| 2236438896 | descent with modification | a phrase Darwin used in proposing that Earth's many species are descendants of ancestral species that were different from the present-day species | | 0 |
| 2236438897 | evolution | either descent from modification or a change in the genetic composition of a population from generation to generation | | 1 |
| 2236438898 | Carolus Linnaeus | Swedish physician and botanist who sought to classify life's diversity, he developed the binomial format for naming species | | 2 |
| 2236438899 | fossil | the remains or traces of organisms from the past | | 3 |
| 2236438900 | strata | superimposed layers of sedimentary rock | | 4 |
| 2236438901 | paleontology | the study of fossils | | 5 |
| 2236438902 | catastrophism | the principle that events in the past occurred suddenly and were caused by mechanisms different from those operating in the present | | 6 |
| 2236438903 | uniformitarianism | the principle that mechanisms of change are constant over time | | 7 |
| 2236438904 | Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck | proposed use-and-disuse and inheritance of acquired characteristics | | 8 |
| 2236438905 | use and disuse | the (false) idea that parts of the body that are used extensively become larger and stronger, while those that are not used deteriorate | | 9 |
| 2236438906 | inheritance of acquired characteristics | the (false) idea that acquired phenotypic traits could be passed to one's offspring | | 10 |
| 2236438907 | Charles Darwin | 1809-1882, rode on the HMS beagle, developed ideas of natural selection and wrote On the Origin of Species | | 11 |
| 2236438908 | adaptations | inherited characteristics of organisms that enhance their survival and reproduction in specific environments | | 12 |
| 2236438909 | natural selection | a process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits | | 13 |
| 2236438910 | artificial selection | humans modifying other species over many generations by selecting and breeding individuals that possess desired traits | | 14 |
| 2236438911 | homology | similarity resulting from common ancestry | | 15 |
| 2236438912 | homologous strutures | anatomical structures that represent variations on a structural theme that was present in their common ancestor | | 16 |
| 2236438913 | vestigial structures | remnants of features that served important functions in the organisms' ancestors | | 17 |
| 2236438914 | evolutionary tree | a diagram that reflects evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms | | 18 |
| 2236438915 | convergent evolution | the independent evolution of similar features in different lineages
(although something may evolve from different ancestors, structures can be formed by means of solving the same problem as opposed to the trait being inherited) | | 19 |
| 2236438916 | analogous | when species share features because of convergent evolution | | 20 |
| 2236438917 | biogeography | the geographic distribution of species | | 21 |
| 2236438918 | Pangaea | Earth's supercontinent | | 22 |
| 2236438919 | endemic | found nowhere else in the world | | 23 |
| 2236438920 | microevolution | small changes in allele frequencies in a population over generations | | 24 |
| 2236438921 | natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow | three main mechanisms that can cause allele frequency change | | 25 |
| 2236438922 | genetic variation | differences among individuals in the composition of their genes or other DNA segments | | 26 |
| 2236438923 | average heterozygosity | the average percentage of loci that are heterozygous | | 27 |
| 2236438924 | geographic variation | differences in the genetic composition of separate populations | | 28 |
| 2236438925 | cline | a graded change in a character along a geographic axis | | 29 |
| 2236438926 | mutation | a change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism's DNA | | 30 |
| 2236438927 | population | a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and interbreed | | 31 |
| 2236438928 | gene pool | all copies of every type of allele at every locus in all members of the population | | 32 |
| 2236438929 | Hardy-Weinberg principle | a description of the gene pool of a population that is not evolving | | 33 |
| 2236438930 | p squared | expected frequency of dominant homozygous genotype | | 34 |
| 2236438931 | p | frequency of one dominant allele | | 35 |
| 2236438932 | 2pq | expected frequency of heterozygous genotype | | 36 |
| 2236438933 | q squared | expected frequency of recessive homozygous genotype | | 37 |
| 2236438934 | q | frequency of one recessive allele | | 38 |
| 2236438935 | p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 | the equation for the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium | | 39 |
| 2236438936 | (1) no mutations, (2) random mating, (3) no natural selection, (4) extremely large population size, (5) no gene flow | conditions for the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium | | 40 |
| 2236438937 | adaptive evolution | evolution that results in a better match between organisms and theri environment | | 41 |
| 2236438938 | genetic drift | the result of chance events that can cause allele frequencies to fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next | | 42 |
| 2236438939 | founder effect | when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population, this smaller group may establish a new population whose gne pool differs from the source population | | 43 |
| 2236438940 | bottleneck effect | a severe and random drop in population size which may result in an under or over represented allele frequency. | | 44 |
| 2236438941 | gene flow | the transfer of alleles into or out of a population | | 45 |
| 2236438942 | relative fitness | the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to the contributions of other individuals | | 46 |
| 2236438943 | directional selection | when conditions favor individuals exhibiting one extreme of a phenotypic range, therefore shifting a population's frequency curve for the phenotypic character in one direction or the other | | 47 |
| 2236438944 | disruptive selection | when conditions favor individuals at both extremes of a phenotypic range over individuals with intermediate phenotypes | | 48 |
| 2236438945 | stabilizing selection | when conditions favor intermediate variants of a phenotypic trait | | 49 |
| 2236438946 | sexual selection | a form of selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates | | 50 |
| 2236438947 | sexual dimorphism | a differences between the to sexes in secondary sexual characteristics that helps attract a mate-these distinctions include differences in size, color, ornamentation, and behavior. | | 51 |
| 2236438948 | intrasexual selection | same-sex competition for a mate of the opposite sex | | 52 |
| 2236438949 | point mutation | a change in one base of a gene | | 53 |
| 2236438950 | intersexual selection | choosing of a member of the opposite sex by an individual | | 54 |
| 2236438951 | neutral variation | differences in DNA sequence that do not confer a selective advantage or disadvantage | | 55 |
| 2236438952 | balancing selection | when natural selection maintains two or more forms in a population (examples: heterozygote advantage and frequency-dependent selection) | | 56 |
| 2236438953 | heterozygote advantage | when individuals who are heterozygous at a particular locus have geater fitness than do both kinds of homozygotes | | 57 |
| 2236438954 | frequency-dependent selection | the fitness of a phenotype depends on how common it is in the population | | 58 |
| 2236438955 | speciation | the process by which one species splits into two or more species | | 59 |
| 2236438956 | macroevolution | the broad pattern of evolution above the species level | | 60 |
| 2236438957 | biological species concept | defines a species as a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring | | 61 |
| 2236438958 | reproductive isolation | the existence of biological factors that impede members of two species from interbreeding and producing viable, fertile offspring | | 62 |
| 2236438959 | hybrid | offspring that result from an interspecific mating | | 63 |
| 2236438960 | prezygotic barriers | barriers that block fertilization from occurring | | 64 |
| 2236438961 | postzygotic barriers | reproductive barriers that contribute to reproductive isolation after the hybrid zygote is formed | | 65 |
| 2236438962 | habitat isolation | two species that occupy different habitats within the same area may encounter each other rarely if at all | | 66 |
| 2236438963 | temporal isolation | species that breed during different times of day, seasons, or years | | 67 |
| 2236438964 | behavioral isolation | courtship rituals that attract mates and other behaviors unique to a species and not interspecifically | | 68 |
| 2236438965 | mechanical isolation | mating is attempted, but morphological differences prevent successful completion | | 69 |
| 2236438966 | gametic isolation | sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize the eggs of another species | | 70 |
| 2236438967 | reduced hybrid viability | the genes of different parent species may interact in ways that impair the hybrid's development or survival in its environment | | 71 |
| 2236438968 | reduced hybrid fertility | even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile (the chromosomes of the two parent species may different in number or structure so meiosis in the hybrids may fail to produce normal gametes) | | 72 |
| 2236438969 | hybrid breakdown | some first-generation hybrids are viable and fertile, but when they mate with another of either parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile | | 73 |
| 2236438970 | morphological species concept | a concept that characterizes a species by body shape and other structural features | | 74 |
| 2236438971 | ecological species concept | a concept that views a species in terms of its ecological niche | | 75 |
| 2236438972 | phylogenetic species concept | a concept that defines a species as the smallest group of individuals that share a common ancestor | | 76 |
| 2236438973 | allopatric speciation | a population forms a new species while geographically isolated from its parent population | | 77 |
| 2236438974 | sympatric speciation | a subset of a population forms a new species without geographic separation | | 78 |
| 2236438975 | polyploidy | the result of an accident during cell division that results in extra sets of chromosomes | | 79 |
| 2236438976 | autopolyploid | an individual that has more than two chromosome sets that are all derived from a single species (sometimes due to a failure of cell division when the reproductive cell accidentally contains all of the parent's chromosomes instead of the usual half) | | 80 |
| 2236438977 | tetraploid | an individual that has 4 sets of chromosomes instead of the usual 2 (4n) | | 81 |
| 2236438978 | allopolyploid | when two different species interbreed and produce hybrid offspring | | 82 |
| 2236438979 | habitat differentiation | when genetic factors enable a subpopulation to exploit a habitat or resource not used by the parent population | | 83 |
| 2236438980 | hybrid zone | a region in which members of different species meet and mate, producing at least some offspring of mixed ancestry | | 84 |
| 2236438981 | reinforcement | when hybrids are less fit than members of their parent species, natural selection strengthens prezygotic barriers to reproduction, thus reducing the formation of unfit hybrids | | 85 |
| 2236438982 | punctuated equilibrium | when new species change most as they branch from a parent species and then change little for the rest of their existance | | 86 |
| 2236438983 | gradualism | when species diverge from one another much more gradually over time | | 87 |
| 2236438984 | protocell | droplet with membrane that maintains an internal chemistry different from that of their surroundings | | 88 |
| 2236438985 | water vapor, nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide | chemical components of Earth's early atmosphere | | 89 |
| 2236438986 | ribozymes | RNA Catalysts | | 90 |
| 2236438987 | RNA | first genetic material | | 91 |
| 2236438988 | relative dating | using the order of rock strata to estimate the age of a fossil | | 92 |
| 2236438989 | radiometric dating | using the rate of decay of radioactive isotopes to determine the age of a fossil | | 93 |
| 2236438990 | half-life | the time required for 50% of the parent isotope to decay | | 94 |
| 2236438991 | geologic record | The division of Earth's history into time periods, grouped into three eons- Archaean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic- and further subdivided into eras, periods, and epochs. | | 95 |
| 2236438992 | 3.9 billion years ago | when prokaryotes probably first appeared on earth | | 96 |
| 2236438993 | stromatolites | layered rocks that form when certain prokaryotes bind thin films of sediment together | | 97 |
| 2236438994 | 2.1 billion years ago | when eukaryotes probably first appeared on earth | | 98 |
| 2236438995 | endosymbiont theory | theory which posits that mitochondria and plastids (chloroplasts and related organelles) were formerly small prokaryotes that began living within larger cells | | 99 |
| 2236438996 | the hypothesis of serial endosymbiosis | hypothesis that supposes that mitochondria evolved before plastids through a sequence of endosymbiotic events | | 100 |
| 2236438997 | cambrian explosion | the "explosion" of new animal phyla forming 535-525 million years ago | | 101 |
| 2236438998 | plate techtonics | continents are part of gate plates of earth's crust that essentially float on the hot, underlying portion of the mantle | | 102 |
| 2236438999 | mass extinction | the result of disruptive global environmental changes that have caused the rate of extinction to increase dramatically | | 103 |
| 2236439000 | adaptive radiations | periods of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill different ecological roles in their communities | | 104 |
| 2236439001 | heterochrony | an evolutionary change in the rate or timing of developmental events | | 105 |
| 2236439002 | paedomorphosis | if reproductive organ development accelerates compared to other organs, the sexually mature stage of a species may retain body features that were juvenile structures in an ancestral species | | 106 |
| 2236439003 | homeotic genes | master regulatory genes, genes that determine basic features such as wings or legs | | 107 |
| 2236439004 | evo-devo | a field of study in which evolutionary and developmental biology converge | | 108 |
| 2236439005 | exaptations | structures that evolve in one context but become co-opted for another function | | 109 |
| 2236439006 | taxonomy | the branch of biology dedicated to the naming and classification of all forms of life | | 110 |
| 2236439007 | binomial nomenclature | a two-part naming system that includes the organism's genus and species | | 111 |
| 2236439008 | embryonic homologies | anatomical homologies in embryos that are not visible in adult organisms | | 112 |
| 2236439009 | molecular homologies | shared characteristics on the molecular level | | 113 |
| 2236439010 | eutherian | placental | | 114 |
| 2236439011 | Hox | genes which control morphology | | 115 |
| 2236439012 | phylogeny | the evolutionary history of a species or group of species | | 116 |
| 2236439013 | phylogenic tree | a branching diagram grouping organisms according to their common ancestors | | 117 |
| 2236439014 | Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya | The three domains of life | | 118 |
| 2236439015 | cyanobacteria | the type of bacteria that drastically increased the oxygen content in the atmosphere | | 119 |
| 2236439016 | DNA, RNA, ribosome, protein | In eukaryotic cells, genes are located on _______ and get transcribed in the nucleus to make _______ which travels to the cytoplasm to get translated on a __________to make________. | | 120 |
| 2236439017 | Chi-Squared | a form of statistical analysis used to compare actual results with expected results | | 121 |
| 2236439018 | null hypothesis | no difference between control and variable/no statistically significant difference between test groups | | 122 |
| 2236439019 | the sum (for each different category) of (observed-expected^2/expected | how to calculate Chi-Squared | | 123 |
| 2236439020 | number of categories -1 | how to determine degrees of freedom | | 124 |
| 2236439021 | There is a statistically significant difference between the actual and expected values (not likely due to chance) | if chi squared is greater than the critical value.... | | 125 |
| 2236439022 | There is not a statistically significant difference between the actual and expected values (likely due to chance) | if chi squared is less than the critical value... | | 126 |
| 2236439023 | monophyletic group (clade) | pertaining to a group of taxa that consists of a common ancestor and all of its descendents | | 127 |
| 2236439024 | out group | a species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that contains the group of species being studied | | 128 |
| 2236439025 | morphology | the study of anatomical features of a species | | 129 |
| 2236439026 | parsimony | the search for the least complex explanation for an observed phenomenon | | 130 |
| 2236439027 | comparative anatomy | anatomical features that are similar and that can be compared to each other | | 131 |
| 2236439028 | analogy | Similarity between two species that is due to convergent evolution rather than to descent from a common ancestor with the same trait. | | 132 |
| 2236439029 | basal taxon | In a specified group of organisms, a taxon whose evolutionary lineage diverged early in the history of the group. | | 133 |
| 2236439030 | binomial | The two-part, latinized format for naming a species, consisting of the genus and specific epithet; a binomen. | | 134 |
| 2236439031 | branch point | The representation on a phylogenetic tree of the divergence of two or more taxa from a common ancestor. A ___ is usually shown as a dichotomy in which a branch representing the ancestral lineage splits into two branches, one for each of the two descendant lineages. | | 135 |
| 2236439032 | clade | A group of species that includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants. | | 136 |
| 2236439033 | cladistics | An approach to systematics in which organisms are placed into groups called clades based primarily on common descent. | | 137 |
| 2236439034 | class | In Linnaean classification, the taxonomic category above the level of order. | | 138 |
| 2236439035 | family | In Linnaean classification, the taxonomic category above genus. | | 139 |
| 2236439036 | family | In Linnaean classification, the taxonomic category above genus. | | 140 |
| 2236439037 | genus | A taxonomic category above the species level, designated by the first word of a species' two-part scientific name. | | 141 |
| 2236439038 | homoplasy | A similar (analogous) structure or molecular sequence that has evolved independently in two species. | | 142 |
| 2236439039 | horizontal gene transfer | The transfer of genes from one genome to another through mechanisms such as transposable elements, plasmid exchange, viral activity, and perhaps fusions of different organisms. | | 143 |
| 2236439040 | ingroup | A species or group of species whose evolutionary relationships we seek to determine. | | 144 |
| 2236439041 | kingdom | A taxonomic category, the second broadest after domain. | | 145 |
| 2236439042 | maximum likelihood | As applied to molecular systematics, a principle that states that when considering multiple phylogenetic hypotheses, one should take into account the hypothesis that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events, given certain rules about how DNA changes over time. | | 146 |
| 2236439043 | maximum parsimony | A principle that states that when considering multiple explanations for an observation, one should first investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts. | | 147 |
| 2236439044 | molecular clock | A method for estimating the time required for a given amount of evolutionary change, based on the observation that some regions of genomes evolve at constant rates. | | 148 |
| 2236439045 | molecular systematics | A scientific discipline that uses nucleic acids or other molecules to infer evolutionary relationships between different species. | | 149 |
| 2236439046 | monophyletic | Pertaining to a group of taxa that consists of a common ancestor and all of its descendants. A ___ taxon is equivalent to a clade. | | 150 |
| 2236439047 | neutral theory | The hypothesis that much evolutionary change in genes and proteins has no effect on fitness and therefore is not influenced by natural selection. | | 151 |
| 2236439048 | order | In Linnaean classification, the taxonomic category above the level of family. | | 152 |
| 2236439050 | outgroup | A species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that contains the group of species being studied. An ___ is selected so that its members are closely related to the group of species being studied, but not as closely related as any study-group members are to each other. | | 153 |
| 2236439052 | paraphyletic | Pertaining to a group of taxa that consists of a common ancestor and some, but not all, of its descendants. | | 154 |
| 2236439053 | PhyloCode | Proposed system of classification of organisms based on evolutionary relationships: Only groups that include a common ancestor and all of its descendants are named. | | 155 |
| 2236439054 | phylogenetic tree | A branching diagram that represents a hypothesis about the evolutionary history of a group of organisms. | | 156 |
| 2236439055 | phylogeny | The evolutionary history of a species or group of related species. | | 157 |
| 2236439056 | phylum | In Linnaean classification, the taxonomic category above class. | | 158 |
| 2236439057 | polyphyletic | Pertaining to a group of taxa derived from two or more different ancestors. | | 159 |
| 2236439058 | polytomy | In a phylogenetic tree, a branch point from which more than two descendant taxa emerge. A ___ indicates that the evolutionary relationships between the descendant taxa are not yet clear. | | 160 |
| 2236439059 | rooted | Describing a phylogenetic tree that contains a branch point (often, the one farthest to the left) representing the most recent common ancestor of all taxa in the tree. | | 161 |
| 2236439060 | shared ancestral character | A character, shared by members of a particular clade, that originated in an ancestor that is not a member of that clade. | | 162 |
| 2236439061 | shared derived character | An evolutionary novelty that is unique to a particular clade. | | 163 |
| 2236439062 | sister taxa | Groups of organisms that share an immediate common ancestor and hence are each other's closest relatives. | | 164 |
| 2236439063 | systematics | A scientific discipline focused on classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships. | | 165 |
| 2236439064 | taxon | A named taxonomic unit at any given level of classification. | | 166 |
| 2236439065 | taxonomy | A scientific discipline concerned with naming and classifying the diverse forms of life. | | 167 |
