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AP Biology Chapter 15 Flashcards

13585687260	Evolution	Genetic change in a species over time resulting in the development of genetic and phenotypic differences that are the basis of natural selection; descent of organisms from a common ancestor	0
13585687262	Vestigial structures	remnant of a structure that may have had an important function in a species' ancestors, but has no clear function in the modern species.	1
13585687268	Biogeography	Study of past and present distribution of organisms	2
13585687269	Natural selection	1. overpopulation leads to competition for limited resources 2. mutations lead to heritable variations in a population 3. differential survival and reproduction leads to survival of the fittest (not best)	3
13585687270	Fitness	Ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment	4
13585687271	Adaptation	modification in structure, function, or behavior that makes a species more suitable to its environment	5
13585687272	Artificial selection	Intentional breeding of certain traits, or combinations of traits, over others to produce a desirable outcome by humans.	6
13585687273	Transitional fossils	any fossilized remains of a life form that exhibits traits common to both an ancestral group and its derived descendant group	7
13585687274	Homologous	structures that are of similar origin in different species but have different functions; shows common ancestry	8
13585687275	Analogous	structure that has a similar function but different origins; does not show common ancestry	9

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13672026768	gross domestic product	measures total income of a nation, thought to be single best measure of a society's economic well being also measures total expenditure on economy's output of goods and services	0
13672026769	total income and total expenditure are the same	for an economy as a whole, income must equal expenditure	1
13672026770	measurement of gdp	the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time -total expenditure in economy -there is statistical discrepancy b/t total income and expenditure	2
13672026771	Y=C+I+G+NX	Identity Y=GDP C=consumption: spending by HH on goods and services, housing not included I=investment: purchase of goods that will be used in future to produce more goods, housing G=government purchases: salaries on govt workers, transfer payments NX=net exports: exports and imports (imp-ext)	3
13672026772	If total spending rises from one year to the next, then	1) the economy is producing a larger output of goods and services 2) goods sold at higher prices	4
13672026773	real gdp	the production of goods and services valued at constant prices, base year prices -only reflects quantity produced	5
13672026774	Nominal GDP	the production of goods and services valued at current prices -reflects both qproduced and services econ producing and prices of goods	6
13672026775	gdp deflator	-reflects only the prices of goods and services - measures the current level of prices relative to the level of prices in the abse year	7
13672026776	inflation	overall price level is rising	8
13672026777	inflation rate	the percentage change in some measure of the price level from one period to the next -gdp can take out inflation of nom gdp	9
13672026778	Is GDP a good measure of economic well-being?	-not perfect measure of well-being -leisure left out -omits value of goods and services produced at home (meal at home) -excludes quality of environment -no dist of income	10
13672026779	consumer price index	measure of overall cost of the goods and services bought by a typical consumer 1. fix the basket (4 hot dogs 2 ham) 2. find prices 3. compute basket costs 4. choose base year and compute index 5. compute infl rate	11
13672026780	inflation rate	the percentage increase in the price level from one year to the next	12
13672026781	core cpi	a measure of the overall cost of consumer goods and services excluding food and energy	13
13672026782	producer price index	a measure of the cost of a basket of goods and services bought by firms	14
13672026783	Problems in measuring the cost of living	1. substitution bias: go to better goods 2. introduction of new goods 3. unmeasured quality change: good deteriorates over years and price same, value of dollar falls bc lesser good for same dollars	15
13672026784	gdp deflator vs cpi	-gdp is services produced domestically and cpi is services bought by consumers -when price of oil rises, cpi rises more than gdp -cpi compares price of fixed basket to price of base, gdp compares price of currently produced goods to price of same goods in base year- group of goods change over time	16
13672026785	indexation	the automatic correction by law or contract of a dollar amount for the effects of inflation	17
13672026786	Cost-of-living adjustment (COLA)	raises wage when cpi raises	18
13672026787	Real and Nominal Interest Rates	real interest rate = nominal interest rate - inflation rate -nom=int rate as usually reported w/o a correction for effects of infl, how fast number of dollars in bank acc rise over time -real=int rate corrected for effects of inflation, how fast purchasing power of bank acc rises	19
13672026788	productivity	-why living standards vary sm around world -quantity of good and services produced from each unit of labor input	20
13672026789	determinants of productivity: physical capital per worker	-physical capital: the stock of equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services -a produced factor of production	21
13672026790	det of prod: human capital per worker	-human capital: knowledge and skills that workers aquire through education, training, and experience -refers to the resources expended transmitting this understanding to the labor force	22
13672026791	DoP: natural resources per worker	-nat resources: inputs into the production of goods and services that are provided by nature, such as land, rivers, and mineral deposits -renewable and nonrenewable	23
13672026792	DoP: technological knowledge	society's understanding of the best ways to produce goods and services, refers to society's understanding about how world works -common knowledge -proprietary knowledge: known bc company discovers it	24
13672026793	saving and investment	-can raise future productivity by investing more current resources in production of capital -but trade offs, devoting more resources to producing capital means less resources for goods for current consumption	25
13672026794	diminishing returns	as the stock of capital rises, the extra output produced from an additional unit of capital falls -inc in saving rate leads to higher growth only for a while -production function -in long run, higher saving = higher level of productivity and income but NOT high growth in variables	26
13672026795	catch up effect	-other things being equal, easier for country to grow fast if start out poor -small amts of capital investment can substantially raise workers' productivities	27
13672026796	foreign direct investment	-captial invest owned and operated by foreign entity	28
13672026797	foreign portfolio invest	-invest financed w foreign money but operated by dom residents	29
13672026798	externality	effect of ones actions on wellbeing of bystander -new ideas from individual enter society	30
13672026799	brain drain	the emigration of many of the most highly educated workers to rich countries, where these workers can enjoy a higher standard of living	31
13672026800	health and nutrition	healthier workers are more productive	32
13672026801	Property Rights and Political Stability	Policymakers should also protect property rights and promote political stability in order to achieve economic growth -prop rights: ability of ppl to exercise authority over the resources they own	33
13672026802	free trade	-inward oriented policies: attempted by poor countries, avoid interaction w rest of world to inc productivity and living standards -outward: better, integrate into world econ, trade is type of tech	34
13672026803	population growth	stretching nat resources diluting the capital stock promoting tech process	35
13672026804	natural rate of unemployment	the normal rate of unemployment around which the unemployment rate fluctuates	36
13672026805	labor force	number employed+unemployed	37
13672026806	unemployment rate	employed/labor force * 100	38
13672026807	labor force participation rate	labor force/adult population x 100	39
13672026808	cyclical unemployment	the deviation of unemployment from its natural rate	40
13672026809	discouraged workers	individuals who would like to work but have given up looking for a job -dont show up in unemployment stats	41
13672026810	How long are the unemployed without work?	- Most spells of unemployment are short - Most unemployment observed at any given time is long-term - Most people who become unemployed Will soon find jobs	42
13672026811	frictional unemployment	unemployment that occurs when people take time to find a job	43
13672026812	structural unemployment	unemployment that results because the number of jobs available in some labor markets is insufficient to provide a job for everyone who wants one	44
13672026813	sources of fric emp	-change in demand for labor among diff firms -changing patterns of int trade	45
13672026814	unemployment insurance	a government program that partially protects workers' incomes when they become unemployed -unemployment rate is an imperfect measure of nations overall level of econ well being	46
13672026815	collective bargaining	Process by which a union representing a group of workers negotiates with management for a contract -unions earn 10-20% more	47
13672026816	efficiency wages	above-equilibrium wages paid by firms to increase worker productivity	48
13672026817	financial system	the group of institutions in the economy that help to match one person's saving with another person's investment -moves economy's scarce resources from savers to borrowers	49
13672026818	financial market	-institutions through which a person who wants to save can directly supply funds to a person who wants to borrow -bond market and stock market	50
13672026819	bond market	-certificate of indebtedness that specifies the obligations of borrower to holder of bond -IOU -date of maturity: time loan repaid -rate of interest -principal: exchange for this promise of interest and eventual repayment	51
13672026820	characteristics of bonds:	-term: length of time until bond matures -credit risk: probability that borrower will fail to pay some of int or princ (failure to pay = default) junk bonds: v high int rate -tax treatment: the way tax laws treat the int earned on the bond municipal bonds: state and local govt iss. bonds	52
13672026821	the stock market	represents ownership in a firm, claim to profits that firm makes -equity finance: sale of stock to raise money -debt finance: sale of bonds -stock index: computed as an av of group of stock prices	53
13672026822	financial intermediaries	financial institutions through which savers can indirectly provide funds to borrowers	54
13672026823	banks	-FI, take deposits to make loans, charge borrowers slightly higher interest rate on loans -facilitate purchases of goods through checks against deposits w debit cards (medium of exch) -store of value: for wealth that ppl gain in past saving	55
13672026824	mutual funds	an institution that sells shares to the public and uses the proceeds to buy a portfolio of stocks and bonds -allow ppl w small amts of money to diversify holdings -give ordinary ppl access to skills of professional money managers -index funds: buy all the stock in a given stock index	56
13672026825	national saving	the total income in the economy that remains after paying for consumption and government purchases - S=I=Y-C-G - S=(Y-T-C)+(T-G)	57
13672026826	private saving	the amount of income that households have left after paying their taxes and paying for their consumption Y-T-C	58
13672026827	public saving	the amount of tax revenue that the government has left after paying for its spending (T-G) -T>G, govt runs budget surplus bc more money than spent, pub sav is pos number -T	59
13672026828	market for loanable funds	the market in which those who want to save supply funds and those who want to borrow to invest demand funds -saving=supply -investment=demand	60
13672026829	Saving Incentives Increase the Supply of Loanable Funds	if reform of tax laws encourage greater saving, result would be lower interest rate and greater invetment	61
13672026830	Investment Incentives Increase the Demand for Loanable Funds	if a reform of the tax laws encouraged greater investment, the result would be higher interest rates and greater saving	62
13672026831	The Effect of a Government Budget Deficit	-when govt spends more than TR, lower supply -crowding out: dec in investment that results from govt borrowing -when govt reduces nat saving by running a budget deficit, int rate rises and investment falls	63
13672026832	money	the set of assets in an economy that people regularly use to buy goods and services from other people.	64
13672026833	medium of exchange	an item that buyers give to sellers when they want to purchase goods and services.	65
13672026834	unit of account	the yardstick people use to post prices and record debts.	66
13672026835	store of value	an item that people can use to transfer purchasing power from the present to the future.	67
13672026836	liquidity	the ease with which an asset can be converted into the economy's medium of exchange.	68
13672026837	commodity money	money that takes the form of a commodity with intrinsic value.	69
13672026838	fiat money	money without intrinsic value that is used as money because of government decree.	70
13672026839	currency	the paper bills and coins in the hands of the public.	71
13672026840	demand deposits	balances in bank accounts that depositors can access on demand by writing a check.	72
13672026841	Federal Reserve (Fed)	the central bank of the United States.	73
13672026842	central bank	An institution designed to oversee the banking system and regulate the quantity of money in the economy.	74
13672026843	money supply	the quantity of money available in the economy.	75
13672026844	monetary policy	the setting of the money supply by policymakers in the central bank.	76
13672026845	reserves	deposits that banks have received but have not loaned out.	77
13672026846	fractional-reserve banking	a banking system in which banks hold only a fraction of deposits as reserves.	78
13672026847	reserve ratio	the fraction of deposits that banks hold as reserves.	79
13672026848	money multiplier	the amount of money the banking system generates with each dollar of reserves.	80
13672026849	bank capital	the resources a bank's owners have put into the institution.	81
13672026850	leverage	the use of borrowed money to supplement existing funds for purposes of investment.	82
13672026851	leverage ratio	the ratio of assets to bank capital.	83
13672026852	capital requirement	a government regulation specifying a minimum amount of bank capital.	84
13672026853	open-market operations	the purchase and sale of U.S. government bonds by the Fed.	85
13672026854	discount rate	the interest rate on the loans that the Fed makes to banks.	86
13672026855	reserve requirements	regulations on the minimum amount of reserves that banks must hold against deposits.	87
13672026856	federal funds rate	the short-term interest rate that banks charge one another for loans.	88
13672026857	how does open econ work	-buy/sell g/s in world product market -buy/sell capital assets such as stocks and bonds in world financial markets	89
13672026858	net exports (also trade balance)	value of exports-value of imports -also NCO -if pos, trade surplus -if neg, trade deficit -if zero, balanced trade	90
13672026859	factors that affect trade	-taste -income -price -ex rate -cost of transpot -govt laws	91
13672026860	international flow of g/s and flow of capital related	y-c-g=i+nx s=i+nx----s=saving s=i+nco -domestic spending=c+i+g	92
13672026861	nco: net cap outflow -diff b/t purchase of foreign asset by domestic and purches of dom asset by for	- foreign assets-domestic assets -when pos- capital flowing out -when neg- cap flowing in -influenced by RIR paid on foreign and dom assets, perceived econ and pol risks of holding asset abroad, govt policies that affect foreign owndership of dom asset	93
13672026862	trade deficit	-ex	94
13672026863	balanced trade	-ex=imp -nx=0 -y=c+i+g -saving=investment	95
13672026864	trade surplus	-ex>imp -nx>0 -y>c+i+g -saving>invest	96
13672026865	nominal exchange rate	the rate at which a person can trade the currency of one country for the currency of another -1$ for 60 yen -appreciation: inc in value of dollar -depreciation: dec in value	97
13672026866	real exchange rate	the rate at which a person can trade the goods and services of one country for the goods and services of another -1 lb am cheese for .5 lb swiss cheese -eP / Px P= price index for US basket Px= price index for foreign basket	98
13672026867	depreciation	ER cause exports to rise and imports to fall, buy more US goods and raise nX	99
13672026868	appreciation	imports rise and exports fall, NX falls, buy more foreign goods (dollar worth more there)	100
13672026869	purchasing power parity -describes forces that determine ex rate in long run	-theory of ER where unit of any currency can buy same Q goods in all countries -based on principle of law of one price same price everywhere -process of taking advantage of price differences in arbitrage in the end, the dollar must buy the same amt	101
13672026870	implications of PPP	-if purch power of dollar is always same at home and abroad, then real exch rate (relative price of dom and foreign goods) cannot change -nom exch rate b/t currencies of two countries must reflect their price levels -when central bank prints large quantities of money, the money loses value both in terms of the g/s it buys and terms of other currencies it can buy	102
13672026871	limitations of PPP	-many goods cannot be easily traded -foreign, domestic goods not perfect substitutes	103
13672026872	market for loanable funds	the market in which those who want to save supply funds and those who want to borrow to invest demand funds -LF=domestically generated flow of resources available	104
13672026873	net capital outflow	-NCO pos, net outflow -NCO neg, net inflow -high IR, supply inc for LF, demand dec	105
13672026874	market for foreign currency exchange	coordinates people who want to exchange the domestic currency for the currency of other countries	106
13672026875	government budget deficits	-reduce supply LF by supply left, IR inc and crowd out investment -spending>revenue -appreciation, trade balance towards deficit	107
13672026876	trade policy	DONT AFFECT TRADE BALANCE -tariff, import quota (demand inc)	108
13672026877	pol instability & capital flight	-capital flight: large and sudden reduction in deamnd for assets located in country	109
13672026878	the business cycle	fluctuations in the economy, correspond to changes in business conditions -really irregular and hard to predict -real gdp and investment decline during recessions and unemployment inc (most macro quantities fluc together but at diff amounts)	110
13672026879	classical theory: money is a veil, nominal variables may be the first things we see when we observe an economy bc economic variables are often expressed in units of money	most economists believe that classical theory describes the world in the long run but not in the short run -beyond a period of several years, changes in money supply affect prices and other nom prices but not real gdp, unemp, or other real variables (classical theory) -in SR real and nom var related	111
13672026880	model of aggregate demand and aggregate supply	the model that most economists use to explain short-run fluctuations in economic activity around its long-run trend	112
13672026881	aggregate demand curve	a curve that shows the quantity of goods and services that households, firms, the government, and customers abroad want to buy at each price level	113
13672026882	aggregate supply curve	a curve that shows the quantity of goods and services that firms choose to produce and sell at each price level	114
13672026883	why the aggregate demand curve slopes downward	1. wealth effect: dec in price level raises real value of $ and makes consumers richer so they spend more. inc in spending inc demand for g/s 2. interest rate effect: lower price level dec IR, encourages more spending on investment goods, inc demand for g/s 3. exchange rate effect: fall in US PL cause US IR to fall, value of dollar declines in foreign markets, stimulates US NX and inc demand g/s	115
13672026884	why the aggregate demand curve might shift	1) changes in consumption 2) changes in investment 3) changes in government purchases 4) changes in net exports	116
13672026885	why the aggregate supply curve is vertical in the long run	-in the LR, an economy's production of g/s (real gdp) depends on supplies of labor, capital, and natural resources and on available technology used to turn these FoP into g/s -quantity of output does not depend on level of prices	117
13672026886	why the long-run aggregate-supply curve might shift	-long run level of production is called potential output or full employment output, natural level of output the production of g/s that an economy achieves in LR when unemployment is at its normal rate 1) changes in labor 2) changes in capital 3) changes in nat resources 4) changes in technological knowledge	118
13672026887	long run growth and inflation in the model of aggregate demand and aggregate supply	economy better able to produce g/s over time, LR AS shifts right, fed inc MS and AD shift right	119
13672026888	why AS slopes upward	quantity output supplied deviates from LR, natural, level when the actual price level in the economy deviates from the price level that people expected to prevail	120
13672026889	sticky wage theory (why AS slopes up)	an unexpectedly low price level raises the real wage, which causes firms to hire fewer workers and produce a smaller quantity of goods and services -SR AS slopes up bc nom wages are slow to adjust to changing economic conditions	121
13672026890	sticky price theory (why AS slopes up)	an unexpectedly low price level leaves some firms with higher than desired prices, which depresses their sales and leads them to cut back production	122
13672026891	misperceptions theory (why AS slopes up)	an unexpectedly low price level leads some suppliers to think their relative prices have fallen, which induces a fall in production	123
13672026892	output deviates in SR from its natural level when the actual price level deviates from the price level that people had expected to prevail	quantity of output supplied = natural level of ouput + a(actual price level - expected price level) -a=number that determines how much output responds to unexpected changed in price level	124
13672026893	why SR AS might shift	-price level that people expect to prevail, so when ppl change expectations, SRAS shifts -an inc in expected price level reduces quantity g/s supplied and shifts SR AS left -dec in expected price level raises quantity g/s	125
13672026894	causes of economic fluctuations: effects of a shift in AD	-wave of pessimism affects spending plans, affects AD -HH and F now want to buy a smaller quantity g/s for any given price level, reduces AD -bc fall in AD, in SR economy moves along initial SR AS -bc fall in AD price level falls, below expected level, AS right	126
13672026895	shifts in AD	-in SR, shifts in AD cause fluctuations in output of g/s -in LR, shifts in AD affect overall price level but not ouput -bc policymakers influence AD they can potentially mitigate the severity of economic fluctuations	127
13672026896	an adverse shift in aggregate supply	A decrease in one of the determinants of aggregate supply shifts the curve to the left: Output falls below the natural rate of employment. Unemployment rises. The price level rises. -stagnation: falling output -inflation: rising prices (both mean stagnation)	128
13672026897	three reasons why AD slopes down -wealth -IR -ER	-not all of equal importance, for us, the most important reason is IR effect -theory of liquidity preference: keynes theory that the IR adjusts to bring money supply and money demand into balance	129
13672026898	the theory of liquidity preference	explain factors that determine an economy's interest rate, IR balances S and D for money -money supply: -money demand -equilibrium in the money market	130
13672026899	The Money Market and the Slope of the Aggregate-Demand Curve	inc in price level shifts money demand right, causes int rate to rise, reducing quantity g/s demanded 1) higher price level raises money demand 2) higher money demand leads to higher int rate 3) a higher IR reduces quantity g/s demanded	131
13672026900	changes in money supply	changes in monetary policy, fed buys bonds -lowers IR and g/s demanded for any price level, shift AD right when fed contracts money supply -raise IR and reduce demand g/s, shift AD left	132
13672026901	the rols of IR targets in fed policy	-monetary policy can be described as either in terms of money supply or in terms of the IR -changes in monetary policy aimed at expanding AD can be described as either inc the money supply or lowering the IR -changes in monetary policy aimed at contracting AD can be described as either dec MS or inc IR	133
13672026902	the liquidity trap	a situation in which conventional monetary policy is ineffective because nominal interest rates are up against the zero bound -forward guidance: keep IR low for period of time -quantitative easing: expansionary OMO w larger variety of financial instruments	134
13672026903	fiscal policy	the setting of the level of government spending and taxation by government policymakers	135
13672026904	changes in govt purchases	when policymakers change MS or level of taxes, they shift the AD indirectly by influencing spending decisions when govt alters purchases of g/s shifts AD directly	136
13672026905	the multiplier effect	the additional shifts in aggregate demand that result when expansionary fiscal policy increases income and thereby increases consumer spending -inc in govt purchases shift AD by amt of purchase bc aggregate income stimulate additional spending by consumers	137
13672026906	a formula for the spending multiplier	mpc= marginal propensity to consume: a fraction of extra income that a household consumes rather than saves -tells us the demand for g/s that each dollar of govt purchases generates -also applies to any event that alters any component of gdp	138
13672026907	the crowding out effect	the offset in aggregate demand that results when expansionary fiscal policy raises the interest rate and thereby reduces investment spending -partially offsets the impact of govt purchases on AD -inc in govt purchases initially shifts to ad2 but once crowding out takes place, drops to ad3 -when govt inc purchases, AD could rise more or less by amt of purchase, depending on sizes of multiplier and crowding out effects	139
13672026908	changes in taxes	-higher income leads to higher money demand, raising IR, making borrowing more costly, reducing investments -when govt cuts taxes and stimulates consumer spending, profits rise, further inc spending -HH perception whether tax is temporary or not	140
13672026909	the employment act (case for active stab policy)	-govt should avoid being a cause of economic fluctuations -advise large and sudden changes in monetary and fiscal policy to cause change in AD -govt should respond to changes in private economy to stabilize AD	141
13672026910	The Case Against Active Stabilization Policy	monetary/fiscal policy can take a long time to put into effect, so these policies could destroy the economy because by the time they are put to work, the economy's condition could have changed.	142
13672026911	automatic stabilizers	changes in fiscal policy that stimulate aggregate demand when the economy goes into a recession without policymakers having to take any deliberate action -tax system -govt spending	143
13672026912	phillips curve	a curve that shows the short-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment -pic shows neg assoc. b/t inf rate and unemp rate.	144
13672026913	AD, AS, and PC	-The Phillips curve shows the combinations of inflation and unemployment that arise in the short run as shifts in the aggregate-demand curve move the economy along the short-run aggregate-supply curve. -shifts in AD push inflation and unemployment in opposite directions in the SR	145
13672026914	how the phillips curve is related to the model of aggregate demand and aggregate supply	-bc mon pol and fis pol can shift AD, move along PC -inc in MS inc govt spending dec tax raise AD and move point on PC to high inf and low unemp -dec in MS cuts govt inc tax move on PC to lower inf and high unemp	146
13672026915	long run phillips curve	shows the relationship between unemployment and inflation after expectations of inflation have had time to adjust to experience	147
13672026916	short run phillips curve	the negative short-run relationship between the unemployment rate and the inflation rate -unemployment rate=nat rate of unemployment -a(actual inflation-expected inflation) -a=parameter that measures how much unemployment responds to unexpected inflation)	148
13672026917	How Expected Inflation Shifts the PC	• Initially, expected & actual inflation = (3%) • Unemployment = natural rate (6%). • Fed makes inflation 2% higher than expected, u-rate falls to 4%. • In the long run, expected inflation increases to 5%, PC shifts upward, unemployment returns to its natural rate.	149
13672026918	natural rate hypothesis	the claim that unemployment eventually returns to its normal, or natural, rate, regardless of the rate of inflation	150
13672026919	supply shock	an event that directly alters firms' costs and prices, shifting the economy's aggregate-supply curve and thus the Phillips curve	151
13672026920	sacrifice ratio	the number of percentage points of annual output lost in the process of reducing inflation by 1 percentage point	152
13672026921	rational expectations	the theory that people optimally use all the information they have, including information about government policies, when forecasting the future	153
13672026922	the volcker disinflation	Fed Chairman Paul Volcker Appointed in late 1979 under high inflation & unemployment Changed Fed policy to disinflation 1981-1984: Fiscal policy was expansionary, so Fed policy had to be very contractionary to reduce inflation. Success: Inflation fell from 10% to 4%, but at the cost of high unemployment...	154
13672026923	the greenspan era		155

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11387457877	The Nitrogen Cycle	The transfer of nitrogen from the atmosphere to the soil, to living organisms, and back to the atmosphere (can also go from atmospheric nitrogen straight to nitrates through lightning) Nitrogen comes to earth in the form of precipitation In the roots of plants Rhizobium takes the nitrogen and combines it with hydrogen to make ammonia Nitrifying bacteria makes the ammonia into Nitrites and then into nitrates Plants use the Nitrates (assimilation) or it is turned into atmospheric nitrogen again (denitrifying bacteria) Animals eat the plants for proteins ammonia is released to the soil through death or waste it gets converted again to nitrates (nitrifying) or it is turned into atmospheric nitrogen again (denitrifying bacteria) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HOpRT8BRGtk&feature=youtu.be	0
11387833755	The Phosphorous Cycle	Unlike carbon/nitrogen cycle there is not phosphorous in the air, very slow and local necessary for ATP and Nucleic acids Phosphorous cycles from rocks (mining/weathering) to soil Uptake to plants, animals eat the plants decomposers etc Humans add phosphorous through fertilizers and the run off causes algal blooms causes eutrophication sunlight is blocked bacteria tries to feed off the algae and takes up all the oxygen and everything dies pH changes	1
11389153334	Elements move through the environment through which processes	uptake and deposition	2
11389167632	What form should elements be in for plants and animals to use them?	An ionic rather than an elemental form (some bacteria can do this (ex nitrifying bacteria, Rhizobium)	3
11389231943	Difference between tropical rainforest and temperate woodland	Tropical rainforests have -a high return speed of nutrients to plants/animals -most of the nutrients are stored in the plants themselves -nutrients are leached out with high rainfall = nutrient deficient soil Temperate Woodland have -a slow return of nutrients to soil -greater build up of nutrients, dead organic matter falls to the ground, providing valuable nutrients for new growth = rich soil	4
11389756616	The carbon cycle	Carbon is fixed in photosynthesis because it is converted from carbon dioxide to energy for the plant, animals eat the plants and carbon dioxide is released through respiration -Necessary because we are made of macromolecules and carbon provides for the building blocks	5
11389894594	Micro vs macro nutrients	macro: needed daily, fats, protein, carbs micro: needed less frequently, vitamins, minerals	6
11389946010	biological origin of coal	Formed in swamps from carboniferous period	7
11390020729	biological origin of oil	marine phytoplankton/ diatoms (algae) OOZE	8
11390048609	diatoms	Diatoms are responsible for release of carbon from the marine food chain Thus they are major contributors to climate change processes, and form a substantial basis of the marine food web	9
11390110559	Biological origin of limestone	shells from mollusks- coral CaCo3 (calcium carbonate)	10
11390151796	2 processes that release carbon into the air	respiration- oxidation of glucose combustion- rapid oxidation of organic substance with heat (burning things)	11
11390197232	Name the 4 geological reservoirs (sinks), that act as a source of carbon	atmosphere, coal, limestone, natural gas	12
11390573805	Explain what would happen to the carbon cycle if there were no decomposers present in an ecosystem	carbon would remain inside of dead plants without decomposers to release it back into the atmosphere to start up the cycle again, gradual loss of CO2 from atmosphere	13
11390611159	peat	early stage of carbon	14
11390630043	Describe what effect human activity is having on the amount of carbon stored in sinks	shortening of long term carbon cycle by mining for economic reasons	15
11390652524	Explain two global effects arising from mining/ pulling out the carbon and burning it at a fast pace	-global warming/ air pollution (acid rain) SOx NOx sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides -ocean acidification	16
11390908613	How to prevent effects of mining/burning carbon	more alternative energy sources energy efficiency minimizing emissions of all pollutants into any effluent stream	17
11391255504	How are humans affecting the nitrogen cycle?	Large amounts of fertilizer, adds to cultural eutrophication effluent into waterways leaching nitrate ions from the soil (farming, irrigation, mining)	18
11391284190	Symbiosis	A close relationship between two species that benefits at least one of the species.	19
11391324327	Haber process	an industrial process for producing ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen	20
11391410839	3 ways to fix nitrogen	bacteria, lightning, haber process	21
11391428707	What % of nitrogen is in the atmosphere?	78%	22
11391455513	Legume Family	contain special symbiotic bacteria that are nitrogen fixers	23
11392501252	Organic compounds that plants need nitrogen containing ions for	Amino Acids, proteins, chlorophyll	24
11392526502	more ways humans are affecting the nitrogen cycle	-fertilizer application/ discharge to waterway eutrophication -Haber process/ flood irrigation washes out N2 soil -Gmos that fix nitrogen -large-scale composting -burning/ harvesting removes N2 from land	25
11392582934	guano	A phosphate-rich manure produced by fish eating birds	26
11392630134	the origin of 3 forms of inorganic phosphate	rock phosphate bone deposits guano deposits	27
11392647456	major difference between phosphorous and carbon cycle	no atmospheric component + slow	28
11392659302	Sulfur Cycle	Cyclic movement of sulfur in various chemical forms from the environment to organisms and then back to the environment.	29
11392680638	where is a lot of earths sulfur	mineral deposits and ocean sediments	30
11392690436	How do humans release a lot of sulfur?	combustion of oil and ******coal	31
11392695548	sulfate aerosols	produced by fossil fuel combustion, absorb UV radiation, increase Earth's albedo, may slow global warming, at least in the short term	32
11392727906	2 ways sulfur can enter the atmosphere naturally	Volcanoes Biogenic activity	33
11392749155	2 ways sulfur can enter the atmosphere from human activity	Combustion of Coal smelting/ petroleum refining	34
11392799141	Biomass	A measure of the total dry mass of organisms within a particular region	35
11392841263	The rock cycle	the series of processes that change one type of rock into another type of rock	36
11392861817	Processes of the Rock Cycle	weathering and erosion melting and cooling heat and pressure deposition and compaction	37
11392973107	igneous rock	rock that forms when magma cools and solidifies	38
11392978006	metamorphic rock	A type of rock that forms from an existing rock that is changed by heat, pressure, or chemical reactions.	39
11392981742	sedimentary rock	A type of rock that forms when particles from other rocks or the remains of plants and animals are pressed and cemented together	40
11393376534	Why is soil essential	amino acids and nutrients come from plant life, these amino acids are necessary for proteins	41
11393427504	how many nutrients does soil have	52	42
11393449837	SiO2	silicon dioxide most abundant element in earth's crust	43
11393529898	Rate of rock weathering is dependent on what	climate	44
11393579213	Carbonic acid	Compound that results from the combination of carbon dioxide (gas) and water, determines rate of rock weathering in most ecosystems	45
11393925439	weathering provides key nutrients for life through the process of	leaching	46
11393974235	Horizon soil layers	O A E B C	47
11394011934	Soil formation depends on 5 things	Cl Climate, temp, precip, weathering rate O Organics, determines O horizon R Relief of slope, steep is easily eroded P Parent Material mineral components T Time 1 mm per decade	48
11394083063	O horizon	the uppermost horizon of soil. It is primarily made up of organic material, loose humus	49
11394089594	A horizon	mineral matter mixed with some humus	50
11394097762	E horizon	The zone of leaching lacks organics	51
11394113896	B horizon	a zone of accumulation of clay due to leaching/percolation, commonly known as subsoil	52
11394131530	C horizon	partially altered parent material	53
11394137686	Humus	decaying organic material, creates crumbly soil allows for absorption and drainage	54
11394215298	flood plain zone	very wide, gradual sloped river section; area of a river which empties into the ocean	55
11394305447	grassland soils	Deep A horizon, Mature, alkaline, deep, well drained soils. They are typically nutrient-rich and productive with a high organic content.	56
11394328441	forest soils	topsoil layer is thin expand	57
11394393870	most cultivated land can be classified as	grassland or forest soil	58
11394550486	The texture of a soil is determined by	size of soil particles	59
11394552439	too many small particles	extreme leaching	60
11394556900	too many large particles	poor drainage	61
11394562475	Cohesion	an attraction between molecules of the same substance	62
11394566249	Adhesion	An attraction between molecules of different substances	63
11394570907	Desertification	the process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as a result of drought, deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture.	64
11394654569	contour farming	Plowing and planting across the changing slope of land, rather than in straight lines, to help retain water and reduce soil erosion.	65
11394658740	strip farming	planting different crops in alternating strips along land contours to slow water flow	66
11394676077	Terracing	the creation of flat areas on mountain slopes for the purpose of farming	67
11394679337	windbreak	Row of trees or hedges planted to partially block wind flow and reduce soil erosion on cultivated land.	68
11394724125	tillage	expand on	69
11394745016	erosion	removal of soil by air or water	70
11394750049	indicator species	Species that serve as early warnings that a community or ecosystem is being degraded.	71
11408959810	effluents	when humans have a fluid (air/water) that contains an effluent	72
11409035760	why is it important to have organic material in soil?	resistance to erosion stores nutrients water holding capacity	73
11409047481	if I wanted to make soil more alkaline I would	add limestone	74
11409051554	if I wanted to make soil more acidic I would	add sulfur	75
11409075397	OOZE	deep-sea sediment composed of the skeletal remains of microscopic floating organisms. Oozes are basically deposits of soft mud on the ocean floor.	76
11409130412	acid rain and rain ph	acid rain 4.3 rain 5.6	77
11409153097	biogenic activity	microbes in the soil	78
11409170416	Salinity of the ocean	3.5	79
11409190715	salinity of brackish water	1.5	80
11409197069	Nitrogen in atmosphere	78%	81
11409202063	Oxygen in atmosphere	21%	82
11409214443	Where is Earth's water?	97% oceans 2% ice 1% freshwater	83
11409250137	CO2 in the atmosphere		84
11409259399	Carboniferous Period	360-300 million years ago	85
11409512790	Phytoremediation	A method employed to clean up a hazardous waste site that uses plants to absorb and accumulate toxic materials	86
11409519098	Biomagnification	the concentration of toxins in an organism as a result of its ingesting other plants or animals in which the toxins are more widely disbursed.	87
11409568468	leaching	Process in which various chemicals in upper layers of soil are dissolved and carried to lower layers and, in some cases, to groundwater.	88
11409581964	Eutrophication	A process by which nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, become highly concentrated in a body of water, leading to increased growth of organisms such as algae or cyanobacteria.	89
11409760457	where does the colorado river get most water	snowmelt of the rocky mountains	90
11409850591	How are we using water unsustainably	wasting it, polluting it, underpricing	91
11409865116	how many people do not have access to clean water	one in 6	92
11409881548	rainshadow effect	A location of little rain on the leeward side of a mountain range due to descending air.	93
11409953490	flood irrigation	water is distributed over the soil surface by gravity; the most common form of irrigation and most inefficient; loses 40% of water	94
11409979178	where is there an abundance of water	0 and 60 degrees long/lat	95
11410124938	subsidy	A government payment that supports a business or market	96
11410133899	zone of saturation	lower soil layers where all spaces are filled with water	97
11410161709	Freshwater availability	0.024% -groundwater -lakes -rivers -streams	98
11410309170	water table	The upper level of the saturated zone of groundwater	99
11410326030	watershed (drainage basin)	land area that delivers runoff, sediment, and dissolved substances to a stream	100
11410360307	Headwaters	the source of a stream or river	101
11410465107	where does 2/3 of surface runoff water go	lost by seasonal floods	102
11410505216	virtual water	Water that is not directly consumed but is used to produce food and other products.	103
11410522418	Why are aquifers harder to depollute	it is slower than surface water and can not clean itself	104
11410678587	how to increase freshwater supplies	withdrawing groundwater building dams/reservoirs converting saltwater to freshwater	105
11410748155	Ogallala Aquifer	World's largest aquifer; under parts of Wyoming, South Dakota, Nebraska Being depleted for agricultural and urban use.	106
11410760753	Advantages of groundwater	useful for drinking/irrigation exists almost everywhere renewable cheaper to extract	107
11410979775	disadvantages of groundwater	aquifer depletion subsidence some are non renewable pollution lasts long periods of time	108
11410990327	Subsidence	the gradual caving in or sinking of an area of land.	109
11411032887	How to prevent groundwater depletion	use water more efficiently subsidize water conservation limit number of wells stop growing water intensive crops in dry areas raise price of water to discourage waste use permeable paving	110
11411126987	effluent stream	type of stream where flow is maintained during the dry season by groundwater seepage into the channel	111
11411132626	influent stream	entirely above the water table and flows only in direct response to precipitation	112
11411151838	Estuary	A habitat in which the fresh water of a river meets the salt water of the ocean.	113
11411667874	how many humans rely on aquifers?	2 billion	114
11411672570	gray water	all of the wastewater that drains from washing machines, sinks, dishwashers, tubs or showers and can be reused for non-sanitary purposes	115
11411679332	Desalinization	the removal of salt from ocean water	116
11411701427	By 2025 how many people will lack access to clean water?	3 billion	117
11411718533	worlds largest dam	Three Gorges Dam, China	118
11411726564	What happened in the aral sea/ main cause of waste?	it has shrunk and salinity rises, fishing industry was destroyed, too much water was withdrawn for irrigation, pesticides from crops in water they built a dam	119
11411868619	how have humans contributed to flooding?	urbanization, because towns and cities have more impermeable surfaces. deforestation, because removing trees reduces the amount of water intercepted and increases run-off	120
11411981576	pros and cons of dams	pros: generate electricity, control flooding cons: displaces local species, more erosion, flooding upstream, prevents water flow	121
11412002744	carbon cycle	carbon compounds It is the fundamental building block of life and an important component of many chemical processes	122
11412761213	chemical weathering	oxidation hydrolysis carbonation	123
11412785042	mechanical weathering	ice wedging root wedging gravity anything that breaks it down into bits/ increases surface area	124
11413105847	EUTROPHICATION******************	5 steps -we know that nitrogen/phosphorous are limiting -can be leached into the water -leads to algal blooms -they absorb the sunlight, it cant reach the bottom -plants at the bottom die -algae dies when all the nutrients are gone -bacteria has to break it down through respiration, releases nutrients therefore the cycle can continue -consumes all the oxygen (anoxic) -everything dead	125
11413110582	Limiting element	nitrogen and phosphorous, life needs them!! once systems get these nutrients life grows super fast however this leads to EUTROPHICATION	126
11413147244	what are the nutrients we need?	C-Carbon H-Hydrogen N-Nitrogen O-Oxygen P-Phosphorous S-Sulfur	127
11413187145	nitrogen and sulfur	proteins	128
11413187146	Phosphorus	RNA ATP DNA	129

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AP Psychology AP midterm Review Flashcards

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8647482400	psychology	the study of behavior and mental processes	0
8647482401	psychology's biggest question	Which is more important in determining behavior, nature or nurture?	1
8647482402	psychology's three levels of analysis	biopsychosocial approach (looks at the biological, psychological, and social-cultural approaches together)	2
8647482403	biological approach	genetics, close-relatives, body functions	3
8647482404	evolutionary approach	species - helped with survival (ancestors)	4
8647482405	psychodynamic approach	(Freud) subconscious, repressed feelings, unfulfilled wishes	5
8647482406	behavioral approach	learning (classical and operant) observed	6
8647482407	cognitive approach	thinking affects behavior	7
8647482408	humanistic approach	becoming a better human (behavior, acceptance)	8
8647482409	social-cultural approach	cultural, family, environment	9
8647482410	two reasons of why experiments are important	hindsight bias + overconfidence	10
8647482411	types of research methods	descriptive, correlational, and experimental	11
8647482412	descriptive methods	case study survey naturalistic observation (DON'T SHOW CAUSE/EFFECT)	12
8647482413	case study	studies one person in depth may not be typical of population	13
8647482414	survey	studies lots of people not in depth	14
8647482415	naturalistic observation	observe + write facts without interference	15
8647482416	correlational method	shows relation, but not cause/effect scatterplots show research	16
8647482417	correlation coefficient	+ 1.0 (both increase) 0 (no correlation - 1.0 (one increases, other decreases)	17
8647482418	experimental method	does show cause and effect	18
8647482419	population	type of people who are going to be used in experiment	19
8647482420	sample	actual people who will be used (randomness reduces bias)	20
8647482421	random assignment	chance selection between experimental and control groups	21
8647482422	control group	not receiving experimental treatment receives placebo	22
8647482423	experimental group	receiving treatment/drug	23
8647482424	independent variable	drug/procedure/treatment	24
8647482425	dependent variable	outcome of using the drug/treatment	25
8647482426	confounding variable	can affect dependent variable beyond experiment's control	26
8647482427	scientific method	theory hypothesis operational definition revision	27
8647482428	theory	general idea being tested	28
8647482429	hypothesis	measurable/specific	29
8647482430	operational definition	procedures that explain components	30
8647482431	mode	appears the most	31
8647482432	mean	average	32
8647482433	median	middle	33
8647482434	range	highest - lowest	34
8647482435	standard deviation	how scores vary around the mean	35
8647482436	central tendency	single score that represents the whole	36
8647482437	bell curve	(natural curve)	37
8647482438	ethics of testing on animals	need to be treated humanly basically similar to humans	38
8647482439	ethics of testing on humans	consent debriefing no unnecessary discomfort/pain confidentiality	39
8647482440	sensory neurons	travel from sensory receptors to brain	40
8647482441	motor neurons	travel from brain to "motor" workings	41
8647482442	interneurons	(in brain and spinal cord) connecting motor and sensory neurons	42
8647482443	neuron		43
8647482444	dendrites	receive messages from other neurons	44
8647482445	myelin sheath	protects the axon	45
8647482446	axon	where charges travel from cell body to axon terminal	46
8647482447	neurotransmitters	chemical messengers	47
8647482448	reuptake	extra neurotransmitters are taken back	48
8647482449	excitatory charge	"Let's do it!"	49
8647482450	inhibitory charge	"Let's not do it!"	50
8647482451	central nervous system	brain and spinal cord	51
8647482452	peripheral nervous system	somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system	52
8647482453	somatic nervous system	voluntary movements	53
8647482454	autonomic nervous system	involuntary movements (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems)	54
8647482455	sympathetic nervous system	arousing	55
8647482456	parasympathetic nervous system	calming	56
8647482457	neural networks	more connections form with greater use others fall away if not used	57
8647482458	spinal cord	expressway of information bypasses brain when reflexes involved	58
8647482459	endocrine system	slow uses hormones in the blood system	59
8647482460	master gland	pituitary gland	60
8647482461	brainstem	extension of the spinal cord responsible for automatic survival	61
8647482462	reticular formation (if stimulated)	sleeping subject wakes up	62
8647482463	reticular formation (if damaged)	coma	63
8647482464	brainstem (if severed)	still move (without purpose)	64
8647482465	thalamus	sensory switchboard (does not process smell)	65
8647482466	hypothalamus	basic behaviors (hunger, thirst, sex, blood chemistry)	66
8647482467	cerebellum	nonverbal memory, judge time, balance emotions, coordinate movements	67
8647482468	cerebellum (if damaged)	difficulty walking and coordinating	68
8647482469	amygdala	aggression, fear, and memory associated with these emotions	69
8647482470	amygdala (if lesioned)	subject is mellow	70
8647482471	amygdala (if stimulated)	aggressive	71
8647482472	hippocampus	process new memory	72
8647482473	cerebrum	two large hemispheres perceiving, thinking, and processing	73
8647482474	cerebral cortex	only in higher life forms	74
8647482475	association areas	integrate and interpret information	75
8647482476	glial cells	provide nutrients to myelin sheath marks intelligence higher proportion of glial cells to neurons	76
8647482477	frontal lobe	judgement, personality, processing (Phineas Gage accident)	77
8647482478	parietal lobe	math and spatial reasoning	78
8647482479	temporal lobe	audition and recognizing faces	79
8647482480	occipital lobe	vision	80
8647482481	corpus callosum	split in the brain to stop hyper-communication (eliminate epileptic seizures)	81
8647482482	Wernicke's area	interprets auditory and hearing	82
8647482483	Broca's area	speaking words	83
8647482484	plasticity	ability to adapt if damaged	84
8647482485	sensation	what our senses tell us	85
8647482486	bottom-up processing	senses to brain	86
8647482487	perception	what our brain tells us to do with that information	87
8647482488	top-down processing	brain to senses	88
8647482489	inattentional blindness	fail to "gorilla" because attention is elsewhere	89
8647482490	cocktail party effect	even with tons of stimuli, we are able to pick out our name, etc.	90
8647482491	change blindness	giving directions and person is changed and we don't notice	91
8647482492	choice blindness	when defending the choice we make, we fail to notice choice was changed	92
8647482493	absolute threshold	minimum stimulation needed in order to notice 50% of the time	93
8647482494	signal detection theory	we notice what is more important to us (rather hear a baby crying)	94
8647482495	JND (just noticeable difference)	(Weber's law) difference between different stimuli noticed in proportion	95
8647482496	sensory adaptation	tired of noticing (Brain says, "Been there, done that. Next?"	96
8647482497	rods	night time	97
8647482498	cones	color	98
8647482499	parallel processing	notice color, form, depth, movement, etc.	99
8647482500	Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory	3 corresponding color receptors (RGB)	100
8647482501	Hering's opponent-process theory	after image in opposite colors (RG, YB, WB)	101
8647482502	trichromatic + opponent-process	Young-Helmholtz -> color stimuli Hering -> en route to cortex	102
8647482503	frequency we hear most	human voice	103
8647482504	Helmoltz (hearing)	we hear different pitches in different places in basilar membrane (high pitches)	104
8647482505	frequency theory	impulse frequency (low pitches)	105
8647482506	Helmholtz + frequency theory	middle pitches	106
8647482507	Skin feels what?	warmth, cold, pressure, pain	107
8647482508	gate-control theory	small fibers - pain large fibers - other senses	108
8647482509	memory of pain	peaks and ends	109
8647482510	smell	close to memory section (not in thalamus)	110
8647482511	grouping	Gestalt make sense of pieces create a whole	111
8647482512	grouping groups	proximity similarity continuity connectedness closure	112
8647482513	make assumptions of placement	higher - farther smaller - farther blocking - closer, in front	113
8647482514	perception =	mood + motivation	114
8647482515	consciousness	awareness of ourselves and the environment	115
8647482516	circadian rhythm	daily biological clock and regular cycle (sleep and awake)	116
8647482517	circadian rhythm pattern	- activated by light - light sensitive retinal proteins signal brains SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) - pineal gland decreases melatonin	117
8647482518	What messes with circadian rhythm?	artificial light	118
8647482519	The whole sleep cycle lasts how long?	90 minutes	119
8647482520	sleep stages	relaxed stage (alpha waves) stage 1 (early sleep) (hallucinations) stage 2 (sleep spindles - bursts of activity) (sleep talk) stage 3 (transition phase) (delta waves) stage 4 (delta waves) (sleepwalk/talk + wet the bed) stage 5 (REM) (sensory-rich dreams) (paradoxical sleep)	120
8647482521	purpose of sleep	1. recuperation - repair neurons and allow unused neural connections to wither 2. making memories 3. body growth (children sleep more)	121
8647482522	insomnia	can't sleep	122
8647482523	narcolepsy	fall asleep anywhere at anytime	123
8647482524	sleep apnea	stop breathing in sleep	124
8647482525	night terrors	prevalent in children	125
8647482526	sleepwalking/sleeptalking	hereditary - prevalent in children	126
8647482527	dreaming (3)	1. vivid bizarre intense sensory experiences 2. carry fear/survival issues - vestiges of ancestors' survival ideas 2. replay previous day's experiences/worries	127
8647482528	purpose of dreaming (5 THEORIES)	1. physiological function - develop/preserve neural pathways 2. Freud's wish-fulfillment (manifest/latent content) 3. activation synthesis - make sense of stimulation originating in brain 4. information processing 5. cognitive development - reflective of intelligence	128
8647482529	1. Can hypnosis bring you back in time? 2. Can hypnosis make you do things you wouldn't normally do? 3. Can it alleviate pain? 4. What state are you in during hypnosis? 5. Who is more susceptible?	1. cannot take you back in time 2. cannot make you do things you won't do 3. can alleviate pain 4. fully conscious ((IMAGINATIVE PEOPLE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE))	129
8647482530	depressants	slows neural pathways	130
8647482531	alcohol	((depressant)) disrupts memory formation (REM) lowers inhibition expectancy effect	131
8647482532	barbituates (tranquilizers)	((depressant)) reduce anxiety	132
8647482533	opiates	((depressant)) pleasure reduce anxiety/pain	133
8647482534	stimulants	hypes neural processing	134
8647482535	methamphetamine	((stimulant)) heightens energy euphoria affects dopamine	135
8647482536	caffeine	((stimulant))	136
8647482537	nicotine	((stimulant)) CNS releases neurotransmitters calm anxiety reduce pain affects (nor)epinephrine and dopamine	137
8647482538	cocaine	((stimulant)) euphoria affects dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine	138
8647482539	hallucinogen	excites neural activity	139
8647482540	ecstasy	((hallucinogen)) reuptake is blocked affects dopamine and serotonin	140
8647482541	LSD	((hallucinogen)) affects sensory/emotional "trip" (+/-) affects serotonin	141
8647482542	marijuana	((hallucinogen)) amplify sensory experience disrupts memory formation	142
8647482543	learning	organism changing behavior due to experience (association of events)	143
8647482544	types of learning	classical operant observational	144
8647482545	famous classical psychologists	Pavlov and Watson	145
8647482546	famous operant psychologist	Skinner	146
8647482547	famous observational psychologists	Bandura	147
8647482548	classical conditioning	outside stimulus	148
8647482549	Pavlov's experiment	Step 1: US (food) -> UR (salivation) Step 2: NS (bell) -> US (food) -> UR (salivation) Later... CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)	149
8647482550	Watson's experiment	white rat was given to Little Albert Step 1: US (noise) -> UR (cry) Step 2: NS (rat) -> US (noise) -> UR (cry) Later... CS (rat) -> CR (cry)	150
8647482551	generalization	any small, white fluffy creature will make Albert cry now	151
8647482552	discriminate	any large, white fluffy creature won't make Albert cry	152
8647482553	extinction	stop "treating" with conditioned response	153
8647482554	spontaneous recovery	bring stimulus back after a while	154
8647482555	operant conditioning	control by organism	155
8647482556	Skinner's experiment	operant chamber / Skinner box (lead to shaping)	156
8647482557	shaping	get animal closer to doing what you want them to do	157
8647482558	reinforcers	want to continue behavior (positive reinforcement: give money to do laundry) (negative reinforcement: do to avoid nagging)	158
8647482559	punishments	want to stop behavior (positive reinforcement: smack) (negative reinforcement: take away phone)	159
8647482560	fixed ratio	happens a certain number of times (Starbucks punch card)	160
8647482561	variable ratio	happens an unpredictable number of times (winning the lottery)	161
8647482562	organism must do these (2 times)	fixed ratio and variable ratio	162
8647482563	fixed interval	happens at a certain time (mailman comes to the house at 10:00 AM)	163
8647482564	variable interval	happens at any time (receive texts from friends)	164
8647482565	these things happen regardless (2 times)	fixed interval and variable interval	165
8647482566	Which (fixed/variable) conditions better?	variable	166
8647482567	criticisms of Skinner	doesn't take into account intrinsic motivation	167
8647482568	intrinsic motivation	doing something for yourself, not the reward	168
8647482569	extrinsic motivation	doing something for reward	169
8647482570	Skinner's legacy	use it personally, at school, and at work	170
8647482571	famous observational experiment	Bandura's Bobo doll	171
8647482572	famous observational psychologist	Bandura	172
8647482573	mirror neurons	"feel" what is observed happens in higher order animals	173
8647482574	Bobo doll experiment legacy	violent video games/movies desensitize us see good: do good see evil: do evil	174
8647482575	observational learning	biological behaviors work best	175
8647482576	habituation	get used to it -> stop reacting	176
8647482577	examples for observational learning	lectures and reading	177
8647482578	serotonin involved with memory	speeds the connection between neurons	178
8647482579	LTP	((long-term potentiation)) strengthens potential neural forming (associated with speed)	179
8647482580	CREB	protein that can switch genes on/off with memory and connection of memories	180
8647482581	glutamate involved with memory	neurotransmitter that enhances LTP	181
8647482582	glucose involved with memory	released during strong emotions ((signaling important event to be remembered))	182
8647482583	flashbulb memory	type of memory remembered because it was an important/quick moment	183
8647482584	amygdala (memory)	boosts activity of proteins in memory-forming areas to fight/flight	184
8647482585	cerebellum (memory)	forms and stores implicit memories ((classical conditioning))	185
8647482586	hippocampus (memory)	active during sleep (forming memories) ((information "moves" after 48 hours))	186
8647482587	memory	learning over time contains information that can be retrieved	187
8647482588	processing stages	encoding -> storage -> retrieval	188
8647482589	encoding	information going in	189
8647482590	storage	keeping information in	190
8647482591	retrieval	taking information out	191
8647482592	How long is sensory memory stored?	seconds	192
8647482593	How long is short-term memory stored?	less than a minute	193
8647482594	How many bits of information is stored in short-term memory?	7	194
8647482595	How many chunks of information is stored in short-term memory?	4	195
8647482596	How many seconds of words is stored in short-term memory?	2	196
8647482597	short term memory goes to ______________	working memory	197
8647482598	working memory	make a connection and process information to mean something	198
8647482599	working memory goes to _________________	long-term memory	199
8647482600	How much is stored in long-term memory?	LIMITLESS	200
8647482601	implicit memory	naturally do	201
8647482602	explicit memory	need to explain	202
8647482603	automatic processing	space, time, frequency, well-learned information	203
8647482604	effortful processing	processing that requires effort	204
8647482605	spacing effect	spread out learning over time	205
8647482606	serial position effect	primary/recency effect	206
8647482607	primary effect	remember the first things in a list	207
8647482608	recency effect	remember the last things in a list	208
8647482609	effortful processing (4 things)	1. recency effect 2. spacing effect 3. testing effect 4. serial position effect	209
8647482610	semantic encoding (1) meaning (2) how to	make meaning out of something --- chunk, hierarchy, or connect to you	210
8647482611	if we can't remember a memory...	1. change memory to suit us 2. fill in the blanks with logical story	211
8647482612	misinformation effect	not correct information	212
8647482613	imagination inflation	imagine or visualize something that isn't real	213
8647482614	source amnesia	what is the truth? (is it a dream, story, memory, etc.?)	214
8647482615	priming	association (setting you up)	215
8647482616	context	environment helps with memory	216
8647482617	state-dependency	you may remember something if you go back to the state you were in (go back to high)	217
8647482618	mood-congruency	emotion will bring back similar emotional memories	218
8647482619	forgetting curve	forget after 5 days forget after 5 years	219
8647482620	the forgetting curve was created by	Ebbinghaus	220
8647482621	proactive interference	old information interferes with the new	221
8647482622	retroactive interference	new information interferes with the old	222
8647482623	children can't remember before age __	3	223
8647482624	Loftus	connected to abuse cases/childhood	224
8647482625	prototypes	generalize	225
8647482626	problem-solving (4)	trial + error algorithms heuristic (representative + availability) insight - "AHA!"	226
8647482627	against problem-solving	fixation	227
8647482628	mental set	what has worked in the past	228
8647482629	functional fixedness	only way to do this is with this	229
8647482630	Chomsky (nature or nurture?)	"born with language" (nature)	230
8647482631	Skinner (nature or nurture?)	language is learned (nurture)	231
8647482632	grammar is _________	universal	232
8647482633	phonemes	smallest sound unit	233
8647482634	morphemes	smallest meaning unit	234

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AP Chemistry: Polyatomic Ions Flashcards

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11818231736	acetate		0
11818231737	ammonium		1
11818231738	hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate)		2
11818231739	carbonate		3
11818231740	chlorate		4
11818231741	chlorite		5
11818231742	chromate		6
11818231743	cyanide		7
11818231744	dichromate		8
11818231745	hydroxide		9
11818231746	hypochlorite		10
11818231747	nitrate		11
11818231748	nitrite		12
11818231749	oxalate		13
11818231750	perchlorate		14
11818231751	permanganate		15
11818231752	phosphate		16
11818231753	sulfate		17
11818231754	sulfite		18
11818231755	bromate		19
11818231756	dihydrogen phosphate		20
11818231757	hydrogen phosphate		21
11818231758	hydrogen sulfate (bisulfate)		22
11818231759	iodate		23
11818231760	Thiocyanate		24
11818231761	Hypobromite		25
11818231762	Bromite		26
11818231763	Perbromate		27
11818231764	Hypoiodite		28
11818231765	Iodite		29
11818231769	Periodate	IO4 -1	30
11818231766	Peroxide		31
11818231770	Amide	NH2 -1	32
11818231767	Borate		33
11818231768	Thiosulfate		34

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Holocaust AP, WWII AP Flashcards

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13573567381	Holocaust date	1933-1945	0
13573567382	In 1942, the Holocaust was first labeled as?	"Shoah", Hebrew for calamity	1
13573567383	IN 1950's , Shoah changed to	Holocaust Holos-completely Caust-burnt Means that Jewish population was "burnt out"	2
13573567384	The Holocaust was	the mass murder of European Jews	3
13573567385	Genocide	planned killing of group based on religion,race, or ethnicity	4
13573567386	5 stages of the Holocaust	1) discrimination 2) segregation 3) concentration 4) extermination 5) liberation	5
13573567387	Stage 1: Discrimination	Goal is to drive Jews out of Germany Hitler defines "Jew" as a race	6
13573567388	In 1933, Hitler passes boycotts that do what?	boycott Jewish businesses, and Jewish teachers and students are banned from German schools	7
13573567389	Nuremberg Laws (1935)	defined who was Jewish and who was German based on family background	8
13573567390	Child indoctrination	schools start teaching anti-Semitic propaganda as required knowledge in schools	9
13573567391	Adult Indoctrination	government starts hanging anti-Semitic posters around large cities	10
13573567392	Anti-Semitism	Prejudice against Jews	11
13573567393	Stage 2: Segregation	Goal is to isolate Jews Why? not enough Jews are leaving/not leaving fast enough	12
13573567394	What is a ghetto?	Poor part of city. Area in a city where Jews had to go.	13
13573567395	discrimination in Germany of Jews was	ineffective in getting Jews to leave voluntarily	14
13573567396	1939:Established first ghetto	Italian word for area by factory	15
13573567397	Ghettos were mostly located where?	in areas of a city that were already primarily Jewish these areas were walled	16
13573567398	Ghetto conditions	Starvation and disease killed thousands	17
13573567399	Stage 3: Concentration camps	goal: use Jews as forced labor 1939-1940: Start forcing Jews from ghettos to forced labor camps	18
13573567400	Stage 4: Extermination	Goal: Rid Europe of Jews "Final solution" -organized genocide in camps -established the use of gas chambers in camps -1-2 million Jew killed by gas chambers	19
13573567401	Stage 5:Liberation	1944; Soviets (Russians) discover first extermination camps in Poland	20
13573567402	July 1944	Russians find first concentration camps in Poland Germans ordered to kill as many Jews as possible and flee camps	21
13573567403	What did Dwight Eisenhower say about the Holocaust?	some people may say it never happened in the future, so he encouraged everyone to document this through photos,films, and witnesses	22
13573567404	Nuremberg Trials	1945-1946 Members of nazi party tried for their war crimes found guilty of crimes against humanity all claimed they were just "following orders"	23
13573567405	Israel	many refused to return to native countries majority moved to Palestine, joining "Zionist" groups	24
13573567406	Zionists	Supporters of Jewish nationalism, especially a creation of a Jewish state in Palestine.	25
13573567407	1948	United Nations takes land away from Palestine to create Jewish country -Israel	26
13573567408	Yalta Conference	allied meeting to create WWII Treaty	27
13573567409	Yalta Conference Actions	divided Germany into 4 sections - each allied power responsible for 1 section -bring political stability and democracy -establish economic stability and capitalism	28
13573567410	Who paid for USSR reparations?	Germany	29
13573567411	who became independent?	lands that have been invaded and imperialized	30
13573567412	what was the purpose of the united nations?	to keep peace between nations...military force	31
13573567413	what was the nickname for the 1939-1945 WWII?	war to end all wars	32
13573567414	explain the REAL causes of WWII	R: resentment: Treaty of Versailles viewed as unfair (Germany/Italy) E: economic depression: lead to social upheaval, instability, strong totalitarian dictators A: appeasement: league of nations tried to avoid war by appeasing dictators; too weak to use force L: land: Japan, Germany, and Italy violated treaty and invaded free lands	33
13573567415	1931-1932	Japan conquers Manchuria	34
13573567416	1933	Japan is condemned by League of Nations -withdraws from league	35
13573567417	What did Japan view expansion necessary for?	raw materials/resources	36
13573567418	1937, during the full invasion of China, what did Japan do?	conquer capital Beijing	37
13573567419	Who ends the civil war in China and what happens afterwards?	the NPP and CCP end civil war and unify against Japan	38
13573567420	Explain the Rape of Nanking in 1937	400,000 Chinese were killed by Japanese soldiers 7,000 women were raped, and a lot became pregnant, "tainting" the Chinese race with Japanese blood 1/3 of the city was burned	39
13573567421	belligerents	a nation or person engaged in war or conflict, as recognized by international law.	40
13573567422	1940	Japan signs 10 year pact with Italy and Germany	41
13573567423	Tripartite Pact	Signed between the Axis powers in 1940 (Italy, Germany and Japan) where they pledged to help the others in the event of an attack by the US	42
13573567424	1941	Japan signs neutrality pack with USSR	43
13573567425	Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact of 1941	Pact between Russia and Japan saying they will not attack each other	44
13573567426	Italy wanted	more land after WWI (they fought for winning Allied Powers)	45
13573567427	Italy conquered who in 1935? what happened as a result?	Ethiopia they were warned by the League of Nations in 1937, they left the league of nations	46
13573567428	Italy invaded and annexed this country in 1939	Albania	47
13573567429	Germany in 1933	Hitler/Nazis take power through popular support, promising to undo Treaty of Versailles terms -blamed "internal enemies" and foreigners: Jews, communists, liberals -left league	48
13573567430	In 1935, Germany did what?	violated the treaty by remilitarizing -increased troops -militarizing Rhineland (region next to France)	49
13573567431	March 1938	German annexes Austria	50
13573567432	Why did Germany annex Austria?	wanted "German people" -British/French did nothing	51
13573567433	September 1938, Germany Annexed Sudetenland	-German region of Czechoslovakia taken after WWI -Munich Conference -GB/FR allow Hitler to keep lands; had to promise not to expand further	52
13573567434	1939	Hitler breaks promise; annexes Czechoslovakia	53
13573567435	August 1939: Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact	-agreed to not attack each other during expansion -divided up Eastern Europe and Poland	54
13573567436	September 1, 1939	Germany invades Poland	55
13573567437	Blitzkrieg (lightning war)	a form of warfare in which surprise attacks with fast-moving airplanes are followed by massive attacks with infantry forces - uses surprise and overwhelming military force	56
13573567438	September 3,1939	Britain and France declare war on Germany	57
13573567439	September 17,1939	USSR invades Eastern Poland	58
13573567440	In June 1940 France . . .	surrenders to Germany - a response to Hitler's blitzkrieg captures of Denmark, Norway, Belgium and Netherlands	59
13573567441	Vichy France	self-ruled southern France - Northern France under direct German military control	60
13573567442	Britain becomes only power against Germany	-July-October 1940: Battle of Britain -Nazi air attacks on British cities -US provides pilots for British, halts Germany	61
13573567443	1941 in Germany	Germany turns towards Balkans instead	62
13573567444	Germany attacks USSR	June 1941 - Operation Barbarossa	63
13573567445	Operation Barbarossa (1941)	-breaks non-aggression pact -Russia predicted; moved factories away from front and mobilized troops	64
13573567446	Allied Powers gains	USSR after Germany attacks	65
13573567447	Cash & Carry Policy (1939)	US supplies British with goods, refuse to join war	66
13573567448	Lend-Lease Act (1941)	US lends destroyers to Britain in exchange for use of naval bases in Pacific	67
13573567449	December 7, 1941 - Pearl Harbor	Japan bombs US naval base in Hawaii, destroying most of Pacific fleet	68
13573567450	December 11,1941	Germany and Italy declare war on the US	69
13573567451	Theaters of Action	locations of primary fighting	70
13573567452	Theater	region where major fighting occurs during a war	71
13573567453	Major "theaters" of WW2	Atlantic, Europe, Pacific, North Africa	72
13573567454	North Africa Theater	US vs Germany vs Italy	73
13573567455	North Africa Theater Allied Power Goal	enter europe through southern italy "underbelly of europe" -defeat italy and invade Germany	74
13573567456	July 1943	Allies invade Sicily,Italy, Italian military turns on Mussolini	75
13573567457	August 1944	Italy surrendered, Germany takes command of Northern Italy	76
13573567458	European Theater	USSR vs Germany	77
13573567459	European Theater Allied Power Strategy	push Germany out of Russia, and capture Berlin (German capital)	78
13573567460	European Theater Axis Power Strategy	capture Moscow (Russian capital)	79
13573567461	how to capture a country	capture its capital	80
13573567462	Allied Success on Eastern Front	German soldiers weakened -division of troops between Eastern and African fronts -harsh winter	81
13573567463	August 1943	Soviets push Nazis back to Germany -prepares Allies for invasion of France	82
13573567464	Western Front	England + USA vs Germany	83
13573567465	Western Front Allied Strategy	surround Germany; divide German troops between east, Africa, and France -push Nazis out of France, into Germany -capture German capital - Berlin	84
13573567466	D-Day	(FDR) , June 6, 1944, 150,000 Allied troops landed along a 50-mile stretch of heavily-fortified French coastline to fight Nazi Germany on the beaches of Normandy, France. General Dwight D. Eisenhower called the operation a crusade in which "we will accept nothing less than full victory." More than 5,000 Ships and 13,000 aircraft supported the D-Day invasion, and by day's end on June 6, the Allies gained a foot- hold in Normandy.	85
13573567467	Allied Invasion of France: D-Day	June 6, 1944: 150,000 British, American, French, and Canadian troops invade Germany held Northern France (Normandy)	86
13573567468	Are the allies successful in pushing Germans out of France?	yes	87
13573567469	August 25,1944	German forces surrender to Allies pushed out of France into Germany	88
13573567470	April 1945	Soviet army surrounds Berlin	89
13573567471	April 30, 1945	Hitler and top officials commit suicide	90
13573567472	May 2,1945	Germany surrenders to the Allies	91
13573567473	who continues to fight?	Japan (last axis power)	92
13573567474	Pacific Theater	US vs Japan	93
13573567475	Pacific Theater Allied Goal	"Island Hop" across pacific to position land invasion of Japan	94
13573567476	Pacific Theater Axis Goal	remove US and European influence from Pacific "asia for asians"	95
13573567477	Japan controls fighting until May 1942	US rebuilding after Pearl Harbor attack	96
13573567478	May 1942	Battle of Midway -US destroys majority of Japanese carriers	97
13573567479	March 1945	Battle of Iwo Jima	98
13573567480	Battle of Iwo Jima (1945)	invasion of the first Japanese home island, known for fierce fighting and the famous photograph	99
13573567481	Battle of Okinawa	(1945) World War II victory for the Allied troops that resulted in the deaths of almost all of the 100,000 Japanese defenders; the battle claimed 12,000 American lives	100
13573567482	April 1945 in Japan	Battle of Okinawa	101
13573567483	US Prepares for Japan Invasion Results	US takes islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa -puts them close to Japan for invasion Japan refuses to surrender -US does bombing raids on major cities -US afraid land invasion will be too deadly	102
13573567484	Manhattan Project	A secret U.S./Allied power project for the construction of the atomic bomb. -created out of belief Germany was developing a similar program	103
13573567485	July 16, 1945	date the US detonated the first atomic test bomb (Los Alamos) successfully (in US desert)	104
13573567486	July 1945 Warning to Japan	Japanese were warned of "destructive new weapon"	105
13573567487	August 6, 1945 Hiroshima	US bombs Hiroshima with atomic bomb, killing 166,000 civilians	106
13573567488	August 8,1945	USSR declares war on Japan	107
13573567489	August 9, 1945 Nagasaki	US bombs Nagasaki, 80,000 civilians killed	108
13573567490	August 12,1945	Japan surrenders	109
13573567491	Yalta Conference (1945)	FDR, Churchill and Stalin met at Yalta. Russia agreed to declare war on Japan after the surrender of Germany and in return FDR and Churchill promised the USSR concession in Manchuria and the territories that it had lost in the Russo-Japanese War "Meeting of allied leaders in February"	110
13573567492	what is decide at the yalta conference?	how rule post-war Europe -Germany and Berlin divided and occupied by Allied powers -independence and free elections of all occupied countries	111
13573567493	Postdam (July 1945)	Japan emperor maintains title -must announce to people that he is NOT divine -increased power of parliament -occupation by Allied powers	112
13573567494	significance of Postdam	because Japan's emperor renounced his divinity, it means he is not infallible to the people and that he can be overthrown if needed	113

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ap Flashcards

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13941631142	changes per 1	Move from nomadic lifestyle to settlements Hunting/gathering -> farming/domestication	0
13941631143	cont per 1	Patriarchy Dependence on agriculture for life	1
13941634639	key per 1	Civilizations, Mesopotamia and china Major technologic advancements that helped new cities	2
13941634640	change per 2	Trade increases with major regional trade From city states to Empires	3
13941637302	cont per 2	Religion major part of life/society High demand for raw materials	4
13941637303	key per 2	Bigger empires, Rome/china Trade is made quicker, easier, cheaper	5
13941639783	change per 3	Western Europe has a feudal society Asia had the most dominant world powers	6
13941639784	cont per 3	Religion dominated much of society Slavery	7
13941639785	key per 3	Indian ocean trade/ silk road trade Ottoman Empire flourishing	8
13941641874	change per 4	Scientific rev/enlightenment changed society as modern ideas formed Western Europe gains back its former power	9
13941641875	cont per 4	Spread of religions Slavery	10
13941644851	key per 4	Enlightenment laid the ground work for modern society Many revolutions led to newly reformed civilizations	11
13941644852	change per 5	Industrial revolution New imperialism, Africa and Americas	12
13941644853	cont per 5	War as a form of diplomacy Farmers as the majority job	13
13941647416	key per 5	America quickly gaining power European countries controlling all of Africa	14
13941647417	change per 6	World wars lead to changed civilizations Technological improvements lead to faster long-distance trade	15
13941651107	cont per 6	Nationalism Military/eco alliances	16
13941654787	key per 6	Lot of power shifts led to WW1/WW2 Great depression destroyed world economy	17

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AP CSA Unit 2 Flashcards

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11910701430	Array: .length, Arraylist: .size(), String: .length()	How do you find the lenghts of an Array, Arraylist, and String?	0
11910748833	For loop, while loop, do-while loop, improved for loop/for each loop	name of different types of loops	1
11910763845	ArrayList = easier to add and remove things; Array = difficult to add and remove things	What is one benefit of an ArrayList compared to an Array?	2
11910862710	For each: for(int x: array)	What how would you write a for each loop filled with ints?	3
11918452974	X: 0 Y: 1079	What would the X and Y coordinates be for the bottom left pixel in a 1920x1080 picture?	4
11918486254	They have a fixed size which can't change after initialization.	What is one limitation of arrays?	5
11930139054	an int stores a number and is a primitive type a String stores an sequence of characters and is an object	What is the difference between an int and a String	6
11922065877	For a user to denote the end of the data set but not part of the data set itself. Ex: Enter -1 to quit	What is one possible use of sentinel variables?	7
11922107338	1) have a loop that continues until the specific value or values are entered Ex: while (input != -1) 2) create a boolean set to false and have the loop run until a sentinel value is entered, in which case the boolean returns a true and the loop is broken Ex: while (!done)	What are two possible ways to implement a sentinel variable?	8
11929738875	Boolean is easier to use for while loops, for loops allow initialization of variables and conditions, do loops check the condition at the end, so it goes through at least once.	What are the advantages a for each loop?	9
11929821195	denotes the end of a data set, but it is not part of the data	define sentinel value	10
11929830958	use ==	How do you test if two object references (not values) are identical?	11
11931504632	A break statement breaks out of a loop and any loop that it may be nested in. A continue statement will follow a condition and move to the next iteration of the loop.	What are the purposes of break and continue statements?	12
11938172078	True	True or False: a constructor is a method that is automatically called when an object is created	13
11938604497	Input validation is important as all data which is entered into the system needs to be validated in order to ensure that the program will run as intended.	Why is input validation important?	14
11939091991	value comparison works because each value is a primitive type, while trying to compare object references only work if the object reference is compared to itself	What is the difference between comparing values and objects?	15
11938775146	Both arrays would reference the same actual array.	Given an array "double[] values = new double[6]", would "double[] prices = values" create a new array or point to the same reference as the other?	16
11938816770	Use Arrays.copyOf(array, n)- continuing with the example one could do double[] prices = Arrays.copyOf(values, values.length); You could also use this to expand an existing array with new slots by creating a copy with n > values.length	How would you make a copy of an array that does not result in a reference to the same array?	17
11939680837	Relational Operators	What compares values?	18
11939702625	Boolean variable	Where can you store the outcome of a condition?	19
11940446217	for (dataType elementVariable : array){ statement; }	Format of enhanced for loop	20
11940459380	An array of arrays. Represents a table of variables with rows and columns.	Two-dimensional Arrays3	21
11940982143	Step through the instructions and track the values of each variable.	How does one execute a hand trace?	22
11941005925	'count' only exists in the while loop, it can not be accessed outside of it. For each iteration of the while loop, 'count' is created again	Where does the variable 'count' exist? while (count != 5){ sumOtherRandomCode(); count++ }	23
11941061961	'i' is not declared. It should be 'int i'. Because the value of i is never less than -20, it will never run.	What is wrong with the following code? for (i = 10; i < -20; i ++){ sumRandomCodeHere(); }	24
11941087009	Input validation, because it runs at least once. Use a sentinel variable to denote the end of a data set.	What is a do Loop best for?	25
11941144514	Use a nested loop. for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i ++) { for (int j = 0; j < array[0].length; j ++) { code; } }	How do you traverse through a 2D array?	26
11941334931	C is the correct answer. A will throw a syntax error (= always goes on RIGHT), B is a boolean, D is an assignment operator.	Which of the following operators is a relational operator? A) =< B) ! C) <= D) =	27
11941362788	Yes, but it only checks whether it refers to the same object. Note that == is only for literals, or numbers. Use str.equals(str2) for strings.	Can you use == for Strings?	28
11941460147	Literals in Java are a sequence of characters (digits, letters, and other characters) that represent constant values to be stored in variables. These are NOT java objects.	What is a literal?	29
11941479192	Primitive types are the most basic data types available within the Java language. There are 8: boolean, byte, char, short, int, long, float and double.	What is a primitive value?	30
11941498522	No, because a String (notice the capital S) is a java object and not a data type.	Are strings a primitive value?	31
11941464973	to test whether two Strings are equal to each other, use the equals method (do not use == operator) or the compareTo method to compare their lexiographic order	Comparing Strings	32
11941453110	The common programming structure that implements "conditional statements".	What is an if statement?	33
11942134968	A set of related classes	Package	34
11942168942	a method that changes the state of an object	mutator method	35
11942176923	fetches private data stored within an object	accessor method	36
11942232608	A class that gives access to the use of multi-character words, phrases, etc.; does not require an import statement	String class	37
11942542788	Runs ("do") a specified subprocess while a specified condition is true.	Do while	38
11942550047	for(int i=1; i<10; i++){ }	What is proper format for a for loop?	39
11942866231	array.remove(position);	How do you remove an element in an array list from a specific position in the array?	40
11942931114	ArrayList array = new ArrayList();	How do you set up an arraylist for a list of Strings?	41
11943012279	Checks and runs if the condition is met and the program did not go through the previous if/else if statement(s)	else if	42
11943015364	Runs when the program went through none of the if/else if statement(s) above; always placed at the very end	else	43
11946303001	They are a quick way to check if one variable is equal to many things without having to use a lot of if statements	What are switch case statements useful for?	44
11946830638	Executes certain code for a set number of times (based on a condition)	What does a for loop do?	45
11946843158	Executed certain code while a statement is true	What does a while loop do?	46
11948825899	The name for a class should be a noun and capitalized. It cannot contain special characters or start with a number.	What are the guidelines for naming a class?	47
11948925221	No. If it is only a single operation, it can be converted to a method.	Is turning a single operation into a class advisable?	48
11949253490	Value < 0 = str1 comes before str2 in lexicographic order Value = 0 = str1 and str2 are the same string Value > 0 = str2 comes before str1 in lexicographic order	What are the possible return values of the str1.compareTo(str2) method, and what do they represent?	49
11949307628	Nothing will be stored; the null value represents the lack of an object, not an empty string	If a String variable str1 is set equal to the "null" value, what String literal will be stored in the variable?	50
11951025832	doubles have a decimal point.	How does a double differ from an int?	51
11951037304	It can store more data	Why would one use a long instead of an int?	52
11951465263	Int, Char, Float, Double, Guassian, boolean	Name one primitive type	53
11951473619	A class containing a sequence of characters	What is a string	54
11951496981	Double is a class with methods for doubles while double is a primitive type	What's the difference Double and double?	55
11951505818	Short is a class with methods for shorts while short is a primitive type	What's the difference Short and short?	56
11951505819	Byte is a class with methods for bytes while byte is a primitive type	What's the difference Byte and byte?	57
11951505820	Integer is a class with methods for ints while int is a primitive type	What's the difference Integer and int?	58
11951505821	Long is a class with methods for longs while long is a primitive type	What's the difference Long and long?	59
11951508694	Character is a class with methods for chars while char is a primitive type	What's the difference Character and char?	60
11951588620	Int[][] name;	How would you initialize a 2d integer array?	61
11951611194	[Y][X], also as [row][column]	Are arrays indexed [X][Y] or [Y][X]	62
11951616011	Java.util.Scanner;	What class needs to be imported to use a scanner?	63
11951713427	George.get(5)	How do you get value 5 from an ArrayList named George?	64
11951733490	Random r = new Random(); double q = r.nextDouble();	How do you generate a random double?	65
11951757612	No	If you remove a value from an array, do the other values shift down?	66
11951757613	Yes, automatically.	If you remove a value from an ArrayList, do the other values shift down?	67
11951760298	An arraylist.	What is an expandable list called.	68
11951581427	Boolean is a class with methods for the primitive type of booleans.	What's the difference between boolean and Boolean?	69
11951733269	Top left	Does array[0][0] point to the array's bottom left or top left?	70
11951782650	You receive an error out of bounds exception	What happens when you call a value outside of an arrays bound.	71
11951773770	Yes	Should the names of classes be capitalized?	72
11951778090	No	Should the names of packages be capitalized?	73
11951800668	BufferedImage	What class are images stored in?	74
11951801667	i++	What code increments a for loop with int i?	75
11951781627	for(int i = 0; i< array.length; i++){ for(int j = 0; j< array.length; j++){ number = array[i][j]; } }	How do you iterate through a two dimensional array?	76
11951874884	A type with two possible values: true and false.	Boolean type	77
11951881650	A loop that is contained in another loop	Nested loop	78

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