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Exam 1 - Theory & Research in Human Development Flashcards

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8597577825TheorySet of logically related concepts or statements that: - Seeks to *describe and explain* development - *Predicts* what kinds of behavior might occur under certain conditions - Helps *organize and explain* data Theories can always be changed0
8597578912Theoretical Issues1. Nature vs. Nurture some theorists believe development is more based by what we are born with while others believe it reflects our surroundings 2. Are humans active or reactive in their development? 3. Is development continuous or does it occur in stages? *Continuous:* emphasizes quantitative change, gradual increase/decrease, numbers (age, height) *Stages:* emphasizes qualitative change,1
8597657262*5 Theoretical Perspectives*1) Psychoanalytic 2) Learning 3) Cognitive 4) Contextual 5) Evolutionary/sociobiological2
85976664621) PsychoanalyticFocuses on the conscious forces & how unconscious forced shape us3
85976726642) LearningTheories tend to explain learning, defines learning as a *long last change in behavior based on experience*4
85976854253) CognitiveThinking, thought processes, how does our thinking change5
85976927344) ContextualImportance of the social/environmental context6
85977027885) Evolutionary/sociobiologicalFocus on how certain behaviors have evolved over time but may be based on something biological7
8597717980*Psychoanalytic Perspective*8
8597717981Sigmund FreudPsychosexual development, emphasized the importance on the unconscious9
85977259143 parts of personality*1) Id* (already present when born, very demanding/dominant) *2) Ego* (develops gradually over the first year, the balancer/voice of reason, job is to control the Id) *3) Superego* (around age 3-5 and completes around age 5-6, conscious, sense of morality) All unconscious, develop at early stages10
8597776790Oral StageBirth to 12-18 months - Sucking and feeding, focus on the mouth11
8597779570Anal Stage12-18 months to 3 years, toddler - Potty training, control of anal region12
8597779571Phallic Stage3 to 6 years, preschool/kindergarden - Developing attachment to parents - Gender roles: Boys go through the *oedipus complex* (unconsciously fall in love with their mothers and want to get rid of their fathers - competition, begin to identify with father) Girls: *Electra complex* unconsciously developing a romantic attachment to their father, take on characteristics of your mother to be13
8597806178Latency Stage6 years to puberty, middle childhood, elementary - Socialization, learn how to read/write and socialize - develop friendships and other norms in society14
8597815922Genital StagePuberty to adulthood - Mature adult sexuality15
8638694005Psychoanalytic Perspective16
8597828037*Erik Erikson**Psychosocial development* - Emphasized influence of society - Development is lifelong (Erikson said instead of 5 stages focusing on younger years, he had 8 stages that include adulthood and span from birth to death) - 8 Stages across the lifespan17
86385941678 Stages across the lifespan- A "crisis" in personality at each stage (underlying theme) - Requires balancing of a positive trait and a corresponding negative trait (Not good to be 100% positive - ex: being too trusting, stage 1)18
8638720538Stage 1Basic Trust (positive side) vs. basic Mistrust (neg) *First year* of your life - is about learning to trust that the world is a safe place to develop/live in19
8638624350*Learning Perspective*How we learn behavior20
8638624351Behaviorism- Describes observable behavior as a predictive response to the environment - We respond based on whether the situation is painful/threatening or pleasurable21
8638771596Behavioral learning focuses on associative learning, forming mental links between 2 events:- Classical conditioning - Operant conditioning22
8638771597Classical ConditioningResponse to a stimulus is evoked after repeated association with a stimulus that normally elicits a different response Ex) Dog taught to salivate at the sound of a bell - associate bell with food/eating23
8638799738Operant ConditioningRepeating a behavior that has been reinforced by desirable consequences & suppressing a behavior that has been punished - *Reinforcement* (encourages repeated behavior) - *Punishment* (discourages repeated behavior)24
8638938844Both reinforcement and punishment can be positive and negative*Positive - something is added* Reinforcement - something desirable added, ice cream for getting good grades Punishment - given extra chores as consequence for talking back *Negative - something is taken away* Reinforcement - Chores get taken away as a result of good grades Punishment - Phone taken away as a result of getting into a fight25
8638969998A parent giving a child their full attention when they are acting up, is actuallyReinforcing bad behavior26
8638832155*Learning Perspective*27
8638834841Social Learning Theory*Observational learning* (modeling), learned behaviors through watching someone - we choose models to imitate - Explanation for learned gender roles & fear (seeing someones reaction to a stimulus) Influence is *bidirectional* = A person acts on the world, as the world acts on the person - shaping goes in both directions28
8638862611Social Cognitive TheoryAdds the importance of cognitive processes/ thinking How we act is a combination of all observed models and displaying our own role29
8638873513*Cognitive Perspective*30
8638876099Jean PiagetCognitive-stage theory - Inborn ability to adapt to the environment, explore the world31
86391119004 Qualitatively different stages ranging from simple sensory motor activity to abstract thought*- Sensorimotor stage* (birth - 2) *- Preoperational stage* (2-7, children can use/understand symbols, illogical ego-centrical thinking) *- Concrete operations stage* (7-11, logical thinking) *- Formal operations stage* (11+, abstract thinking, higher level reasonings)32
8639189370Cognitive theory33
8639153658Lev VygotskySociocultural theory - Stresses children's active engagement with their environments How we think is based on shared experiences learning from someone more mature - a guide34
8639207250Vygotsky concepts (2)*- Zone of proximal development* (ZPD) - need full assistance at the beginning, once crossed, you no longer need assistance *- Scaffolding* - temporary assistance as you are crossing zone, decreases as you get closer to the end of the zone35
8639217382*Contextual Perspective*36
8639260097Urie BronfenbrennerBioecological theory - Microsystem - Mesosystem - Exosystem37
8639273390MicrosystemEveryday environments (home, school, work)38
8639276028MesosystemLinks between elements in the microsystem Ex) How life at home affects schoolwork, etc.39
8639281528ExosystemLinks between the microsystem and systems that *indirectly* affect a person Ex) A child affected by their parents job40
8639311849MacrosystemsCultural patterns Broader things happening in society, laws, norms, standards - affect everything below it Ex) Sexism, racism41
8639328525ChronosystemChanges in the person and environment over time How time affects all the systems above, both person and environment (economy)42
8639362547*Evolutionary/Sociobiological Perspective*Influence by *Darwin's theory of evolution* (Survival of the fittest, natural selection, evolved mechanisms) *Ethology*43
8639375331EthologyStudy of the distinctive adaptive behaviors of animal species (imprinting) Attachment in humans44
8639391199*Research Methods*Quantitative vs. Qualitative research45
8639399437Quantitative ResearchBased on *scientific method*, analyzing and interpreting numbers, scores (Identify problem > form hypotheses > collect data > analyze date > draw conclusion > share)46
8639417865Qualitative ResearchNon-numerical, open ended Analyzing themes, patterns, pictures Subjective - open to different interpretations47
8639423306SamplingWant sample to represent population - random selection and random sample (more for quantitative research)48
8713427521Forms of data collection- *Self report* (diaries, interviews, questionnaires) - *Naturalistic and laboratory observation* - *Behavioral and performance measures*49
8713448774Case StudyIn depth study of a *single* case or individual50
8713454676Ethnographic StudyIn depth study of a *culture* using a combination of methods (e.g. interviewing, participant observation)51
8713454677Correlated studiesStudies of *statistical relationships* between variables Interpretation of correlations52
8713544259*Research Design - Experiments*53
8713495474Experimental groupExposed to treatment54
8713500592Control GroupNot exposed to treatment, or receives different treatment55
8713506822Random AssignmentEach participant has an equal chance of being in any group56
8713532492Independent VariableWhat is manipulated57
8713532494Dependent VariableWhat is measued58
8713547223Laboratory ExperimentsConducted in a laboratory59
8713547224Field ExperimentsConducted in "normal settings"60
8713553161Natural ExperimentsWhen random assignment is not possible Natural experiments are actually *correlational studies*61
8713571795*Developmental Research Designs*62
8713575137Cross-Sectional DesignPeople of different ages are assessed at one time63
8713578523Longitudinal DesignSame people are studied more than once64
8713583163Sequential DesignA complex strategy to overcome the drawbacks of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs65
8714094268*Ethics of Research*Beneficence, respect for autonomy, and justice should guide decision making66
8714120566Considerations- Right to informed consent - Avoidance of deception - Right to self-esteem - Right to privacy and confidentiality - Right to decline or withdraw - Correct undesirable effects67
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AP Human Geography - Religion Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards from chapter 6 on religion

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8119211288Religiona system of beliefs and practices that attempts to order life in terms of culturally perceived ultimate priorities0
8119211289Monotheistic Religionbelief system in which one supreme being is revered as creator and arbiter of all that exists in the universe1
8119211290Polytheistic Religionbelief system in which multiple deities are revered as creators and arbiters of all that exists in the universe2
8119211291Animistic Religionthe belief that inanimate objects, such as hills, trees, rocks, rivers, and other elements of the natural landscape, possess souls and can help or hinder human efforts on Earth3
8119211292Universalizing ReligionA religion that appeals to all people and in some cases great effort is undertake in evangelism and missionary work.4
8119211293Ethnic Religiona religion that is particular to one, culturally distinct, group of people.5
8119211294Hinduismone of the oldest religions in the modern world, dating back over 4000 years, and originating in the Indus River Valley of what is today part of Pakistan... is unique among the world's religions in that it does not have a single founder, a single theology, or agreement on its origins.6
8119211295Caste Systemthe strict social segregation of people—specifically in India's Hindu society—on the basis of ancestry and occupation7
8119211296Buddhismreligion founded in the sixth century BCE and characterized by the belief that enlightenment would come through knowledge, especially self-knowledge; elimination of greed, craving, and desire; complete honesty; and never hurting another person or animal.8
8119211297Confucianisma philosophy of ethics, education, and public service based on the writings of Confucius and traditionally thought of as one of the core elements of Chinese culture.9
8119211298Judaismreligion with its roots in the teachings of Abraham (from Ur), who is credit with uniting his people to worship only one God.10
8119211299Diasporaa term describing forceful or voluntary dispersal of a people from their homeland to a new place. Originally denoting the dispersal of Jews.11
8119211300Zionismthe movement to unite the Jewish people of the diaspora and to establish a national homeland for them in the promised land12
8119211301Christianityreligion based on the teachings of Jesus. According to Christian teaching, Jesus is the son of God, placed on Earth to teach people how to live according to God's plan13
8119211302Eastern Orthodox Church (eoc)one of the three major branches of Christianity, In 1054 CE, Christianity was divided along that same line when the church, centered in Constantinople; and the Roman Catholic Church, centered in Rome, split.14
8119211303Protestantone of three major branches of Christianity, many adherents to the Catholic church began to question the role of religion in their lives and opened the door to the Protestant Reformation in 151715
8119211304Islamthe youngest of the major world religions, Islam is based on the teachings of Muhammad, born in Mecca in 571 CE. According to the teaching, Muhammad received the truth directly from Allah in a series of revelations during which Muhammad spoke the verses of the Qu'ran (Koran), the Islamic holy book.16
8119211305SunnisAdherents to the largest branch of Islam, called the orthodox or traditionalist. They believe in the effectiveness of family and community in the solution of life's problems, and they differ from the Shiites in accepting the traditions of Muhammad as authoritative17
8119211306Shiitesadherents of one of the two main divisions of Islam.... represent the Persian (Iranian) variation of Islam and believe in the infallibility and divine right to authority of the Imams, descendants of Ali (based largely in Iraq & Iran)18
8119211307Indigenous Religionsbelief systems and philosophies practiced and traditionally passed from generation to generation among peoples within a ... tribe or group19
8119211308Minaretstower attached to a Muslim mosque, having one or more projecting balconies from which a crier call Muslims to prayer20
8119211309Hajjthe Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, the birthplace of Muhammad21
8119211310Religious Fundamentalismreligious movement whose objectives are to return to the foundations of the faith and to influence state policy22
8119211311Religious Extremismreligious fundamentalism carried to the point of violence23
8119211312Shari'a LawsThe system of Islamic law, sometimes called Quranic law. Unlike most western systems of law that are based on legal precedence, sharia is based on varying degrees of interpretation of the Quran.24
8119211313Jihada doctrine within Islam. Commonly translated as "Holy War," Jihad represents either a personal or collective struggle on the part of Muslims to live up to the religious standards set by the Qu'ran25
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AP Psychology - Cognition - Memory Flashcards

Advanced Placement Psychology
Enterprise High School, Redding, CA
All terms from Myers Psychology for AP (BFW Worth, 2011)

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4246123466memorythe persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.0
4246123467encodingthe processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.1
4246123468storagethe retention of encoded information over time.2
4246123469retrievalthe process of getting information out of memory storage.3
4246123470sensory memorythe immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.4
4246123471short-term memoryactivated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.5
4246123472long-term memorythe relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.6
4246123473working memorya newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.7
4246123474parallel processingthe processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.8
4246123475automatic processingunconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.9
4246123477rehearsalthe conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.10
4246123479serial position effectour tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.11
4246123480visual encodingthe encoding of picture images.12
4246123481acoustic encodingthe encoding of sound, especially the sound of words.13
4246123482semantic encodingthe encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.14
4246123483imagerymental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.15
4246123484mnemonicsmemory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.16
4246123485chunkingorganizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.17
4246123488long-term potentiation (LTP)an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.18
4246123489flashbulb memorya clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.19
4246123490amnesiathe loss of memory.20
4246123491implicit memoryretention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called non-declarative or procedural memory.)21
4246123492explicit memorymemory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)22
4246123493hippocampusa neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories and emotion for storage.23
4246123494recalla measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.24
4246123495recognitiona measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.25
4246123497primingthe activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.26
4246123499mood-congruent memorythe tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.27
4246123500proactive interferencethe disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.28
4246123501retroactive interferencethe disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.29
4246123502repressionin psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.30
4246123504source amnesiaattributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.31
4246123505serial processingoccurs when the brain computes information step-by-step in a methodical and linear matter32
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AP World Chapter 3 Flashcards

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7683897467Zhou dynasty(1122 - 256 B.C.E.) First of Chinese classical civilizations. Ruled through alliances with regional princes. Extended territory to Yangzi River and promoted standard Mandarin Chinese language.0
7683897468Qin dynasty(221-202 B.C.E.) Characterized by the centralization of state rule that resulted in the elimination of local and regional political competitors. It expanded the boundaries of China to include Hong Kong. The Great Wall of China was built in this era.1
7683897469Shi HuangdiChina's "First Emperor" who gave that country its name. Under his brutal rule, Hong Kong was annexed and the Great Wall of China was built.2
7683897470Han dynasty(202 B.C.E.-220 C.E.) Followed the Qin dynasty. Expanded China's possessions to include Korea, Indochina, and central Asia. Era generally characterized by stability, prosperity, and peace. Contemporary of and often compared to the Roman Empire.3
7683897471Wu TiBest-known Han ruler. Supported Confucianism in the state bureaucracy.4
7683897472MandarinMandarin became the official state language of the Zhou dynasty and as such was the most-used state language in the world. Helped bring greater cultural unity to classical China.5
7683897473DynastyA time period during which a family rules through a succession of members.6
7683897474Mandate of HeavenConfucian idea in which a good ruler was thought to have a divine right to rule.7
7683897475Era of Warring States(402 - 201 B.C.E.) Time period between the Zhou and Qin dynasties in which regional rulers formed independent armies and reduced emperors to little more than figureheads.8
7683897476Great WallStone wall extending across northern China, built during the Qin dynasty as a defense against northern nomads9
7683897477LegalismPhilosophy that gained ground during the Zhou and was dominant during the Qin dynasty which was rooted in the belief that laws should replace morality and a ruler must provide discipline to maintain order.10
7683897478MandarinsEducated bureaucrats who were one of the three main social groups of ancient China.11
7683897479"Mean People"General category of people identified as ancient China's lowest social group who performed unskilled labor.12
7683897480PatriarchalismIdeas that social organization should be ordered with the male as the head of the family and institutions.13
7683897481Confucius, a.k.a. Kung Fuzi(c. 551-478 B.C.E.) Chinese philosopher who wrote an elaborate political philosophy that became the core of China's cultural and political thinking for centuries. Those who adopted his teachings saw him not as a deity but as a master of ethics.14
7683897482DaoismA spiritual alternative to Confucianism that emphasized the harmony in nature and life. True understanding comes from withdrawing from the world and contemplating the life force.15
7683897483Silk RoadThe most famous of the trading routes established by pastoral nomads connecting the Chinese, Indian, Persian, and Mediterranean civilizations; transmitted goods and ideas among civilizations.16
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Unit 3 AP Psychology Flashcards

Advanced Placement Psychology
Enterprise High School, Redding, CA
All terms from Myers Psychology for AP (BFW Worth, 2011)

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8685949937biological psychologiststhe scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.0
8685949938neurona nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.1
8685949939dendritesthe bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.2
8685949940axonthe neuron extension that passes and electrical messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.3
8685949941myelin sheatha layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.4
8685949942action potentiala neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.5
8685949943refractory perioda period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.6
8685949944thresholdthe level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.7
8685949945all-or-nothing responsea neuron's reaction of either firing or not firing.8
8685949946synapsethe junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.9
8685949947neurotransmitterschemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.10
8685949948reuptakea neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.11
8685949949endorphins"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.12
8685949950AgonistA chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.13
8685949951AntagonistsChemical substances that block or reduce a cell's response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters.14
8685949952nervous systemthe body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.15
8685949953Central nervous system (CNS)the brain and the spinal cord16
8685949954Peripheral nervous system (PNS)the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body17
8685949955nervesbundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.18
8685949956sensory (afferent) neuronsneurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.19
8685949957motor (efferant) neuronsneurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.20
8685949958interneuronsneurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.21
8685949959Somatic nervous systemthe division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles (skeletal nervous system)22
8685949960Autonomic nervous systemthe part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. It's sympathetic system arouses and parasympathetic calms.23
8685949961Sympathetic nervous systemthe division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. (If you get scared)24
8685949962Parasympathetic nervous systemthe division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy (Your PARents come home and calm you down)25
8685949963Reflexessimple, automatic responses to sensory stimuli, such as the knee-jerk response26
8685949964Endocrine systemthe body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream27
8685949965Hormoneschemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues28
8685949966Adrenal glandsa pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress29
8685949967Pituitary gland"THE MASTER GLAND" the endocrine system's most influential gland under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands30
8685949968Lesiontissue destruction. It can occur naturally or experimentally by the caused distruction/remove of brain tissues31
8685949969Electroencephalogram (EEG)An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.32
8685949970CT (computed tomography) scana series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representaion of a slice through the body. Aslo called a CAT scan33
8685949971(PET) Positron emission tomography scanA visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.34
8685949972MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)a TECHNIQUE THAT USES MAGNETIC FIELDS AND RADIO WAVES TO PRODUCE COMPUTER generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissues.35
8685949973fMRI (functional MRI)A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.36
8685949974Brainstemthe oldest part and central core of brain. AKA reticular formation, or reticular activating system. In charge of automatic survival functions37
8685949975MeduallaThe base of the brainstem. Controls heartbeat and breathing.38
8685949976Ponssleep and arousal39
8685949977Thalamusthe brains 'sensory switch board' Located at top of brainstem; directs messages to the sensory areas and transmits them to cerebellum and medulla.40
8685949978Reticular FormationPlays an important role in controlling arousal.41
8685949979Cerebellum"little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions including processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.42
8685949980Limbic systemA system of neural structures at the border of brainstem. Associated with emotions like fear, agression, and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the Hippocampus, Amygdala and hypothalamus.43
8685949981Amygdala2Lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system, linked to emotion. Includes rage and fear.44
8685949982HippocampusLimbic system. Learning and memory matcher.45
8685949983hypothalamousA neural structure lying below the thalamus, it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.46
8685949984Cerebral cortexFabric of interconnected neuron cells. Higher order thinking. Takes meaning and puts it to focus. The body's ultimate control and information-processing center.47
8685949985Glial CellsCells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.48
8685949986Frontal Lobesthe portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.49
8685949987Parietal lobesThe portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex. Receives sensory input for touch and body position.50
8685949988Occipital lobesthe portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual info from the opposite visual feild.51
8685949989Temporal lobesThe portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughyl above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which revieves aditory info primarily from the opposite end.52
8685949990motor cortexan area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.53
8685949991somatosensory cortexthe area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.54
8685949992association areasareas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking55
8685949993PlasticityThe brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.56
8685949994NeurogenesisFormation of new neurons57
8685949995Corpus CallosumLarge band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.58
8685949996Split BrainA conditioning resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them.59
8685949997Consciousnessour awareness of ourselves and our environment.60
8685949998Cognitive NeuroscienceThe interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition. (including perception, thinking, memory and language.)61
8685949999Dual Processinga phenomenon can occur in two different ways, or as a result of two different processes, The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks62
8685950000behavior geneticsthe study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior63
8685950001environmentevery nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us, Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.64
8685950002chromosomesthreadlike structure made of DNA molecules that contain the genes65
8685950003DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) .(deoxyribonucleic acid) a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes66
8685950004genesthe biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein67
8685950005genomethe complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes68
8685950006identical twins (monozygotic)twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms69
8685950007fraternal twins (dizygotic)twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs; no genetically closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment70
8685950008molecular geneticistssubfield of biology that study the molecular structure and function of genes71
8685950009heritabilitythe proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes; this may vary depending on population range and the environment being studied72
8685950010interactionthe interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)73
8685950011epigeneticsThe study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.74
8685950012evolutionary psychologistsThe study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.75
8685950013natural selectionthe principle that, among range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations76
8685950014mutationsA random error in gene replication that leads to a change77
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AP World History Taboo Flashcards

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4413953109Amulets Worn by individuals Protection from spirits Give good luck Can be gems Can be statues0
4413967052Akkadian Empire Sargon the Great In town of Akkad Mesopotamia Bronze Age 2300 BC1
4413990722Cultural Hearths Ideas Innovations Civilizations Ideologies Culturally transformed the world2
4414002104Mandate of Heaven East Asia Philosophical Right to rule Must govern well and fairly Supported kings of Zhou dynasty3
4414006556Daoism Laozi China Avoid struggles Philosophical Religious4
4414013083Zigurats Temples Sumerians Babylonians Assyrians Mesopotamia5
4414021799Christianity Israel Jesus Bible Sacraments Prayer6
4414023927Judaism Palestine Abraham Torah Monotheistic Star of David7
4414026356Buddhism India Siddhartha Gautama Sotras 8 fold path 4 noble truths8
4414035346Hinduism No founder Vedas Reincarnation Polytheistic Nirvana9
4414055532Monsoons Alternating winds Tropical areas around the Indian Ocean Dry seasons Wet Seasons10
4414067144Griots Master storytellers who Advised kings Passed tales Africa Mali11
4414074791"Swahili Coast" Center of trade Islamization East Coast Africa 13th century12
4414082081Ghana African trading state South of Sahara Western Sudan Gold Salt13
4414093269Sundiata "Lion-King" 13th century Mali Formed foundation of great oral traditions West Africa14
4414098910Ibn Battuta Traveler Scholar Visited tropics Muslim Wrote about travels15
4414107060Marco Polo Traveled to China Late 13th century Wrote about Travels Started in Europe Merchant16
4414113015Stateless Societies- Has No hierarchy of government officials Kinship Relationships Live in villages Self-sufficient Thrived from 600-145017
4414114656Diasporic Communities Indian Ocean basin Own culture Judaism Influenced life Diaspora18
4414126758Heian Era Fujiwara Family Chinese painting Confucian Chinese poetry 16th Century19
4414141503Samurai Japan Police Military service Supported Lords Bushido Code20
4414153220Bakufu Medieval Period Until 16th century Japan Last feudal government Shoguns were heads21
4414162110Boyar Member Old aristocracy Russia Next in rank to a prince 16th century22
4414173251Romanov Family Family Rulers Russia Long-lasting Collapsed in early 20th century23
4414176081Cossacks Peasants Freedom Serfdom Territory Russia24
4414639300The Great Circuit New products Experimentation Transportation Clockwise network New labor systems25
4414649337Manila Galleons Exploration Manila Philippines Luxury Goods Silver26
4414654847Columbian Exchange Global Diffusion Plants Animals Humans Diseases27
4414657506Protestant Work Ethic Protestant Positive encouragement Wealth Individual Endeavors Tactics28
4414663472Encomienda System Americas Spanish settlers Labor Native Slaves Field and Mine work29
4414668484Berlin Conference Avoid war Colony Notify others of a intentions European state Africa30
4414675820James Cook- Exploration Australia Southeast Shore Suitable for colonization British settlement31
4414677482Company Men Organize trade Protect warehouses Protect offices East India Company European Outposts32
4414680659Sepoy Rebellion Conflict British government Colonial Imperialism India Lasted 3 years33
4414682398Nawabs Muslim Princes Control South Asia Refers to Males34
4414685165Panama Canal 10 years to build Industrialization Atlantic Ocean Pacific Ocean Caribbean35
4414694821Tropical Dependencies Industrialization Africa Asia South Pacific 19th Century36
4414702280Indian National Conference Larger Role Indians Civil Service South East Asia Government37
4414704046Rammohun Roy Nationalism 19th Century Pan-India Spread idea Southeast Asia38
4414705246Herbert Spencer Survival of the fittest Successful Races Individuals Ability39
4414710454Osama Bin Laden World Trade Center 9/21/2001 Plane Terrorist Al Qaeda40
4414712967Privatization Not state-owned Property Private Ownership Independence41
4414714529Marketization Economics Labor Goods Services Property42
4414718700Fragmentation Loyalty Language Religion Ethnicity Cultural Identity43
4414720724WWI Reparations Germany Fourteen Points Treaty of Versailles Trench Warfare44
4414724201NAFTA Integration Freedom Expansion Countries Migration45
4414728644Compressed Modernity- Rapid Growth Economy Modernization Political46
4414732161Green Revolution- Agriculture Environment Fertilization Seeds Soil47
4414737003WWII Facism Communism Truman Eisenhower Atomic Bomb48
4414742708Global Pop Culture Music Movies Influence American culture Computers49
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AP World History Study guide Flashcards

Foundations, Classical, and Post Classical: Time Period: 2m to 1450 CE

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8398863434Big HistoryA combination of human history and cosmic history0
8398863435Big PictureLarger patterns of World History1
8398863436HominidHomininae, family of human like creatures2
8399039787bipeadismThe ability to walk right on two legs3
8399039788Homo habilisextinct species of upright east African hominid having some advanced humanlike characteristics. Made stone tools and ate meat4
8399039789Homo erectusRemains found in Eurasia; migrated out of Africa5
8399039790Homo sapiensHumankind; upstart primate whose entire history occurred in the few minutes on December 31st6
8399039791Birthplace of HumankindAfrica7
8414441007Paleolithic EraOld Stone Age8
8414441008Agricultural Revolutiona period in which humans began to grow crops instead of gathering plants9
8414441009civilizationA complex, highly organized social order10
84144410103500 BCEWhen first cities and states began to emerge; after the beginning of agriculture11
8414441011B.C.EBefore the Common Era12
8414441012C.ECommon Era13
8414441013B.CBefore Christ14
8414441014A.DAnno Domini, year of the lord; after the death of Christ15
8414441015Patriarchya nearly universal system involving the subordination of femininity to masculinity16
8414441016Paleolithic ArtThe rock are of gathering and hunting people found in Africa, Europe, Australia and elsewhere17
8414441017Gathering and HuntingForagers or food collectors rather than food producers18
8414441018Human RevolutionOccurred in Africa, where culture is defined as learned or invented ways of living19
8414441019Ice AgeWhen thick ice sheets covered much of the Northern Hemisphere20
8414441020Global DispersionMembers of our species (Homo sapiens) have migrated to every environmental niche on the planet21
8414441021Land BridgesAn advantage from the Ice Age. Water froze, sea levels dropped and these were created22
8414441022Bering Straitland bridge -- Native Americans crossed this former land bridge from Asia to the Americas23
8414441023Lascaux CavePlace where most Paleolithic Art came from. Located in southern France24
8414441024Venus of WillendorfThis Old Stone Age statuette exhibits exaggerated female features. Found in Eurasia25
8414441025migration to AustraliaCame from Indonesia and involved a human affair, the use of boats26
8414441026DreamtimeAn elaborate and complex outlook on the world, and it recounted the beginning of time27
8414441027Clovis CultureThe earliest widespread and distinctive culture of North America (pg 18)28
8414441028Austronesian speaking peopleTraced back to southern China, oceanic voyagers settled everywhere in the pacific basin29
8414441029Paleolithic SocietiesSmall, consisted of bands of 25-50 people and stood in terms of kinship30
8414441030life expectancyHunters and gatherers life expectancy was low, 35 years average, danger found in nature31
8414441031Jomon FigurinesCreated some of the world's first pottery, canoes, bowls, and etc from the wood32
8414441032San peopleindigenous hunter gather group in Southern Africa (Kalahari Desert). Participated in many sexual encounters.33
8414441033Kalahari DesertA desert in southwestern Africa - largely Botswana. Place where the San people resided34
8414441034Statues of Ain GhazalLocated in the modern state of Jordan35
8414441035DomesticationSelective growing or breeding of plants and animals to make them more useful to humans.36
8414441036Fertile Crescentan arc-shaped region in Southwest Asia, with rich soil37
8414441037Large MammalsIn many parts of the world, many large animals became extinct after the birth of humankind suggesting that humankind and climate are extinction factors38
8414441038TeosinteWild processors of maize, corn39
8414441039Global spread of AgricultureAgriculture spread to adjacent areas eventually encompassing almost all the world's people. (Pg 28)40
8414441040ChiefdomsCentralized political systems with authority vested in formal, usually hereditary, offices or titles41
8430414940CahokiaAn important agricultural chiefdom of North America that flourished around 1100 C.E.42
8430414941CatalhuyukOne of the first Neolithic villages (located in modern day Turkey)43
8430414942Sumer city statesLocated in southern Mesopotamia (located in present day Iraq) gave a rise to the world's earliest written language, which initially was used by officials to record the goods received by various temples.44
8430414943Egypt civilizationTook shape as a unified territorial state in which cities were rather less prominent.45
8430414944Nubian civilizationA separate civilization( from Egyptian civilizations) that was located farther south along the Nile46
8430414945Norte Chico civilizationThe place where 25 urban centers emerged from (located in the Caral, Supe River Valley,). They have many monumental architect: platforms, apartments, and other Urban parts of life.47
8430414946Quipuknotted cords of various lengths and colors used by the Inca to keep financial records48
8430414947Indus River ValleyA valley and early civilization along the Indus River, one of the longest rivers in the world.49
8430414948First Civilizations7 first civilizations emerged independently in locations scattered across the planet, all within a few thousands years, from 3500 to 1000 B.C.E50
8430414949Xia Dynasty2070-1600 B.C.E, whose legendary monarch Wu organized flood control projects that mastered the waters and made them to flow in great channels.51
8430414950Zhou Dynasty1046-771 B.C.E., substantially enlarged the Chinese state, erected lavish stone tombs for their rulers, and buried thousands of human sacrifice victims to accompany them to the next world. Also emerged a new political ideology known as the Son of Heaven52
8430414951Olmec1200 B.C.E, based on an agricultural economy of maize, bean, and squash. Their cities emerged from a series of competing chiefdoms and became53
8430414953Epic of GilgameshMesopotamian narrative poem that was first told in Sumer54
8430414954Teotihuacan"The Place of the Gods"; first planned city in the Americas in the Valley of Mexico55
8430414956Reasons states were establishedto continue kinships on a higher level, and to hold civilizations together despite tensions in their societies56
8430414957ZigguratA rectangular tiered temple or terraced mound erected by the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians57
8430414958Cunieforma system of writing with wedge-shaped symbols invented by the sumerians around 3000 B.C.58
8430414959HieroglyphicsAn ancient Egyptian writing system in which pictures were used to represent ideas and sounds59
8430414960Pictographsthe Indus River Valley people used this to represent sounds and words60
8430414961Function of writingcommunication, everyday use, and trade61
8430414962Olmec HeadGiant stone heads from Olmec civilization that may have represented Olmecs living at the time. Dates back to the first millennium62
8430414963Tigris and EuphratesTwo major rivers of Mesopotamia63
8430414964Nile RiverThe river in which early kingdoms in Egypt were centered around.64
8430414965city-statesa city with political and economic control over the surrounding countryside65
8430414966Phoenicianspeople of Southwest Asia who began to trade around 1100 B.C.66
8430414967Indo-EuropeansA group of nomadic peoples who may have come from the steppes67
8430414968Asia Minorthe western Asian peninsula comprising most of modern-day Turkey, known to the Greeks as Anatolia68
8430414969PalestineA territory in the Middle East on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Disputed with Israel.69
8430414970Minoan Civilizationa civilization that existed on the Mediterranean island of Crete70
8430414971Chariot Technologyit provided a fearsome military potential that enabled various chariot driving people, like Hitties, to threaten ancient civilizations71
8430414972Persia500 B.C.E, the largest and most impressive of the world's empire. located on the Iranian plateau72
8430414973Ahura MazdaPersian creator god, god of goodness and light73
8430414974Hoplitesheavily armed foot soldiers74
8430414975Spartaa greek city-state known for its strength and trained warriors75
8430414976Athensa city-state in ancient Greece democracy the arts76
8430414977Peloponnesian Wara war in which Athens and its allies were defeated by the league centered on Sparta77
8430414978Alexander the GreatKing of Macedonia who conquered Greece, Egypt, and Persia78
8430414980Punic Warsa series of wars fought between Rome and Carthage for control of the Mediterranean79
8430414981Republican Governmenttype of government in which power is exercised by representatives chosen by the people80
8430414982Julius CaesarAmbitious leader who brought order to Rome81
8430414983Octavian AugustusRoman statesman who established the Roman Empire and became emperor in 27 BC.82
8430414984Roman Empireestablished by the emperor Octavian Augustus83
8430414985ChristianityUsed to support Roman rulw84
8484711729queen BoudicaShe led a revolt in 60-61 c.e, against the Celtic people of eastern Britain85
8484712347Qin Shihuangdihe succeeded in reunifying China86
8484713088Qin Dynasty-developed Bureaucracy -aristocracy -legalism -great populations -success in agriculture87
8484713089Han DynastyChinese dynasty that ruled for most of the period from 202 B.C. to A.D. 22088
8484713573Son of HeavenTitle of the ruler of China, first known from the Zhou dynasty.89
8484713944Mandate of Heaventhe belief that the Chinese king's right to rule came from the gods90
8485095230gunpowder revolutionthe military advances that resulted from the development of gunpowder weaponry91
8484714541Wudia Han emperor, who established an imperial academy for training officials for an emerging bureaucracy with curriculum based on Confucius92
8484715503Trung TracOne of 2 sisters that raised an army and briefly drove the Chinese from Vietnam. One of 2 sisters that raised an army and briefly drove the Chinese from Vietnam.93
8484715859220 C.E HanCollaspe of the Han Dynasty94
8484715871476 C.E Romethe collapse of the Roman empire95
8484716500XionguThe nomadic people to the north of China. China built the Great Wall to keep them out.96
8484716501Germansthey were a problem to the weakened Roman Empire, and their population made it worse. And they entered the empire in the 4th century97
8484716957Different changes post Rome and Han-a blended culture of Latin and German was created the foundation of the hybrid civilization in Western Europe -decline of Urban life98
8484717160Mauryan Empirethe largest of India's short experiments with a large scale political system99
8484718304Arthashastraa famous treatise that articulated a pragmatic political philosophy for Mauryan rulers100
8484718643Ashokaof the Mauryan empire from 273 BC to 232 BC. A convert to Buddhism.101
8484718644Gupta EmpireGolden Age of India; ruled through central government but allowed village power; restored Hinduism102
8484721043ConfuciusA Chinese philosopher and teacher whose beliefs had a great influence on Chinese life103
8484721044AnalectsThe book that Kong Fuzi wrote and that stresses the values and ideas of Confucianism.104
8484721516Lessons for WomenBook written by Ban Zhao, that counseled women to serve men and advocated for education for women105
8484721854Filial Pietyrespect shown by children for their parents and elders106
8484723632Daoisma Chinese philosophy concerned with obtaining long life and living in harmony with nature107
8484724006Sanskrit(Hinduism) an ancient language of India (the language of the Vedas and of Hinduism)108
8484724210BrahminsThe priest varna of the caste system.109
8484724782Siddhartha Gautamaseen as the Buddha, the Enlightened One110
8484922143Bhagavad GitaA book in popular Hinduism that was a response to Buddhism and made reaching moksha way easier.111
8484925774ZarathustraPersian prophet who founded Zoroastrianism (circa 628-551 BC)112
8484928912Ahura MazdaGod of Zoroastrianism113
8484931638Hippocratic Oatha set of promises about patient care that new doctors make when they start practicing medicine114
8484932130Judaismbelief in a single God laid the foundation of both Christianity and Islam115
8484933870MettaIn Buddhist terminology, loving-kindness116
8484943069Zoroastrian vanishes in Persiainvolved effects in Buddhism and Judaism117
8484963481Wang Mang reforms and assassinationled to this due to: -Opposition from wealthy landowners -nomadic invasions -poor harvest -floods -famine118
8484972733Indian caste systemEveryone is born into a caste for life, which determined your job and who you can socialize with119
8484973235varna hierarchyfour ranked classes120
8484975250Dharmathe fulfillment of one's social and religious duties in Hinduism121
8484975851ostracismdeliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups122
8484976705Hammurabi's codeA set of 282 laws governing daily life in Babylon; the earliest known collection of written laws123
8484980232LatifundiaHuge estates bought up by newly wealthy Roman citizens124
8484995556Spartacus Rebelliona slave gladiator named Spartacus led 70 other slaves from gladiator school to bid for freedom125
8485003077Ban ZhouLessons for Women, advocated for education available to all children126
8485006336jatissubcastes127
8485007024dowrymoney or property brought by a woman to her husband at marriage128
8485007732empress wuEmpress of China during the Tang dynasty, she ruled ruthlessly and brought prosperity to China129
8485010536Griotsa west African storyteller130
8485019062OlmecMesoamerica's first known civilization builders131
8485019720Mayanthe language spoken by the Maya people132
8485020654MocheCulture that flourished along the northern coast of Peru from around A.D. 100 to A.D. 700133
8485031313nazcaSouth American civilization famous for its massive aerial-viewable formations134
8485032732kivasunderground ceremonial chambers135
8485036288Corn based agriculturemaize136
8485037549silk roadsAncient trade routes that extended from the Roman empire in the west to China in the east.137
8485039000malay peninsulaa peninsula in southeastern Asia occupied by parts of Malaysia and Thailand and Myanmar138
8485040681inca roadsincluded bridges, causeways, stairways, large and small rest stations139
8485042578ibn battutaMuslim who traveled the Muslim world in Africa, and recorded his journeys140
8485045446sui dynastybrought China together. Rules 30 years, build Grand Canal (dynasty)141
8485047535hangzhoucapital of song dynasty142
8485048588Tang Dynastythe imperial dynasty of China from 618 to 907143
8485049506song dynastythe imperial dynasty of China from 960 to 1279; noted for art and literature and philosophy144
8485050256tribute systemA system in which defeated peoples were forced to pay a tax in the form of goods and labor.145
8485076519trung sistersTwo Vietnamese sisters who launched a major revolt against the Chinese presence in Vietnam in 39ce.146
8485077550The Tale of GenjiA Japanese literary masterpiece about court life written by Lady Murasaki147
8485092718The Pillow Bookbook written by Sei Shonagon; talked about court life148
8485101036Asian Buddismspread of Buddism from india to asia to provide a measure of cultural / religious commonality across the vast region149
8485108830Buddhist monasteriesreligious communities where Buddha's followers stayed, studied, and meditated150
8485111428charlemagneKing of the Franks who conquered much of Western Europe, great patron of literature and learning151
8485112748constantinopleA place previously known as Byzantium which became the capitol of the Roman Empire or "new Rome"152
8485114107justinianByzantine emperor who held the eastern frontier of his empire against the Persians153
8485114794orthodox churchthe church that followed the Eastern traditions of Christianity as opposed to the Western traditions154
8485116500cyril and methodiusbrothers and christian missionaries; used slavic language to convert moravians to christianity155
8485118672third romeRussian claim to be the successor of the Roman and Byzantine empires156
8485119694meccathe holiest city of Islam; Muhammad's birthplace157
8485124801pillars of islamthe five duties of a Muslim, Faith, prayer, alms, fasting, and pilgrimage158
8485129650ummathe Muslim community or people, considered to extend from Mauritania to Pakistan159
8485131583people of the bookwhat Muslims called Christians and Jews which means that they too only believe in one god160
8485148918sunni muslimMajority of the Muslims; believe succesor of Muhhamad can be an elected caliph.161
8485148919shia muslim162
8485151396kaabaThe most sacred temple of Islam, located at Mecca163
8485151397ulamaThe theologians and legal experts of Islam. Best known as the arbiters of sharia law.164
8485152931imamsShi'a religious leaders who traced their descent to Ali's successors.165
8485157416xiongnuA confederation of nomadic peoples living beyond the northwest frontier of ancient China.166
8485158138bedouina nomadic Arab who lives in the Arabian, Syrian, or North African deserts167
8485159059kaghanSupreme ruler of a Turkic nomadic confederation.168
8485159891al-Razigreatest physician of the Muslim world169
8485161074ibn sinaA Persian doctor that showed how diseases spread from one person to another.170
8485161756mongol empireThe largest unified land empire in history which was created by Genghis Khan and his successors.171
8485163558marco poloVenetian traveler who explored Asia in the 13th century and served Kublai Khan (1254-1324)172
8485165820khubilai khangrandson of chinggis khan who ruled china from 1271 to 1294173
8485167654Chinggis khandid not establish a centralized government in the lands he conquered.174
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AP World History Unit 2B Flashcards

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8203286253twiceThe Tang Dynasty was ___ as big as the Sui Dynasty0
8203292059bring crops and agriculture between north and south ChinaWhat was the purpose of the first Grand Canal?1
8203297732European feudalsimknights followed chivalry, major usage of serfs and benefices, used fiefs, more hierarchical, combined with some monarchical forms of government2
8203304915Japanese feudalismsamurai followed bushido, used during bakufu government, daimyos controlled army, bushi controlled land, serfs not common3
8203321532seppukua form of suicide by self-disembowelment, commonly used by ancient Japanese samurai4
8203326176Tartarsthe Russian name given to the Mongols5
8203328766RussiThe Mongols had the most connection with ___.6
8203347017patronsomeone who commissions an artist to create something7
8203349941ethnocentrismevaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture8
8203357988Portugal___ had the first advancements along the West African coast9
8203363078KoreansWhich group of people brought Buddhism to Japan?10
8203367228ancient Chinese historyIn Chinese imperial examination system, elites required to be knowledgeable in___11
8203376702abhorrantrepugnant; disgusting12
8203391635feudalismthe European social, economic, and political system of the Middle Ages; consisted of kings, nobles, vassals, peasants, and slaves13
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AP World History Historical Thinking Skills Flashcards

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4739542187Crafting Historical Arguments from Historical Evidence: *Argumentation*Can you identify and analyze another writer's thesis? Can you craft an effective and persuasive thesis of your own?0
4739542188Crafting Historical Arguments from Historical Evidence: *Use of Evidence*Can you weigh and measure the strengths and weaknesses of various sources and other pieces of evidence?1
4739542189Chronological Reasoning: *Causation*Can you identify and explain cause and effect? Do you know the differences between causation (*one thing causing another*), correlation (*one thing happening along with another in a way that is related, but not necessarily because of it*), and coincidence (*things happening together by chance*)? Can you distinguish between long-term, medium-term, and short-term causes? Or between competing explanations for why something happens?2
4739542190Chronological Reasoning: *Continuity and Change Over Time*Can you trace a trend or development over a long period of time? Can you discuss which elements of that trend or development remain largely the same, and which change as time passes?3
4739542191Chronological Reasoning: *Periodization*Do you understand how and why historians divide time into different historical periods? Are you aware of competing methods of periodization, and can you evaluate their strengths and weaknesses?4
4739542192Comparison and Contexualization: *Comparison*Can you draw useful comparisons over time (*one specific trend or geographical region in different historical eras*) or place (*two or more regions during the same time period*)? Are you aware that genuine comparison involves *analyzing likenesses AND differences*?5
4739542193Comparison and Contexualization: *Contextualization*Can you connect specific events and facts to wider settings and to broader trends?6
4739542194Historical Interpretation and Synthesis: *Interpretation*Can you read and analyze pieces of historical evidence with an eye to the point of view and possible bias? Do you understand the various ways that *different forms of historical evidence (including myths and oral traditions, works of art and architecture, graphs and charts, diaries and autobiographies, government documents, and so on) can be taken advantage of*? Can you discuss the historical consensus about a key event or trend might change over time or vary from country to country?7
4739542195Historical Interpretation and Synthesis: *Synthesis*Can you bring together various--and even contradictory--sources, explanatory theories, and pieces of evidence to arrive at a useful and convincing understanding of a historical problem or argument? Do you have a sense of how insights from other scholarly disciplines, such as archaeology, statistics, and the environmental sciences, can aid historians in their research?8
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