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AP Biology Chapter 2 Flashcards

7288466833	Matter	- Anything that takes up space and has mass - Composes organisms - Made up of elements	0
7288466834	Element	- A substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions - 92 naturally occurring elements	1
7288466835	Compound	- A substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio - Has chemical and physical characteristics different from those of its elements - Ex. Water (H20) is a compound that has a 2:1 ratio	2
7288466836	Essential Elements	- Elements that an organism needs to live a healthy life and reproduce	3
7288466837	Trace Elements	- Elements that are required by an organism in small quantities. - Ex. in vertebrates iodine is an essential ingredient of a hormone produced by the thyroid gland.	4
7288466838	Toxic Elements	- Some naturally occurring elements are toxic to organisms. - Some species have adapted to environments containing elements that are usually toxic. - Ex. Sunflowers can absorb lead, zinc and other heavy metals in concentrations that would kill other organisms.	5
7288466839	Atom	- The smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element. - Each element consists of a certain type of atom that is different from the atoms of any other element. - Most empty space	6
7288466840	Subatomic particles	- Compose atoms. - Three relevant kinds: neutrons, protons and elections	7
7288466841	Proton	- Charge: positive - Location: nucleus - Mass: 1 dalton	8
7288466842	Electron	- Charge: negative - Location: orbits around the nucleus - Mass: so small that electrons are insignificant when computing the total mass of an atom	9
7288466843	Neutron	- Charge: electrically neutral - Location: nucleus - Mass: 1 dalton	10
7288466844	Atomic Nucleus	- The center of an atom - Has a positive charge due to the protons inside of it	11
7288466845	Atomic Number	- Number of protons. - All atoms of a particular element have the same atomic number. - If an atom is neutral, the # of protons= # electrons	12
7288466846	Mass Number	- Sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.	13
7288466847	Atomic Mass	- An approximation of the total mass of an atom. - Same number as the Mass Number.	14
7288466848	Isotope	- Different atomic forms of the same element. - Same number of protons, different number of neutrons. - Behave identically in chemical reactions.	15
7288466849	Radioactive Isotope	- Isotope where the nucleus decays spontaneously giving off particles and energy. - Decay will lead to a change in the number of protons, and the atom transforms to an atom of a different element.	16
7288466850	Energy	- The capacity to cause change by doing work.	17
7288466851	Potential Energy	- Energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure - Matter has a natural tendency to move to the lowest possible state of potential energy.	18
7288466852	Electrons & Potential Energy	- The electrons of an atom have potential energy because of how they are arranged in relation to the nucleus. - Because negative electrons attract to the positive nucleus, it takes work to move an electron father away from the nucleus. - The farther away an electron is from the nucleus, the greater its potential energy. - An electron's potential energy is determined by its energy level.	19
7288466853	Electron Shells	- Places of high probability of finding an electron. - First shell- lowest potential energy, and so forth - An electron can change its shell by absorbing/ loosing energy. - 1st shell holds 2 electrons, 2nd shell holds 8 electrons	20
7288466854	Electron Distribution & Chemical Properties	- The chemical behavior of an atom is determined by the distribution of electrons in the atom's electron shells.	21
7288466855	Valence Electrons	- The outermost electrons. - Chemical behavior depends mostly on valence electrons. - Atoms with the same number of electrons in their valence shells exhibit similar chemical behavior.	22
7288466856	Valence Shell	- The outermost electron shell. - An atom with a completed valence shell is unreactive because it is stable (inert).	23
7288466857	Chemical Bonds	- Bonds between atoms when they either share or transfer valence electrons. - The strongest kinds of chemical bonds are covalent and ionic bonds. - When bonds form, they make fill the atoms valence shell	24
7288466858	Covalent Bond	- The sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms.	25
7288466859	Molecule	- Composed of 2 or more atoms held together by covalent bonds.	26
7288466860	Single Bond	- A pair of shared electrons. - Represented by a single line	27
7288466861	Double bond	- 2 shared pairs of valence electrons. - Represented by 2 lines	28
7288466862	Valence	- Bonding capacity of an atom - Usually equals the number of electrons required to complete the atom;s outermost (valence shell)	29
7288466863	Electronegativity	- The attraction of a particular atom for the electrons of a covalent bond. - The more electronegative an atom is, the more strongly it pulls shared electrons towards itself.	30
7288466864	Nonpolar covalent bond	- A bond where the electrons are shared equally because the two atoms have the same electronegativity. - Ex. H2 is nonpolar	31
7288466865	Polar covalent bond	- Bond where an atom is bonded to a more electronegative atom. - Electrons are not shared equally.	32
7288466866	Ionic Bond	- Formed by the attraction of cations and anions. - Electrons are transfered. - Environment affects the strength of ionic bonds. - Dry salt crystal- bonds are very strong. - Salt crystal dissolved in water- bonds are waker because each ion is partially shielded by its interactions with water molecules.	33
7288466867	Ion	- A charged atom (or molecule). - Electrons have either been lost or gained.	34
7288466868	Cation	- Positively charged atom. - An electron has been lost.	35
7288466869	Anion	- Negatively charged atom. - An electron has been gained.	36
7288466870	Ionic compounds/salts	- Compounds formed by ionic bonds. - Does not consist of molecules, only elements.	37
7288466871	Advantages of weak chemical bonds	- Two molecules can adhere temporarily by weak bonds. - Two molecules can come together, respond to one another in some way and then separate.	38
7288466872	Hydrogen bonds	- Partial positive charge of a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to an electronegative atom allows the hydrogen to be attracted to a different electronegative atom nearby. - A hydrogen bond is the nonequivalent attraction between a hydrogen and an electronegative atom.	39
7288466873	Van deer Walls Interactions	- Individually weak bonds that occur only when atoms and molecules are very close together. - Ex. Geckos can climb up walls because their toes have tiny hairs and there are van der Waals interactions between the hair tip molecules and the molecules of the wall's surface. Because they are so numerous they can support the Gecko's body.	40
7288466874	Molecular Shape	- Determines how biological molecules recognize and respond to one another with specific. - Complementary molecules bind to each other. - Ex. Because opiates have similar shapes to endorphins, they bind to endorphin receptors in the brain.	41
7288466875	Chemical reactions	- The making and breaking of chemical bonds, leading to changes in the composition of matter. - Matter is neither created nor destroyed, only rearranged. - Reactions are reversible.	42
7288466876	Reactants	- Starting materials in a chemical reaction	43
7288466877	Products	- The elements or compounds produced by a chemical reaction.	44
7288466878	Chemical equilibrium	- The point at which the reactions offset one another exactly. - This is dynamic: reactions still occur, but with no effect on the concentrations of reactants and products. - Concentrations are stabilized at a ratio.	45
7288466879	Water's polarity	- Unequal sharing of electrons and water's V- like shape make it a polar molecule. - The oxygen region has a partial negative charge. - Each hydrogen has a partial positive charge - Because of this, the hydrogen of one molecule is attracted to the oxygen of another molecule, forming a hydrogen bond.	46
7288466880	Cohesion of Water	- Result of the hydrogen bonds that hold water together. - Contributes to the transport of water & dissolved nutrients.	47
7288466881	Adhesion	- The clinging of one substance to another.	48
7288466882	Surface tension	- A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. - Hydrogen bonds in water give it a very high surface tension.	49
7288466883	Moderation of temperature by water	- Water moderates air temperature by absorbing heat from air that is warmer and releasing the stored heat to air that is cooler. - Water can absorb/release heat with a small change in temperature.	50
7288466884	Kinetic energy	- Energy of motion.	51
7288466885	Thermal energy	- The kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules. - Total thermal energy of matter depends on volume.	52
7288466886	Temperature	- The average kinetic energy of molecules, regardless of volume.	53
7288466887	Heat	- Thermal energy in transfer from one body of matter to another.	54
7288466888	Calorie	- The amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1degree C.	55
7288466889	kilocalorie	- (1,000 cal) is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1 degree C.	56
7288466890	Specific Heat	- The amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of that substance to change its temperature of 1 degree C. - Aka how well a substance resists changing its temperature when it absorbs/releases heat. - Water has a unusually high specific heat (heat must be absorbed to break hydrogen bonds and released when they form)	57
7288466891	Evaporation/ Vaporization	- Transformation from a liquid to a gas. - Even at low temperatures, fast molecules can escape (some move faster than others and temperature is an average).	58
7288466892	Heat of vaporization	- The quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1g of it to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state. - Water has a high heat of vaporization, because hydrogen bonds need to be broken.	59
7288466893	Evaporative Cooling	- As a liquid evaporates, the surface of the liquid that remains behind cools down. - "Hottest" molecules leave as gas first. - Contributes to the stability of temperature in bodies of water and keeps organisms from overheating.	60
7288466894	Frozen Water	- Water is less dense as a solid than as a liquid. - Water freezes because more and more of its molecules are moving too slowly to break hydrogen bonds. - 0 degree C, molecules are locked into a crystalline lattice, and hydrogen bonds keep them far away. - Floating ice is important so that lakes do not freeze solid.	61
7288466895	Solution	- A liquid that is a completely homogeneous mixture of 2 or more substances.	62
7288466896	Solvent	- The dissolving agent of a solution.	63
7288466897	Solute	- The substance that is dissolved.	64
7288466898	Aqueous solution	- Solution where water is the solvent.	65
7288466899	Hydration Shell	- The sphere of water molecules around a dissolved ion. - Water molecules pull appart compounds by surrounding each ion and separating and shielding them from one another. - To be dissolved by water you must have ionic and polar regions.	66
7288466900	Hydrophilic	- A substance that has an affinity for water. - Substances can be hydrophilic without actually dissolving (cotton).	67
7288466901	Hydrophobic	- Substances that repel water. - They are nonionic and nonpolar or otherwise cannot form hydrogen bonds.	68
7288466902	Molecular mass	- The sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule.	69
7288466903	Mole	- Represents an exact number of objects - 6.02 * 10^23 - A mole of one substance has exactly the same number of molecules as a mole of any other substance.	70
7288466904	Dissociation of Water	- A hydrogen atom leaves its electron behind and a hydrogen ion (H+) is transferred - The water molecule that lost a proton is now a hydroxide ion (OH-) and has a charge of 1- - The proton binds to the other water molecule making it a Hydronium ion (H30+)	71
7288466905	Acid	- Substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. - When acids dissolve in water, they donate an additional H+ to the solution.	72
7288466906	Base	- Substances that reduce the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. - Some directly accept hydrogen ions (Ammonia) - Some dissociate to form hydroxide ions which combine with hydrogen ions and form water. - Basic solutions have a higher concentration of OH- than H+	73
7288466907	Strong Acid/Strong Base	- Compounds that completely dissociate when mixed with water. - Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid. - Sodium hydroxide is a strong base.	74
7288466908	pH	- The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm (base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration.	75
7288466909	pH scale	- pH declines as H+ concentration increases. - pH less than 7- acidic - pH above 7- basic - When the pH of a solution changes slightly, the actual concentrations of H+ and OH- in the solution change substantially (logs)	76
7288466910	Buffer	- A substance that minimizes changes in the concentrations of H+ and OH- in a solution. - Accepts hydrogen ions when they are in excess, and donates them when they have been depleted. - Ex. carbonic acid and bicarbonate buffering system	77
7288466911	Acidification	- Burning fossil fuels releases CO2 into the air, and when CO2 dissolves in seawater, it reacts with water to form carbonic acid which lowers ocean pH. - As seawater acidifies the extra hydrogen ions combine with carbonate ions to form bicarbonate ions and reduces the carbonate ion concentration. - This is bad, because carbonate ions are required for calcification by many marine organisms (reef-building corals and animals with shells).	78

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AP Government - Chapter 1 Flashcards

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5866410540	Government	A system that makes authoritative public policies made for society.	0
5866410541	Politics	The process by which government officials, as well as the policies they pursue, are chosen.	1
5866410542	The Policymaking System		2
5866410543	Linkage Institutions	Political channels through which people's concerns become political issues on the policy agenda. (political parties, elections, interest groups, the media, etc.)	3
5866410544	Policy Agenda	Several issues that capture the serious attention of political officials and other figures in politics at a given time.	4
5866410545	Collective Goods	Goods and services, such as clean water, that by nature cannot be denied to anyone.	5
5866410546	The 5 Basic Duties Each Government Should Perform	1. Maintain a national defense. 2. Provide public goods and services. 3. Preserve order. 4. Socialize the young. 5. Collect taxes.	6
5866410547	Political Culture	An overall set of values widely shared within a society	7
5866410548	Single-Issue Groups	Groups that have a narrow interest on which their members tend to take an uncompromising stance.	8
5866410549	Democracy	A system of selecting policymakers and of organizing government so that policy represents and responds to the public's preferences.	9
5866410550	Traditional Democratic Theory	1. Equality in voting. 2. Effective participation 3. Enlightened. understanding. 4. Citizen control of the agenda. 5. Inclusion	10
5866410551	Pluralism	Democratic theory that states that the government is comprised of several different groups that compete to reach compromise, no one group dominating another.	11
5866410552	Elite and Class Theory	Democratic theory that states that society is divided by class lines, with the upper class elite in power (Policies benefit those with money/power)	12
5866410553	Hyperpluralism	Democratic theory that states that he government is comprised of several groups, all of which are too strong, which leads to muddled policy and gridlock --- the government suffers because of groups	13
5866410554	Challenges to Democracy	Increased complexity of issues, limited participation in government, escalating campaign costs, and diverse political interests.	14
5866410555	5 Elements of American Political Culture	1. Liberty. 2. Egalitarianism. 3. Individualism. 4. Laissez-faire. 5. Populism.	15

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Learning (AP Psychology) Flashcards

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8485303112	Ivan Pavlov	Contribution: developed the theory of "classical conditioning" while working with dogs Significance: Father of Classical Conditioning	0
8485303113	Classical Conditioning	Learning that takes place when two or more stimuli are paired together UCS = UCR; NS + UCS = UCR; & CS = CR	1
8485303114	Unconditioned Stimulus	Part of Classical Conditioning It is the stimulus that triggers a natural reflexive response. Pavlov's Dogs: "Meat" Little Albert: "Loud noise"	2
8485303115	Conditioned Stimulus	Part of Classical Conditioning It initially has no effect but after conditioning, it triggers a natural reflexive response. Pavlov's Dogs: It was the "Bell" Little Albert: "White Mouse"	3
8485303116	Extinction	Classical Conditioning: The disappearance of a behavior because CS no longer paired with the UCS Operant Conditioning: The disappearance of a behavior because it is no longer reinforced or punished	4
8485303117	Spontaneous Recovery	Classical Conditioning: When a previous CR returns after it has been extinguished Operant Conditioning: Occurs when a response begins again after extinction	5
8485303118	Stimulus Generalization	Classical Conditioning: When the NS and the CS are different. (Example: Little Albert being afraid of any thing that is white and furry) Operant Conditioning: When a reinforced/punished behavior occurs in a setting/situation where it was NOT learned (Example: Not cursing at home or at school)	6
8485303119	Stimulus Discrimination	Classical Conditioning: When the NS and the CS are the same (Example: Little Albert being afraid of a white mouse) Operant Conditioning: When a reinforced/punished behavior occurs in a setting/situation where it was learned (Example: Cursing only at home because it is acceptable but not at school)	7
8485303121	Taste Aversions	Psychologist: Garcia Defined: If you ingest an unusual food or drink and then become nauseous, you will probably develop an aversion to the food or drink. Significance: Violates the acquisition principles of classical conditioning	8
8485303122	Operant conditioning	Defined: Learning is based on the association of one's behavior and its consequences. Consequences are reinforced or punished Example: You choose to break curfew based on the consequences	9
8485303123	Law of Effect	Psychologist: Edward Thorndike Defined: if a behavior results in a satisfying consequence, it will likely be repeated whereas; if a behavior results in a unsatisfying consequence, it will NOT likely be repeated Example: If you complement your mother and she lets you stay out past curfew, you will complement her again	10
8485303124	B.F. Skinner	Contributions: Invented the Operant chamber, aka his ________ box, to use in his research of animal learning. Significance: Father & Developer of Operant Conditioing	11
8485303125	Positive Reinforcement	Part of Operant Conditioning Adding something to increase the likelihood of a behavior occuring again Example: Receiving $5 for every "A" in high school	12
8485303126	Negative Reinforcement	Part of Operant Conditioning Increasing the likelihood of a behavior occurring again by removing a negative stimuli Example: Taking aspirin to relieve a headache	13
8485303127	Positive Punishment	Part of Operant Conditioning Adding something to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again Example: Spanking and yelling	14
8485303128	Negative Punishment	Part of Operant Conditioning Removing something to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again Example: Grounding	15
8485303129	Shaping	Part of Operant Conditioning Positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desird behavior to teach a new behavior	16
8485303130	Primary Reinforcers	Reinforcers that are rewarding such as food, water, rest, whose natural properties are reinforcing.	17
8485303131	Secondary Reinforcers	Defined: Reinforcers that are rewarding because we learned that are reinforcing. Example: praise, money, the chance to play video games.	18
8485303132	Fixed-Ratio Schedule	Defined: schedule of reinforcement after a set number of responses. Example: Being paid for every 10 pizzas made	19
8485303133	Variable-Ratio Schedule	Defined: schedule of reinforcement after a varying number of responses. Example: playing a slot machine	20
8485303134	Fixed-Interval Schedule	Defined: schedule of reinforcement after a fixed amount of time has passed Example: cramming for an exam	21
8485303135	Variable-Interval Schedule	Defined: schedule of reinforcement after varying amounts of time Example: pop (surprise) quizzes in class	22
8485303136	Instinctive Drift	Defined: when animals revert to instinctive behaviors rather than the operantly conditioned behaviors Examples: Rats will not walk backward, chickens won't hit a ball and run to first base, and pigeons won't flap wings for food.	23
8485303137	Observational Learning	Defined: learn by watching others Example: BoBo Doll Study	24
8485303138	Latent Learning	Defined: Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Example: Tolman's rats would only complete the maze if there was cheese for them at the end of the maze	25
8485303139	Insight Learning	Defined: suddenly knowing the solution to the problem Example: When taking a test and the previous answer comes to you without effort	26
8485303140	Acquisition of Classical Conditioning	Frequency: the more often the CS and the US are paired together Timing: the CS is presented a half a second before the US	27
8485303141	Biological Predisposition	Defined: humans and animals have predisposed fears that help us survive Examples; Phobia of heights keeps us away from danger	28
8485303142	Unconditioned Response	Part of Classical Conditioning It is the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the stimulus Pavlov's Dogs: It was the "Salivating to the Meat" Little Albert: "Screaming at the Loud Noise"	29
8485303143	Associative Learning	Defined: learn by putting together two events Example: Expect to hear thunder after viewing lightening	30
8485303144	Habituation	Defined: An organisms decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it Example: Your parents yell at you a lot and eventually you tune out their yelling	31
8485303145	Watson	Contribution: applies Classical Conditioning to Humans through the "Little Albert" Experiment Significance: Creates "Behaviorism" Theory	32
8485303146	Thorndike	Contribution: studied cats in puzzle boxes and recorded their behaviors Significance: Creates "Law of Effect" theory	33
8485303147	Bandura	Contribution: Studied how children mimic others behaviors and repeat that same behavior Significance: Creates "Observational Learning" Theory	34
8485303148	Garcia	Contribution: Demonstrated the significance of biological processes in classical conditioning Significance: Creates "Taste Aversions" theory	35
8485303149	Seligman	Contribution: Used dogs to demonstrates the significance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning Significance: Creates "Learned Helplessness" theory	36
8485303150	Tolman	Contribution: demonstrated the significance of cognitive processes in operant conditioning by studying rats in mazes Significance: Creates the "Latent Learning" theory	37
8485303152	Pavlov's Dogs	First experiment that created and demonstrate the theory of classical conditioning	38
8485303153	Little Albert	First experiment to demonstrate how emotions can be classically conditioned in humans Provides a foundation for the "Behaviorism Theory"	39
8485303154	Conditioned Response	Part of Classical Conditioning Occurs after conditioning when the conditioned stimulus (CS) triggers an innate response Pavlov's Dogs: It was the "Salivating to the Bell" Little Albert: "Screaming/Crying"	40
8485303155	Learned Helplessness	Defined: Exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive (bad) events produces passive behavior Study: Seligman delivering shocks to dogs Example: If a student consistently fails math, they may start to give up or a sports team that consistently loses may start to belive they can't win	41
8485303157	Concerns regarding Punishment	It does not teach the learner appropriate behavior and can also increase violent behavior in the learner	42
8485303158	Skinner Box	Also known as: Operant Chamber Description: A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal (rat or pigeon) can manipulate in order to obtain a reward	43
8485303159	Immediate Reinforcer	Defined: when you are immediately rewarded for a behavior (it's all about the short run) Example: skipping school and enjoying time with friends	44
8485303160	Superstitious Behavior	Defined: if a random reinforcement follows an event, the event will likely be repeated. Example: a lucky shirt, shoes, etc.	45
8485303161	Continuous Reinforcement Schedule	Defined: When every behavior is reinforced Example: a multiple choice test Significance: best for "establishing" a behavior	46
8485303162	Cognitive Maps	Defined: having the ability or know how to accomplish a particular task Example: Tolman's rats knew how to complete the maze	47
8485303163	Intrinsic Motivation	Defined: the desire to perform a behavior effectively and for its own sake—rewards can carry hidden costs. Example: reading books because you find them rewarding	48
8485303164	Extrinsic Motivation	Defined: the desire to perform a behavior to receive external rewards or avoid threatened punishment. Example: reading a book because you need to get a good grade in your English class	49
8485303165	BoBo Doll Study	Psychologist: Bandura Description: Children watched (through a one way glass)a confederate play with the BoBo doll and then played with the BoBo doll in the same way as the confederate Significance: used to develop "observational learning"	50
8485303166	Mirror Neurons	Defined: frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so Example: explains why yawning is contagious	51
8485303167	Densensitization	Defined: after viewing a similar act/behavior, you become less emotionally responsive (indifferent or unaware) to the stimulus Example: The first murder on TV is shocking but becomes less shocking as you watch violent television	52
8485303168	Pro-Social Modeling	Defined: People who show nonviolent, helpful behavior prompt similar behavior in others Significance: When parents help their grandparents, the children will likely do the same	53
8485303169	Anti-Social Modeling	Defined: People show violent, selfish behavior prompts similar behaviors in others Significance: Watching violent TV prompts similar behaviors in others (pro-wrestling, etc.)	54
8485303170	Behaviorism	Psychologist: John B. Watson Defined: a theory that made psychology an objective science by making it based on observable (and only observable) events, not the unconscious or conscious mind.	55
8485303171	Delayed Reinforcer	Defined: when you complete a behavior but not awarded immediately (it's all about the long run) Example: getting good grades in school and attending class in order to get a good job in the future	56
8485303172	Partial Reinforcement Schedule	Defined: When a random behavior is reinforced Example: Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio, Fixed Interval, Variable Interval Significance: best for "maintaining" a behavior	57

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AP Biology Chapter 8 Flashcards

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6247699005	Metabolism	the totality of an organisms chemical reactions that result from interactions between molecules within the cell	0
6247699006	metabolic pathway	a sequence of chemical reactions undergone by a compound in a living organism, start with substrate end with product	1
6247699007	catabolic	breaking a complex molecule down into its simpler parts, releasing energy. ie. cellular respiration	2
6247699008	anabolic	using energy to build complex molecules from simpler molecules. ie. protein synthesis	3
6247699009	Bioenergetics	the study of how organisms manage their energy resources	4
6247699010	energy	capacity to cause change, do work	5
6247699011	kinetic energy	energy of motion	6
6247699012	heat(thermal energy)	kinetic energy associated with random movement of molecules	7
6247699013	potential energy	energy of position	8
6247699014	chemical energy	potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction, energy within bonds	9
6247699015	thermodynamics	study of energy transformations	10
6247699016	closed system	isolated from surroundings, no energy transfer, cant work at equilibrium bc its exhausted its ability to do work. free energy at a min	11
6247699017	open system	not isolated, energy and matter can be transferred between system and surroundings, ie. cells	12
6247699018	1st law of thermodynamics	energy of the universe is constant, cannot be created or destroyed, can only be transferred or transformed, conservation of energy	13
6247699019	2nd law of thermodynamics	during every energy transfer, some energy is unusable and often lost, every energy transfer or transformation increases the total entropy of the universe	14
6247699020	entropy	disorder, randomness	15
6247699021	free energy	delta G, energy that can do work when temperature and pressure are constant, related to change in enthalpy(delta H), change in entropy(delta S) and temperature in Kelvin(T). delta G = delta H - T delta S	16
6247699022	exergonic reaction	a reaction with a net release of free energy, negative free energy, spontaneous	17
6247699023	endergonic reaction	a reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings, non-spontaneous, positive free energy	18
6247699024	coupled reactions	the use of exergonic processes to drive endergonic ones, the energy given off from the exergonic is absorbed by the endergonic	19
6247699025	ATP	adenosine triphosphate, composed of ribose (5 carbon sugar), adenine (nitrogenous base), and 3 phosphate groups. Phosphate tail can be broken through hydrolysis to produce energy, ADP, and an inorganic phosphate	20
6247699026	phosphorylation	how ATP drives endergonic reactions, covalently bonding a phosphate with another molecule, such as as reactant	21
6247699027	catalyst	a chemical agent that speeds up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction	22
6247699028	enzymes	a catalytic protein, speeds up metabolic reactions by lowering activation energy, very specific, reusable, unchanged by reaction	23
6247699029	activation energy	initial energy needed to start a chemical reaction, free energy for activating reaction, given off by heat	24
6247699030	induced fit	brings the chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the reaction, makes the enzyme more effective	25
6247699031	cooperativity	another type of allosteric activation, binds to one active site but locks ALL active sites open, allowing products to be constantly produced	26
6247699032	Substrate	the REACTANT that an enzyme acts on	27
6247699033	Enzyme-Substrate Complex	enzyme and substrate	28
6247699034	Active Site	region on the enzyme where substrate binds	29
6247699035	Hydrogen and Ionic Bonds	substrate held in active site by WEAK interactions	30
6247699036	Lock and Key	active site on enzyme fits substrate exactly	31
6247699037	If reaction doesnt need energy to start (exergonic)	How do you know if a reaction is spontaneous?	32
6247699038	3 kinds of cellular work done by ATP	Shuttle renewable and nonrenewable ENERGY, provide ENERGY for cellular functions, provide ENERGY for catabolic reactions	33
6247699039	Ways enzymes lower activation energy	can do this by having a favorable environment, straining substrate molecules, orienting substrates correctly	34
6247699040	hydrolysis	happens when phosphate leaves ATP to give energy to something else. This causes ATP to become ADP, produces water	35
6247699041	cofactors	non-protein enzyme helpers ex. zinc, iron, copper	36
6247699042	coenzymes	organic enzyme helpers ex. vitamens	37
6247699043	Denature	above a certain temp activity declines, protein unwinds	38
6247699044	Renature	coils it back to normal after temp gets too high and the activity decreased	39
6247699045	Gene Regulation	cell switches on or off the genes that code for specific enzymes	40
6247699046	Feedback inhibition	end product of a pathway that continues to produce product (positive) and then turns off (negative)	41
6247699047	negative feedback inhibition	accumulation of end product slows the process that produces that amount -stop production	42
6247699048	positive feedback inhibition	end product speeds up production (less common)	43
6247699049	Allosteric Regulation	can accelerate or inhibit production and enzyme activity by attaching to another part of the protein. this changes the shape of the active site which inhibits substrates from bonding and producing more products	44
6247699050	Activator	one of the allosteric regulators, stabilizes and keeps active site open for production, wedges open	45
6247699051	Inhiibitor	one of the allosteric regulators, doesnt allow active site to work or produce, wedges closed	46
6247699052	Competitive Inhibitor	inhibitor that mimics original substrate by blocking the original substrate	47
6247699053	Noncompetetitive Inhibitor	bind to another part of enzyme to change shape and block substrate from producing	48
6247699054	ways enzymes are affects	environment, pH, temp, salinity, chemicals that infuse enzyme, increase activity by increasing substrate concentration	49
6247699055	exergonic	what reaction is spontaneous (-G)	50
6247699056	endergonic	what reaction is not spontaneous (positive G)	51

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AP Psychology Personality Flashcards

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9131520737	Sigmund Freud	Founder of psychoanalysis Originally a medical doctor and found that his patients were suffering from an illness with psycho-logical causes This led him to develop theories of the unconscious mind, psycho-sexual development and Psychoanalysis	0
9131520738	Psychoanalytic Theory	Psychologist: Sigmund Freud Behavior is due to unconscious motives and conflicts Early childhood experiences determine personality	1
9131520739	Unconscious Mind	-foundation for the psychoanalytic theory -controls the phenomena of repressed feelings, automatic skills, subliminal perceptions, thoughts, habits and automatic reactions as well as possibly holding emotional complexes, phobias and desires.	2
9131520740	Id	located in the unconscious present at birth Ruled by the "Pleasure Principle" and has no values, morality, or logic (animal instincts)	3
9131520741	Ego	located in both conscious, & unconscious Developed after birth, the self Ruled by the "Reality Principle" and balances the id and superego by being organized, rational, and postponing gratification	4
9131520742	SuperEgo	located in both conscious, & unconscious developed by age 5 Ruled by the "Morality Principle" and is the opposite of the Id because it is the internal, parental voice with rules and values	5
9131520743	Free Association	A technique used to access the unconscious patient freely exposes his/her ideas, impressions, etc.	6
9131520744	Freudian Slips	Slips of the tongue that expose the unconscious	7
9131520745	Psychosexual Development	- sequential and discontinuous stages with changing erogenous zone and conflict in each stage if conflict is not successful resolved, the result is fixation O.A.P.L.G (Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital)	8
9131520746	Oral stage	Age: 0-1 Erogenous Zone: Mouth Task: Oral Activities (sucking, chewing, biting, etc) Fixation: Smoking, Over-eating	9
9131520747	Anal stage	Age: 1-3 Erogenous Zone: Anus Task: Potty Training Fixation: Anal retentive or Anal Expulsive	10
9131520748	Latency stage	Age: 6 to puberty Erogenous Zone: None Task: develop relationships with same sex peers to strengthen gender identity Fixation: doesn't occur at this stage	11
9131520749	Phallic stage	Age: 3-5 Erogenous Zone: Genitals Task: Gender Identity Fixation: Narcissism, Homosexuality	12
9131520750	Genital stage	Age: Puberty to death Erogenous Zone: Genitals Task: Find a hetero-sexual relationship Fixation: doesn't occur at this stage but old conflicts will arise	13
9131520752	Electra Complex	girls sexually desire dad and hate mom but need to resolve this in order to develop a gender identity Phallic Stage of Psycho-sexual Development	14
9131520753	Oedipus Complex	boys sexually desire mom and hate dad but need to resolve this in order to develop a gender identity Phallic Stage of Psycho-sexual Development	15
9131520754	Defense mechanisms	- extreme measures protect the ego from threats; operate unconsciously and deny, falsify, or distinct reality - not successful coping strategies because they do not remove stressors	16
9131520755	Neo-Freudians	Jung, Horney, Adler Believed that Freud put too much emphasis on sex and there needed to be more emphasis on social factors	17
9131520756	Collective unconscious	Psychologist: Carl Jung Defined: A warehouse of "instinctive memories" passed down to each generation and all humans share and is made up of archetypes	18
9131520757	Archetypes	Defined: Inherited universal concepts that create the Collective Unconscious Examples: Anima v. Animus, Mother v. Father, Persona v. Shadow, Hero v. Villain	19
9131520758	Basic Anxiety	Psychologist: Karen Horney anxiety that is created by being born helpless. Most overcome this, those who don't develop neurotic personalities- aggressive, compliant, or withdrawn	20
9131520759	Womb envy	Psychologist: Karen Horney Defined: women do not suffer from "penis envy" but are envious of male's superior status. Men are envious of a women's ability to have children and therefore, they compensate with other forms of achievement.	21
9131520760	Inferiority Complex	Psychologist: Alfred Adler Defined: people who compensate for feelings of inferiority (feeling like they're less than other people, not as good as others, worthless, etc.) by acting ways that make them appear superior.	22
9131520761	Projective Tests	Description: Provide ambiguous stimuli in order to trigger the projection of one's inner dynamics Strengths: Provide lots of information Weaknesses: highly subjective and has low reliability Tests: Rorschach Inkblot Test, & Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Draw a Person test	23
9131520762	Rorschach Inkblot Test	seeks to identify people's inner feelings and conflicts by analyzing their interpretations of 10 inkblots. Critics question the validity and reliability of the tests.	24
9131520763	Thematic Apperception Test	people view ambiguous pictures and then make up stories about them. Presumably, their accounts reflect their interests and inner feelings.	25
9131520764	Humanistic Psychologists	Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow Description: People develop their personality by trying to reach their full potential Strengths: model was built in a therapy setting Weaknesses: concepts are vague and subjective, individualistic and western based and naive because it fails to appreciate the reality of our capacity for evil	26
9131520765	Self-Concept	Psychologist: Carl Rogers Goal: Actualizing Tendency (full potential) Theory: A person has who they are, Real Self, and who they want to be, Ideal Self and a successful persoanlity has congruence People need genuineness (honesty), unconditional positive regard (love), and empathy (understanding) to develop a good persoanlity	27
9131520766	Congruence	A person's Real Self and Ideal Self can merge together Part of Roger's Self-Concept Theory	28
9131520767	Incongruence	When a person's Real Self and Ideal self do not match, causing anxiety. Part of Roger's Self-Concept Theory	29
9131520768	Unconditional positive regard	Defined: receiving acceptance, value, and love from others without requirements Part of Roger's Self-Concept theory in which he says it is necessary to receive from others in order to develop a healthy personality	30
9131520769	Empathy	People will try to understand one's feelings and mirror it back to them Part of Roger's Self-Concept theory in which he says it is necessary to receive from others in order to develop a healthy personality	31
9131520770	Hierarchy of Needs	Psychologist: Abraham Maslow Description: Pyramid	32
9131520771	Trait Theories	Description: focuses on identifying how people typically behave but does NOT explain how personality developed Strengths: based on empirical evidence with factor analysis Weaknesses: people might behave differently based on the situation they are experiencing Tests: 16 Personality Factors (16 PF), 3 Dimensions, and Myers Briggs	33
9131520772	Factor analysis	- a statistical procedure that identifies common factors among groups of items, to simplify a long list of items into a small number of dimensions -used with trait theories	34
9131520773	Self-Report Inventories	Description: a questionnaire which is used to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors Strengths: empirically derived Weaknesses: social desirability-people can lie and manipulate the information Tests: MMPI, CPI, 16 PF	35
9131520774	MMPI	Most extensively researched personality inventory. Used to assess mental health professions (police, nurses, doctors, pilots)	36
9131520775	Big Five Trait Theory	Psychologists: McCrae and Costa Description: OCEAN or CANOE Significance: traits are stable in adulthood, heritability accounts for 50% of personality and can be used to predict other personal attributes	37
9131520776	Openess	characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests	38
9131520777	Conscientiousness	include high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors.	39
9131520778	Extraversion	characterized by excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness and high amounts of emotional expressivenes	40
9131520779	Agreeableness	includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection and other pro-social behaviors.	41
9131520780	Neuroticism	characterized by sadness, moodiness and emotional instability	42
9131520781	Social Cognitive Approach to Personality	Description: Personality is influenced between the interaction of a person's traits (including their thinking) and their social context Strengths: based on empirical evidence Weaknesses: minimizes the importance of one's inner traits, emotions, and unconscious motives Examples: Reciprocal Determinism, Locus of Control Psychologists: Bandura	43
9131520782	Reciprocal determinism	Psychologist: Bandura Defined: Personality is developed by the interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors. How it works: Everyone has a "self-system" of skills abilities and attitudes Self-Efficacy is what can change the system	44
9131520783	External Locus of Control	The perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate Effects: Pessimism and often learned helplesses	45
9131520784	Internal Locus of Control	The perception that you control your own fate Effects: Optimism Optimism leads to longer lives with less illnesses but excessive optimism can also lead us to be blind to risks and overconfidence	46
9131520785	Self- efficacy	Defined: the belief in your own ability to deal with different situations and accomplish specific goals It is NOT self esteem which is your general sense of self worth Consequences: people with high self-efficacy are able to succeed because they have an internal locus of control	47
9131520786	Compensation	Defense Mechanism where people try to overcome feelings of inferiority in one area by striving to be superior in another area Major part of Alfred Adler's theory	48

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AP Biology: Biotechnology Flashcards

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8075015225	Recombinant DNA	DNA produced by combining DNA from different sources	0
8075015226	Biotechnology	A form of technology that uses living organisms, usually genes, to modify products, to make or modify plants and animals, or to develop other microorganisms for specific purposes.	1
8075015227	Plasmids	Small rings of DNA found naturally in some bacterial cells in addition to the main bacterial chromosome. Can contain genes for antibiotic resistance, or other "contingency" functions.	2
8075015228	Gene Cloning	The production of multiple copies of a gene.	3
8075015229	Restriction enzymes	Enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides	4
8075015230	Sticky end	A single-stranded end of a double-stranded DNA restriction fragment.	5
8075015231	DNA Ligase	A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.	6
8075015232	Cloning vector	DNA molecules that can carry foreign DNA into a host cell and replicate there.	7
8075015233	Complimentary DNA (cDNA)	is made from mRNA by reverse transcriptase	8
8075015234	polymerase chain reaction (PCR)	A method of producing thousands of copies of DNA segment using the enzyme DNA polymerase	9
8075015235	gel electrophoresis	Procedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments by placing a mixture of DNA fragments at one end of a porous gel and applying an electrical voltage to the gel	10
8075015236	southern blotting	A hybridization technique that enables researchers to determine the presence of certain nucleotide sequences in a sample of DNA.	11
8075015237	reverse transcriptase- PCR	An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.	12
8075015238	Genetic profile	An individual's unique set of genetic markers, detected most often today by PCR or, previously, by electrophoresis and nucleic acid probes.	13
8075016688	Transposon	A sequence of DNA that can move about the genome.	14
8075035551	Gene families	Groups of closely related genes	15
8075041540	Pseudogenes	Result from mutations that cause a loss of function rather than an enhanced or new function.	16