstem	extension of the spinal cord responsible for automatic survival	61
9795645694	reticular formation (if stimulated)	sleeping subject wakes up	62
9795645695	reticular formation (if damaged)	coma	63
9795645696	brainstem (if severed)	still move (without purpose)	64
9795645697	thalamus	sensory switchboard (does not process smell)	65
9795645698	hypothalamus	basic behaviors (hunger, thirst, sex, blood chemistry)	66
9795645699	cerebellum	nonverbal memory, judge time, balance emotions, coordinate movements	67
9795645700	cerebellum (if damaged)	difficulty walking and coordinating	68
9795645701	amygdala	aggression, fear, and memory associated with these emotions	69
9795645702	amygdala (if lesioned)	subject is mellow	70
9795645703	amygdala (if stimulated)	aggressive	71
9795645704	hippocampus	process new memory	72
9795645705	cerebrum	two large hemispheres perceiving, thinking, and processing	73
9795645706	cerebral cortex	only in higher life forms	74
9795645707	association areas	integrate and interpret information	75
9795645708	glial cells	provide nutrients to myelin sheath marks intelligence higher proportion of glial cells to neurons	76
9795645709	frontal lobe	judgement, personality, processing (Phineas Gage accident)	77
9795645710	parietal lobe	math and spatial reasoning	78
9795645711	temporal lobe	audition and recognizing faces	79
9795645712	occipital lobe	vision	80
9795645713	corpus callosum	split in the brain to stop hyper-communication (eliminate epileptic seizures)	81
9795645714	Wernicke's area	interprets auditory and hearing	82
9795645715	Broca's area	speaking words	83
9795645716	plasticity	ability to adapt if damaged	84
9795645717	sensation	what our senses tell us	85
9795645718	bottom-up processing	senses to brain	86
9795645719	perception	what our brain tells us to do with that information	87
9795645720	top-down processing	brain to senses	88
9795645721	inattentional blindness	fail to "gorilla" because attention is elsewhere	89
9795645722	cocktail party effect	even with tons of stimuli, we are able to pick out our name, etc.	90
9795645723	change blindness	giving directions and person is changed and we don't notice	91
9795645724	choice blindness	when defending the choice we make, we fail to notice choice was changed	92
9795645725	absolute threshold	minimum stimulation needed in order to notice 50% of the time	93
9795645726	signal detection theory	we notice what is more important to us (rather hear a baby crying)	94
9795645727	JND (just noticeable difference)	(Weber's law) difference between different stimuli noticed in proportion	95
9795645728	sensory adaptation	tired of noticing (Brain says, "Been there, done that. Next?"	96
9795645729	rods	night time	97
9795645730	cones	color	98
9795645731	parallel processing	notice color, form, depth, movement, etc.	99
9795645732	Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory	3 corresponding color receptors (RGB)	100
9795645733	Hering's opponent-process theory	after image in opposite colors (RG, YB, WB)	101
9795645734	trichromatic + opponent-process	Young-Helmholtz -> color stimuli Hering -> en route to cortex	102
9795645735	frequency we hear most	human voice	103
9795645736	Helmoltz (hearing)	we hear different pitches in different places in basilar membrane (high pitches)	104
9795645737	frequency theory	impulse frequency (low pitches)	105
9795645738	Helmholtz + frequency theory	middle pitches	106
9795645739	Skin feels what?	warmth, cold, pressure, pain	107
9795645740	gate-control theory	small fibers - pain large fibers - other senses	108
9795645741	memory of pain	peaks and ends	109
9795645742	smell	close to memory section (not in thalamus)	110
9795645743	grouping	Gestalt make sense of pieces create a whole	111
9795645744	grouping groups	proximity similarity continuity connectedness closure	112
9795645745	make assumptions of placement	higher - farther smaller - farther blocking - closer, in front	113
9795645746	perception =	mood + motivation	114
9795645747	consciousness	awareness of ourselves and the environment	115
9795645748	circadian rhythm	daily biological clock and regular cycle (sleep and awake)	116
9795645749	circadian rhythm pattern	- activated by light - light sensitive retinal proteins signal brains SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) - pineal gland decreases melatonin	117
9795645750	What messes with circadian rhythm?	artificial light	118
9795645751	The whole sleep cycle lasts how long?	90 minutes	119
9795645752	sleep stages	relaxed stage (alpha waves) stage 1 (early sleep) (hallucinations) stage 2 (sleep spindles - bursts of activity) (sleep talk) stage 3 (transition phase) (delta waves) stage 4 (delta waves) (sleepwalk/talk + wet the bed) stage 5 (REM) (sensory-rich dreams) (paradoxical sleep)	120
9795645753	purpose of sleep	1. recuperation - repair neurons and allow unused neural connections to wither 2. making memories 3. body growth (children sleep more)	121
9795645754	insomnia	can't sleep	122
9795645755	narcolepsy	fall asleep anywhere at anytime	123
9795645756	sleep apnea	stop breathing in sleep	124
9795645757	night terrors	prevalent in children	125
9795645758	sleepwalking/sleeptalking	hereditary - prevalent in children	126
9795645759	dreaming (3)	1. vivid bizarre intense sensory experiences 2. carry fear/survival issues - vestiges of ancestors' survival ideas 2. replay previous day's experiences/worries	127
9795645760	purpose of dreaming (5 THEORIES)	1. physiological function - develop/preserve neural pathways 2. Freud's wish-fulfillment (manifest/latent content) 3. activation synthesis - make sense of stimulation originating in brain 4. information processing 5. cognitive development - reflective of intelligence	128
9795645761	1. Can hypnosis bring you back in time? 2. Can hypnosis make you do things you wouldn't normally do? 3. Can it alleviate pain? 4. What state are you in during hypnosis? 5. Who is more susceptible?	1. cannot take you back in time 2. cannot make you do things you won't do 3. can alleviate pain 4. fully conscious ((IMAGINATIVE PEOPLE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE))	129
9795645762	depressants	slows neural pathways	130
9795645763	alcohol	((depressant)) disrupts memory formation (REM) lowers inhibition expectancy effect	131
9795645764	barbituates (tranquilizers)	((depressant)) reduce anxiety	132
9795645765	opiates	((depressant)) pleasure reduce anxiety/pain	133
9795645766	stimulants	hypes neural processing	134
9795645767	methamphetamine	((stimulant)) heightens energy euphoria affects dopamine	135
9795645768	caffeine	((stimulant))	136
9795645769	nicotine	((stimulant)) CNS releases neurotransmitters calm anxiety reduce pain affects (nor)epinephrine and dopamine	137
9795645770	cocaine	((stimulant)) euphoria affects dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine	138
9795645771	hallucinogen	excites neural activity	139
9795645772	ecstasy	((hallucinogen)) reuptake is blocked affects dopamine and serotonin	140
9795645773	LSD	((hallucinogen)) affects sensory/emotional "trip" (+/-) affects serotonin	141
9795645774	marijuana	((hallucinogen)) amplify sensory experience disrupts memory formation	142
9795645775	learning	organism changing behavior due to experience (association of events)	143
9795645776	types of learning	classical operant observational	144
9795645777	famous classical psychologists	Pavlov and Watson	145
9795645778	famous operant psychologist	Skinner	146
9795645779	famous observational psychologists	Bandura	147
9795645780	classical conditioning	outside stimulus	148
9795645781	Pavlov's experiment	Step 1: US (food) -> UR (salivation) Step 2: NS (bell) -> US (food) -> UR (salivation) Later... CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)	149
9795645782	Watson's experiment	white rat was given to Little Albert Step 1: US (noise) -> UR (cry) Step 2: NS (rat) -> US (noise) -> UR (cry) Later... CS (rat) -> CR (cry)	150
9795645783	generalization	any small, white fluffy creature will make Albert cry now	151
9795645784	discriminate	any large, white fluffy creature won't make Albert cry	152
9795645785	extinction	stop "treating" with conditioned response	153
9795645786	spontaneous recovery	bring stimulus back after a while	154
9795645787	operant conditioning	control by organism	155
9795645788	Skinner's experiment	operant chamber / Skinner box (lead to shaping)	156
9795645789	shaping	get animal closer to doing what you want them to do	157
9795645790	reinforcers	want to continue behavior (positive reinforcement: give money to do laundry) (negative reinforcement: do to avoid nagging)	158
9795645791	punishments	want to stop behavior (positive reinforcement: smack) (negative reinforcement: take away phone)	159
9795645792	fixed ratio	happens a certain number of times (Starbucks punch card)	160
9795645793	variable ratio	happens an unpredictable number of times (winning the lottery)	161
9795645794	organism must do these (2 times)	fixed ratio and variable ratio	162
9795645795	fixed interval	happens at a certain time (mailman comes to the house at 10:00 AM)	163
9795645796	variable interval	happens at any time (receive texts from friends)	164
9795645797	these things happen regardless (2 times)	fixed interval and variable interval	165
9795645798	Which (fixed/variable) conditions better?	variable	166
9795645799	criticisms of Skinner	doesn't take into account intrinsic motivation	167
9795645800	intrinsic motivation	doing something for yourself, not the reward	168
9795645801	extrinsic motivation	doing something for reward	169
9795645802	Skinner's legacy	use it personally, at school, and at work	170
9795645803	famous observational experiment	Bandura's Bobo doll	171
9795645804	famous observational psychologist	Bandura	172
9795645805	mirror neurons	"feel" what is observed happens in higher order animals	173
9795645806	Bobo doll experiment legacy	violent video games/movies desensitize us see good: do good see evil: do evil	174
9795645807	observational learning	biological behaviors work best	175
9795645808	habituation	get used to it -> stop reacting	176
9795645809	examples for observational learning	lectures and reading	177
9795645810	serotonin involved with memory	speeds the connection between neurons	178
9795645811	LTP	((long-term potentiation)) strengthens potential neural forming (associated with speed)	179
9795645812	CREB	protein that can switch genes on/off with memory and connection of memories	180
9795645813	glutamate involved with memory	neurotransmitter that enhances LTP	181
9795645814	glucose involved with memory	released during strong emotions ((signaling important event to be remembered))	182
9795645815	flashbulb memory	type of memory remembered because it was an important/quick moment	183
9795645816	amygdala (memory)	boosts activity of proteins in memory-forming areas to fight/flight	184
9795645817	cerebellum (memory)	forms and stores implicit memories ((classical conditioning))	185
9795645818	hippocampus (memory)	active during sleep (forming memories) ((information "moves" after 48 hours))	186
9795645819	memory	learning over time contains information that can be retrieved	187
9795645820	processing stages	encoding -> storage -> retrieval	188
9795645821	encoding	information going in	189
9795645822	storage	keeping information in	190
9795645823	retrieval	taking information out	191
9795645824	How long is sensory memory stored?	seconds	192
9795645825	How long is short-term memory stored?	less than a minute	193
9795645826	How many bits of information is stored in short-term memory?	7	194
9795645827	How many chunks of information is stored in short-term memory?	4	195
9795645828	How many seconds of words is stored in short-term memory?	2	196
9795645829	short term memory goes to ______________	working memory	197
9795645830	working memory	make a connection and process information to mean something	198
9795645831	working memory goes to _________________	long-term memory	199
9795645832	How much is stored in long-term memory?	LIMITLESS	200
9795645833	implicit memory	naturally do	201
9795645834	explicit memory	need to explain	202
9795645835	automatic processing	space, time, frequency, well-learned information	203
9795645836	effortful processing	processing that requires effort	204
9795645837	spacing effect	spread out learning over time	205
9795645838	serial position effect	primary/recency effect	206
9795645839	primary effect	remember the first things in a list	207
9795645840	recency effect	remember the last things in a list	208
9795645841	effortful processing (4 things)	1. recency effect 2. spacing effect 3. testing effect 4. serial position effect	209
9795645842	semantic encoding (1) meaning (2) how to	make meaning out of something --- chunk, hierarchy, or connect to you	210
9795645843	if we can't remember a memory...	1. change memory to suit us 2. fill in the blanks with logical story	211
9795645844	misinformation effect	not correct information	212
9795645845	imagination inflation	imagine or visualize something that isn't real	213
9795645846	source amnesia	what is the truth? (is it a dream, story, memory, etc.?)	214
9795645847	priming	association (setting you up)	215
9795645848	context	environment helps with memory	216
9795645849	state-dependency	you may remember something if you go back to the state you were in (go back to high)	217
9795645850	mood-congruency	emotion will bring back similar emotional memories	218
9795645851	forgetting curve	forget after 5 days forget after 5 years	219
9795645852	the forgetting curve was created by	Ebbinghaus	220
9795645853	proactive interference	old information interferes with the new	221
9795645854	retroactive interference	new information interferes with the old	222
9795645855	children can't remember before age __	3	223
9795645856	Loftus	connected to abuse cases/childhood	224
9795645857	prototypes	generalize	225
9795645858	problem-solving (4)	trial + error algorithms heuristic (representative + availability) insight - "AHA!"	226
9795645859	against problem-solving	fixation	227
9795645860	mental set	what has worked in the past	228
9795645861	functional fixedness	only way to do this is with this	229
9795645862	Chomsky (nature or nurture?)	"born with language" (nature)	230
9795645863	Skinner (nature or nurture?)	language is learned (nurture)	231
9795645864	grammar is _________	universal	232
9795645865	phonemes	smallest sound unit	233
9795645866	morphemes	smallest meaning unit	234

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AP CSP Terms Flashcards

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9687723016	Prototype	A preliminary sketch of an idea or model for something new. It's the original drawing from which something real might be built or created.	0
9687723017	Binary Question	a question to which there are only two possible answers.	1
9687723018	Binary Message	a message that can only be one of two possible values.	2
9687723019	Bit	A contraction of "Binary Digit". A bit is the single unit of information in a computer, typically represented as a 0 or 1.	3
9687723020	Bit rate	the number of bits that are conveyed or processed per unit of time. e.g. 8 bits/sec.	4
9687723021	Protocol	A set of rules governing the exchange or transmission of data between devices.	5
9687723022	Bandwidth	Transmission capacity measure by bit rate	6
9687723023	Latency	Time it takes for a bit to travel from its sender to its receiver.	7
9687723024	ASCII	American Standard Code for Information Interchange is the universally recognized raw text format that any computer can understand.	8
9687723025	Code	(v) to write code, or to write instructions for a computer.	9
9687723026	Chapter 2 Start	Freebee	10
9687723027	Request For Comments (RFC)	These documents are how standards and protocols are defined and published for all to see on the IETF website.	11
9687723028	IP Address	A number assigned to any item that is connected to the Internet.	12
9687723029	Packets	Small chunks of information that have been carefully formed from larger chunks of information.	13
9687723030	Network Redundancy	having multiple backups to ensure reliability during cases of high usage or failure	14
9687723031	Router	A type of computer that forwards data across a network	15
9687723032	TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)	Provides reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of a stream of packets on the internet. Tightly linked with IP.	16
9687723033	DNS (Domain Name System)	the Internet's system for converting alphabetic names into numeric IP addresses.	17
9687723034	HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)	Protocol used by the World Wide Web. It describes how messages are formatted and interchanged, and how web servers respond to commands.	18
9687723035	Abstraction	Reducing information and detail to focus on essential characteristics.	19
9687723036	Server	A computer that awaits and responds to requests for data.	20
9687723037	Client	A computer that requests data stored on a server.	21
9687723038	UNIT II	Freebee :)	22
9687723039	Heuristic	A problem solving approach (algorithm) to find a satisfactory solution where finding an optimal or exact solution is impractical or impossible.	23
9687723040	Lossless Compression	a data compression algorithm that allows the original data to be perfectly reconstructed from the compressed data.	24
9687723041	Image	A type of data used for graphics or pictures.	25
9687723042	Metadata	Data that describes other data. For example, a digital image may include metadata that describe the size of the image, number of colors, or resolution.	26
9687723043	Pixel	Short for "picture element" it is the fundamental unit of a digital image, typically a tiny square or dot which contains a single point of color of a larger image.	27
9687723044	Hexadecimal	A base-16 number system that uses sixteen distinct symbols 0-9 and A-F to represent numbers from 0 to 15.	28
9687723045	RGB	varying intensities of (R)ed, (G)reen, and (B)lue light are added together in to reproduce a broad array of colors.	29
9687723046	Lossy	A compression scheme in which "useless" or less-than-totally-necessary information is thrown out in order to reduce the size of the data. The eliminated data is unrecoverable.	30
9687723047	Hypothesis	A proposed explanation for some phenomenon used as the basis for further investigation.	31
9687723048	README	A document providing background information about a dataset.	32
9687723049	CSV (Common-Separated Values)	This is a widely-used format for storing data.	33
9687723050	Raw Data	The original data as it was collected.	34
9687723051	Summary Table	A table of aggregate information about a dataset (e.g., the average, sum, count of some values).	35
9687723052	Pivot Tabel	The tool used by most spreadsheet programs to create a summary table.	36
9687723053	Aggregation	A computation in which rows from a data set are grouped together and used to compute a single value of more significant meaning or measurement.	37
9687723054	Unit 3	Freebee:)	38
9687723055	Algorithm	A precise sequence of instructions for processes that can be executed by a computer and are implemented using programming languages.	39
9687723056	Low Level Programming Language	A programming language that captures only the most primitive operations available to a machine.	40
9687723057	High Level Programming Language	A programming language with many commands and features designed to make common tasks easier to program.	41
9687723058	Iterate	To repeat in order to achieve, or get closer to, a desired goal.	42
9687723059	Selection	A generic term for a type of programming statement (usually an if-statement) that uses a Boolean condition to determine, or select, whether or not to run a certain block of statements.	43
9687723060	Sequencing	Putting commands in correct order so computers can read the commands.	44
9687723061	Turtle Programming	Method for learning programming with commands to control a "turtle"	45
9687723062	Blocks	Pieces of codes that you use to solve a problem	46
9687723063	Subgoal	The process of breaking goals down into sub goals	47
9687723064	Abstraction		48

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AP Microeconomics Flashcards

AP Microeconomics vocab from 5 Steps to a 5 Book

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8477449219	Economics	The study of how people, firms, and societies use their scarce productive resources to best satisfy their unlimited material wants.	0
8477449220	Resources	Factors of production, 4 categories: labor, physical capital, land/natural resources, and entrepreneurial ability	1
8477449221	Scarcity	The imbalance between limited productive resources and unlimited human wants	2
8477449222	Opportunity Cost	The most desirable alternative given up as the result of a decision	3
8477449223	Marginal Benefit (MB)	The additional benefit received from the consumption of the next unit of a good or service	4
8477449224	Marginal Cost (MC)	The additional cost incurred from the consumption of the next unit of a good or a service	5
8477449225	Marginal Analysis	The rational decision maker chooses an action if MB ≥ MC	6
8477449226	Law of Increasing Costs	The more of a good that is produced, the greater the opportunity cost of producing the next unit of that good	7
8477449227	Absolute Advantage	Exists if a producer can produce more of a good than all other producers	8
8477449228	Comparative Advantage	Exists if a producer can produce a good at lower opportunity cost than all other producers	9
8477449229	Specialization	When firms focus their resources on production of goods for which they have comparative advantage	10
8477449230	Productive Efficiency	Production of maximum output for a given level of technology and resources. All points on the PPF are productively efficient	11
8477449231	Allocative Efficiency	Production of the combination of goods and services that provides the most net benefit to society. The optimal quantity of a good is achieved when the MB = MC of the next unit and only occurs at one point on the PPF	12
8477449232	Economic Growth	Occurs when an economy's production possibilities increase. This can be a result of more resources, better resources, or improvements in technology.	13
8477449233	Market Economy (Capitalism)	An economic system based upon the fundamentals of private property, freedom, self-interest, and prices	14
8477449234	Law of Demand	Holding all else equal, when the price of a good rises, consumers decrease their quantity demanded for that good	15
8477449235	Absolute prices	The price of a good measured in units of currency	16
8477449236	Relative Prices	The number of units of any other good Y that must be sacrificed to acquire good X. Only relative prices matter	17
8477449237	Substitution Effect	The change in quantity demanded resulting from a change in the price of one good relative to other goods	18
8477449238	Income Effect	The change in quantity demanded that results from a change in the consumer's purchasing power (or real income)	19
8477449239	Determinants of Demand	Consumer income, prices of substitute and complementary goods, consumer tastes and preferences, consumer speculation, and number of buyers in the market all influence demand	20
8477449240	Normal Goods	A good for which higher income increases demand	21
8477449241	Inferior Goods	A good for which higher income decreases demand	22
8477449242	Substitute Goods	Two goods are consumer substitutes if they provide essentially the same utility to consumers	23
8477449243	Complementary Goods	Two goods are consumer complements if they provide more utility when consumed together than when consumed separately	24
8477449244	Law of Supply	Holding all else equal, when the price of a good rises, suppliers increase their quantity supplied for that good	25
8477449245	Determinants of Supply	Costs of inputs, technology and productivity, taxes/subsidies, producer speculation, price of other goods that could be produced, and number of sellers all influence supply	26
8477449246	Market Equilibrium	Exists at the point where the quantity supplied equals the quantity demanded	27
8477449247	Shortage	Excess demand; a shortage exists at a market price when the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied	28
8477449248	Surplus	Excess supply; exists at a market price when the quantity supplied exceeds the quantity demanded.	29
8477449249	Total Welfare	The sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus	30
8477449250	Consumer surplus	The difference between your willingness to pay and the price you actually pay. It is the area below the demand curve and above the price	31
8477449251	Producer surplus	The difference between the price received and the marginal cost of producing the good. It is the area above the supply curve and under the price	32
8477449252	Price elasticity	Ed = (%dQd)/(%dP). Ignore negative sign	33
8477449253	Price elastic demand	Ed > 1, meaning consumers are price sensitive	34
8477449254	Price inelastic demand	Ed < 1	35
8477449255	Unit elastic demand	Ed = 1	36
8477449256	Perfectly inelastic	Ed = 0, no response to price change	37
8477449257	Perfectly elastic	Ed = ∞, infinite change in demand to price change	38
8477449258	Determinants of elasticity	Substitutes, cost as percentage of income, and time to adjust to price changes all influence price elasticity	39
8477449259	Total Revenue	TR = P * Qd	40
8477449260	Total Revenue Test	Total revenue rises with a price increase if demand is price inelastic and falls with a price increase if demand is price elastic	41
8477449261	Income Elasticity	Ei = (%dQd good X)/(%d Income)	42
8477449262	Luxury	Ei > 1	43
8477449263	Necessity	0 < Ei < 1	44
8477449264	Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand	Ex,y = (%dQd good X) / (%d Price Y). If Ex,y > 0, goods X and Y are substitutes. If Ex,y < 0, goods X and Y are complementary	45
8477449265	Price Elasticity of Supply	Es = (%dQs) / (%dPrice)	46
8477449266	Excise Tax	A per unit tax on production results in a vertical shift in the supply curve by the amount of the tax	47
8477449267	Incidence of Tax	The proportion of the tax paid by the consumers in the form of a higher price for the taxed good is greater if demand for the good is inelastic and supply is elastic	48
8477449268	Dead Weight Loss	The lost net benefit to society caused by a movement away from the competitive market equilibrium	49
8477449269	Subsidy	Has opposite effect of an excise tax, as it lowers the marginal cost of production, forcing the supply curve down	50
8477449270	Price floor	A legal minimum price below which the product cannot be sold. If a floor is installed at some level above the equilibrium price, it creates a permanent surplus	51
8477449271	Price Ceiling	A legal maximum price above which the product cannot be sold. If a floor is installed at some level above the equilibrium price, it creates a permanent shortage	52
8477449272	Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility	The marginal utility from consumption of more and more of that item falls over time	53
8477449273	Constrained Utility Maximization	For one good, constrained by prices and income, a consumer stops consuming a good when the price paid for the next unit is equal to the marginal benefit received	54
8477449274	Utility Maximizing Rule	MUx / Px = MUy/Py or MUx/MUy = Px/Py	55
8477449275	Accounting Profit	The difference between total revenue and total explicit costs	56
8477449276	Economic Profit	The difference between total revenue and total explicit and implicit costs	57
8477449277	Explicit costs	Direct, purchased, out-of-pocket costs paid to resource suppliers provided by the entrepreneur	58
8477449278	Implicit costs	Indirect, non-purchased, or opportunity costs of resources provided by the entrepreneur	59
8477449279	Short run	A period of time too short to change the size of the plant, but many other, more variable resources can be changed to meet demand	60
8477449280	Long Run	A period of time long enough to alter the plant size. New firms can enter the industry and existing firms can liquidate and exit	61
8477449281	Production function	The mechanism for combining production resources, with existing technology, into finished goods and services	62
8477449282	Fixed inputs	Production inputs that cannot be changed in the short run. Usually this is the plant size or capital	63
8477449283	Variable inputs	Production inputs that the firm can adjust in the short run to meet changes in demand for their output. Often this is labor and/or raw materials	64
8477449284	Total Product of Labor (TPL)	The total quantity, or total output of a good produced at each quantity of labor employed	65
8477449285	Marginal Product of Labor (MPL)	The change in total product resulting from a change in the labor input. MPL = dTPL/dL, or the slope of total product	66
8477449286	Average Product of Labor (APL)	Total product divided by labor employed. APL = TPL/L	67
8477449287	Total Fixed Costs (TFC)	Costs that do not vary with changes in short-run output. They must be paid even when output is zero.	68
8477449288	Total variable costs (TVC)	Costs that change with the level of output. If output is zero, so are TVCs.	69
8477449289	Average Fixed Cost (AFC)	AFC = TFC/Q	70
8477449290	Average Variable Cost (AVC)	AVC = TVC/Q	71
8477449291	Average Total Cost (ATC)	ATC = TC/Q = AFC + AVC	72
8477449292	Economies of Scale	The downward part of the LRAC curve where LRAC falls as plan size increases. This is the result of specialization, lower cost of inputs, or other efficiencies of larger scale.	73
8477449293	Constant Returns to Scale	Occurs when LRAC is constant over a variety of plant sizes	74
8477449294	Diseconomies of Scale	The upward part of the LRAC curve where LRAC rises as plant size increases. This is usually the result of the increased difficulty of managing larger firms, which results in lost efficiency and rising per unit costs.	75
8477449295	Perfect competition	Characterized by many small price-taking firms producing a standardized product in an industry in which there are no barriers to entry or exit	76
8477449296	Profit Maximizing Rule	All firms maximize profit by producing where MR = MC	77
8477449297	Break-even Point	The output where ATC is minimized and economic profit is zero	78
8477449298	Shutdown Point	The output where AVC is minimized. If the price falls below this point, the firm chooses to shut down or produce zero units in the short run	79
8477449299	Perfectly competitive long-run equilibrium	Occurs when there is no more incentive for firms to enter or exit. P=MR=MC=ATC and profit = 0	80
8477449300	Normal Profit	Another way of saying that firms are earning zero economic profits or a fair rate of return on invested resources	81
8477449301	Constant cost industry	Entry (or exit) of firms does not shift the cost curves of firms in the industry	82
8477449302	Increasing Cost Industry	Entry of new firms shifts the cost curves for all firms upward	83
8477449303	Decreasing Cost industry	Entry of new firms shifts the cost curves for all firms downward	84
8477449304	Monopoly	The least competitive market structure, characterized by a single producer, with no close substitutes, barriers to entry, and price making power	85
8477449305	Market power	The ability to set the price above the perfectly competitive level	86
8477449306	Natural Monopoly	The case where economies of scale are so extensive that it is less costly for one firm to supply the entire range of demand	87
8477449307	Monopoly long-run equilibrium	Pm > MR = MC, which is not allocatively efficient and dead weight loss exists. Pm > ATC, which is not productively efficient. Profit > 0 so consumer surplus is transferred to the monopolist as profit	88
8477449308	Price discrimination	The practice of selling essentially the same good to different groups of consumers at different prices	89
8477449309	Monopolistic competition	A market structure characterized by a few small firms producing a differentiated product with easy entry into the market	90
8477449310	Monopolistic competition long-run equilibrium	Pmc < MR = MC and Pmc > minimum ATC so outcome is not efficient, but profit = 0.	91
8477449311	Excess Capacity	The difference between the monopolistic competition output Qmc and the output at minimum ATC. Excess capacity is underused plant and equipment	92
8477449312	Oligopoly	A very diverse market structure characterized by a small number of interdependent large firms, producing a standardized or differentiated product in a market with a barrier to entry	93
8477449313	Four-firm concentration ratio	A measure of industry market power. Sum the market share of the four largest firms and a ratio above 40% is a good indicator of oligopoly	94
8477449314	Non-collusive oligopoly	Models where firms are competitive rivals seeking to gain at the expense of their rivals	95
8477449315	Collusive oligopoly	Models where firms agree to mutually improve their situation	96
8477449316	Cartel	A group of firms that agree not to compete with each other on the basis of price, production, or other competitive dimensions. Cartel members operate as a monopolist to maximize their joint profits	97
8477449317	Marginal Revenue Product (MRP)	Measures the value of what the next unit of a resource (e.g., labor) brings to the firm. MRPL = MR x MPL. In a perfectly competitive product market, MRPL = P x MPL. In a monopoly product market, MR < P so MRPm < MRPc.	98
8477449318	Marginal Resource Cost (MRC)	Measures the cost the firm incurs from using an additional unit of input. In a perfectly competitive labor market, MRC = Wage. In a monopsony labor market, the MRC > Wage	99
8477449319	Profit Maximizing Resource Employment	The firm hires the profit maximizing amount of a resource at the point where MRP = MRC	100
8477449320	Demand for Labor	Labor demand for the firm is MRPL curve. The labor demanded for the entire market DL = ∑MRPL of all firms	101
8477449321	Derived Demand	Demand for a resource like labor is derived from the demand for the goods produced by the resource	102
8477449322	Determinants of Labor Demand	Product demand, productivity, prices of other resources, and complementary resources	103
8477449323	Least-Cost Rule	The combination of labor and capital that minimizes total costs for a given production rate. Hire L and K so that MPL / PL = MPK / PK or MPL/MPK = PL/PK	104
8477449324	Monopsonist	A firm that has market power in the factor market (a wage-setter)	105
8477449325	Private goods	Goods that are both rival and excludable. Only one person can consume the good at a time and consumers who do not pay for the good are excluded from consumption	106
8477449326	Public goods	Goods that are both nonrival and nonexcludable. One person's consumption does not prevent another from also consuming that good and if it is provided to some, it is necessarily provided to all, even if they do not pay for that good	107
8477449327	Free-Rider Problem	In the case of a public good, some members of the community know that they can consume the public good while others provide for it. This results in a lack of private funding and forces the government to provide it	108
8477449328	Spillover benefits	Additional benefits to society not captured by the market demand curve from the production of a good, result in a price that is too high and a market quantity that is too low. Resources are underallocated to the production of this good	109
8477449329	Positive externality	Exists when the production of a good creates utility for third parties not directly involved in the consumption of production of the good	110
8477449330	Spillover costs	Additional costs to society not captured by the market supply curve from the production of a good, result in a price that is too low and a market quantity that is too high. Resources are overallocated to the production of this good	111
8477449331	Negative externality	Exists when the production of a good imposes disutility upon third parties not directly involved in the consumption or production of the good	112
8477449332	Marginal Productivity Theory	The philosophy that a citizen should receive a share of economic resources proportional to the marginal revenue product of his or her productivity	113
8477449333	Marginal tax rate	The rate paid on the last dollar earned. This is found by taking the ratio of the change in taxes divided by the change in income	114

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