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Harwood AP Biology Chapter 11 Flashcards

5497148739	signal transduction pathway	a series of steps linking a mechanical or chemical stimulus to a specific cellular response	0
5497148740	local regulators	a secreted molecule that influences cells near where it is secreted (the red stuff)	1
5497148741	cell junctions	allows molecules to pass readily between adjacent cells without crossing plasma membranes	2
5497148742	cell-cell recognition	two cells in an animal may communicate by interaction between molecules protruding from their surfaces	3
5497148743	paracrine signaling	(local) a secreting cell acts on nearby target cells by discharging molecules of a local regulator	4
5497148744	synaptic signaling	(local) a nerve cell releases neurotransmitter molecules into a synapse, stimulating the target cell	5
5497148745	hormonal signaling	specialized endocrine cells secrete hormones into body fluids, often the blood	6
5497148746	hormones	in multicellular organisms, one of many types of secreted chemicals that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and act on specific target cells in other parts of the body to change their functioning	7
5497148747	reception		8
5497148748	transduction		9
5497148749	response		10
5497148750	ligand	a molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, usually a larger one	11
5497148751	g protein-coupled receptor	a signal receptor protein in the plasma membrane that responds to the binding of a signaling molecule by activating a G protein	12
5497148752	g protein-coupled receptor		13
5497148753	g protein	a GTP-binding protein that relays signals from a plasma membrane signal receptor, known as a G protein-coupled receptor, to other signal transduction proteins inside the cell	14
5497148754	receptor tyrosine kinases	a receptor protein in the plasma membrane, the intracellular part of which can catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a tyrosine on another protein	15
5497148755	receptor tyrosine kinases	often respond to the binding of a signaling molecule by dimerizing and then phosphorylating a tyrosine on the cytoplasmic portion of the other receptor in the dimer; phosphorylated tyrosines on the receptors then activate other signal transduction proteins within the cell	16
5497148756	receptor tyrosine kinases		17
5497148757	ligand-gated ion channel	a protein pore in cellular membranes that opens or closes in response to a signaling chemical (its ligand), allowing or blocking the flow of specific ions	18
5497148758	ligand-gated ion channel		19
5497148759	steroid hormone interacting with an intracellular receptor		20
5497148760	protein kinase	an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein, thus phosphorylating the protein	21
5497148761	protein phosphatases	an enzyme that removes phosphate groups from (dephosphorylates) proteins, often functioning to reverse the effect of a protein kinase	22
5497148762	phosphorylation cascade		23
5497148763	second messengers	a small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecule or ion, such as a calcium ion (Ca2+) or cyclic AMP, that relays a signal to a cell's interior in response to a signaling molecule bound by a signal receptor protein	24
5497148764	cyclic amp	cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a ring-shaped molecule made from ATP that is a common intracellular signaling molecule (second messenger) in eukaryotic cells; also a regulator of some bacterial operons	25
5497148765	adenylyl cyclase	an enzyme that converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to a signal	26
5497148766	cAMP as a second messenger in a G-protein signaling pathway		27
5497148767	calcium ions	many signaling molecules in animals, including neurotransmitters, growth factors, and some hormones, induce responses in their target cells via signal transduction pathways that increase the cytosolic concentration of	28
5497148768	more	calcium is (more/less) widely used than cAMP as a second messenger	29
5497148769	the maintenance of calcium ion concentrations in an animal cell		30
5497148770	IP3 (inositol triphosphate)	a second messenger that functions as an intermediate between certain nonsteroid hormones and a third messenger, a rise in cytoplasmic calcium ion concentration	31
5497148771	DAG (diacyglycerol)	a second messenger produced by the cleavage of a certain kind of phospholipid in the plasma membrane	32
5497148772	calcium and IP3 in signaling pathways		33
5497148773	the specificity of cell signaling		34
5497148774	scaffolding proteins	a type of large relay protein to which several other relay proteins are simultaneously attached, increasing the efficiency of signal transduction	35
5497148775	apoptosis	a program of controlled cell suicide, which is brought about by signals that trigger the activation of a cascade of suicide proteins in the cell destined to die	36
5497148776	apoptosis		37

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AP Biology (Campbell) Chapter 12 Flashcards

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6247451443	anaphase	fourth stage of mitosis, in which the chromatids of each chromosome have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell	0
6247451444	anchorage dependence	the requirement that to divide, a cell must be attached to the substratum	1
6247451445	aster	a radial array of short microtubules that extends from each centrosome toward the plasma membrane in a cell undergoing mitosis	2
6247451446	benign tumor	a mass of abnormal cells that remains at the site of origin	3
6247451447	binary fission	the type of cell division by which prokaryotes reproduce; each dividing daughter cell receives a copy of the single parental chromosome	4
6247451448	cell cycle	an ordered sequence of events in the life of a eukaryotic cell, from its origin in the division of a parent cell until its own division into two; composed of M, G1, S, G2	5
6247451449	cell cycle control system	a cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle	6
6247451450	cell division	reproduction of a cell	7
6247451451	cell plate	a double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall form during cytokinesis	8
6247451452	centromere	the centralized region joining two chromatids	9
6247451453	centrosome	material present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells, important during cell division; the microtubule organizing center	10
6247451454	checkpoint	a critical control point in the cell cycle where stop and go-ahead signals regulate the cycle	11
6247451455	chromatin	complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome; when a cell is not diving chromatin exists as a mass of very long, thin fibers that are not visible with a light microscope	12
6247451456	chromosome	a threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus; each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins	13
6247451457	cleavage	the process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane. Also, the succession of rapid cell divisions without growth during early embryonic development that converts the zygote into ball of cells	14
6247451458	cleavage furrow	the first sign of cleavage in an animal cell;a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate	15
6247451459	cyclin	a regulatory protein whose concentration fluctuates cyclically	16
6247451460	cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk)	a protein kinase that is only active when attached to a particular cyclin	17
6247451461	cytokinesis	the division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells immediately following mitosis	18
6247451462	density-dependent inhibition	the phenomenon observed in normal animal cells that causes them to stop dividing when they come into contact with one another	19
6247451463	G0 phase	a nondividing state in which a cell has left the cell cycle	20
6247451464	G1 phase	The first gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.	21
6247451465	G2 phase	the second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occur	22
6247451466	gamete	a haploid cell, such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to form a diploid cell	23
6247451467	genome	the complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism.	24
6247451468	growth factor	a protein that must be present in the extracellular environment for growth and normal development of certain types of cells; a local regulator that acts on nearby cells to stimulate cell proliferation and differentiation	25
6247451469	interphase	the period in the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing. During interphase, cellular metabolic activity is high, chromosomes and organelles are duplicated, and cell size may increase. 90% of the cell cycle	26
6247451470	M phase	mitotic phase; the phase of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis	27
6247451471	malignant tumor	a cancerous tumor that is invasive enough to impair the functions of one or more organs	28
6247451472	meiosis	a two-stage type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in cells with half the chromosome number of the original cell	29
6247451473	metaphase	the third stage of mitosis, in which the spindle is complete and the chromosomes, attached to the microtubules at their kinetochores, are all aligned at the metaphase plate	30
6247451474	metastasis	the spread of cancer cells to locations distant from their original site	31
6247451475	mitosis	a process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into 5 stages; prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Mitosis conserves chromosome number by equally allocating replicated chromosomes to each of the daughter nuclei	32
6247451476	mitotic (M) phase	the phase of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis	33
6247451477	mitotic spindle	an assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis	34
6247451478	MPF	maturation-promoting factor (M-phase promoting factor); a protein complex required for a cell to progress from late interphase to mitosis. The active form consists of cyclin and a protein kinase	35
6247451479	prophase	the first stage of mitosis, in which the chromatin is condensing and the mitotic spindle begin to form, but the nucleu and nucleolus are still intact	36
6247451480	S phase	the synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated	37
6247451481	sister chromatids	replicated forms of chromosomes joined together by the centromere and eventually separating during mitosis or meiosis II	38
6247451482	somatic cell	any cell in multicellular organisms except a sperm or egg cell	39
6247451483	telophase	the fifth and final stage of mitosis, in which daughter cells are forming and cytokinesis has typically begun	40

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AP Biology- Phylogenetic Trees Flashcards

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7879457223	What is a phylogenetic tree used for?	represent evolutionary relationships	0
7879457224	What is a clade?	a group of all organisms with common traits	1
7879457225	What does each line on a phylogenetic tree represent?	an organism	2
7879457226	What does the distance between each line on a phylogenetic tree mean?	how long ago they had a common ancestor	3
7879457227	What does the line that connects all the branches represent on a phylogenetic tree?	common ancestor	4
7879457228	shared ancestral character	a character, shared by members of a particular clade, that originated in an ancestor that is not a member of that clade	5
7879457229	common ancestor and speciation or divergence	What do branch points represent?	6
7879457230	cladogram	a diagram that groups organisms together based on ancestors/characteristics	7
7879457231	domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species	What is the order of classification levels from the most inclusive/broadest to the least inclusive/most specific?	8

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02 Organic Chemistry AP Biology Flashcards

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7307902904	isomer	Same atoms but different arrangement.	0
7485991249	structural isomers	Differ in arrangement of atoms.	1
7485994000	cis trans isomer	Same formula, different positioning around a double bond (also geometric)	2
7486004272	enantiomers	Non-superimposable mirror images	3
7486009832	isotope	Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons	4
7486017231	glucose	A sugar (monosaccharide) that is the major source of energy for the body's cells	5
7486022676	cellulose	Carbohydrate component of plant cell walls (structural)	6
7486025534	starch	energy storage polysaccharide; plants	7
7486027861	glycogen	energy storage polysaccharide, animals; Extremely branched polymer of glucose	8
7486030263	chitin	Polysaccharide found in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal cell walls.	9
7486032971	-ose	Suffix of a sugar.	10
7486034466	monosaccharide	A carbohydrate monomer; A single sugar molecule	11
7486034467	monomer	A simple compound whose molecules can join together to form polymers	12
7486034468	polymer	A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together.	13
7486035925	polysaccharide	Long chains of linked monosaccharides. (carbohydrate polymer)	14
7486039866	hydrocarbon	Compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen	15
7486040599	carbohydrate	molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (ration of 1:2:1); includes sugars and starches.	16
7486040600	polypeptide	A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.	17
7486040601	amino acid	protein monomer	18
7486041751	polynucleotide	A polymer made up of many nucleotide monomers covalently bonded together.	19
7486041752	nucleotide	monomer that forms DNA/RNA and has a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base.	20
7486041753	lipid	class of hydrophobic molecules; made mostly from carbon and hydrogen atoms (a little oxygen); includes fats, oils, steroids and waxes	21
7486043762	glycerol and fatty acids	building blocks of some lipids	22
7486056128	R group	a functional group that defines a particular amino acid and gives it special properties.	23
7486070940	triglyceride	Glycerol and three fatty acids; energy storage; lipid (fats, oils).	24
7486073193	steroids	Made of four rings of carbon; lipid; includes cholesterol and some hormones.	25
7486075401	cholesterol	Steroid common in cell membranes, also in many hormones.	26
7486078806	peptide bond	Covalent bonds that connect amino acids.	27
7486081719	disulphide bridges	covalent bonds between sulfur atoms that reinforce tertiary structure of proteins.	28
7486084148	primary structure	Chain of amino acids in a polypeptide (coded for by DNA).	29
7486085836	secondary structure	hydrogen bonds between the repeating parts of the polypeptide backbone (not the R groups) (usually an alpha helix or beta pleated sheet).	30
7486087647	tertiary structure	Results from interactions between side chains of a polypeptide (stabilizes the shape of the folded protein with hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions, covalent bonds, ionic bonds)	31
7486090688	quaternary structure	Results from two or more polypeptide subunits.	32
7486092286	primary	first	33
7486092287	secondary	second	34
7486092288	tertiary	third	35
7486093495	quaternary	fourth	36
7486095420	purines	Nucleotide bases with a double-ring structure. (A G)	37
7486096642	pyrimidines	Nucleotide bases with a single-ring structure. (C T U)	38
7486098196	nucleotide bases	the part of DNA/RNA that holds the genetic code; nitrogen containing part of a nucleotide that varies	39
7486108833	sugar-phosphate	The backbone of the DNA/RNA molecule	40
7486112312	synthesis	To put together or make.	41
7486114255	digestion	To break apart.	42
7486117143	dehydration synthesis (condensation reaction)	molecules are connected by the loss of a water molecule.	43
7486121012	hydrolysis	Reaction where water is split into two hydrogens and one oxygen; this breaks a polymer.	44
7486124618	anabolism	Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy.	45
7486129714	catabolism	Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.	46
7486138147	metabolism	All of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism	47

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Ap Biology Chapter 2 Flashcards

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6841907016	Matter	Anything that takes up space and has mass	0
6841907017	Element	A substance that cannot be broken down to another substance by chemical reaction	1
6841907018	Compound	A substance made of two or more DIFFERENT elements combined in a fixed ratio (NaCl, H2O)	2
6841907019	Essential elements	Elements that an organism requires for survival	3
6841907020	Examples of essential elements	Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, potassium, sulfur, ect..	4
6841907021	Trace elements	Elements that are required by an organism in only minute quantaties	5
6841907022	Name two trace elements	Iron, iodine	6
6841907023	Atom	The smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element	7
6841907024	What are the three subatomic particles?	Protons, neutrons, and electrons	8
6841907026	Atomic number	a subscript identifying the number of protons in an atom by writing the number to the left of the symbol for the element (ex: 2He)	9
6841907027	Mass number	The sum of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom, also written in superscript to the left of the atoms symbol	10
6841907028	Atomic mass	The mass number is an approximation of the total mass of an atom	11
6841907029	Isotopes	Different atomic forms of the same element, created when the same element has a different number of neutrons (Number of protons MUST remain the constant to consider the element the same)	12
6841907030	Radioactive isotopes	An isotope in which the nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off particles and energy. When a decay leads to a change in protons, the element changes.	13
6841907031	Energy	the capacity to cause change (ex. doing work)	14
6841907032	Potential energy	the energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure. It takes work to move an electron farther away from its nucleus, so the more distant an electron is from it, the greater the potential energy.	15
6841907033	Electron Shells	Electrons can be found here, and each shell has an average distance and energy level. The lower the electron shell, the lower the energy level, and thus lower potential energy to an electron in that electron shell	16
6841907034	Valence electrons	Outermost electrons	17
6841907035	Valence shell	Outermost electron shell	18
6841907036	Chemical bond	The process of two or more atoms transferring or sharing electrons	19
6841907037	What are the strongest types of chemical bonds?	Covalent and ionic bonds	20
6841907038	Covalent bond	The sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms.	21
6841907040	Single bond	one pair of shared electrons	22
6841907041	Double bond	Two pairs of shared electrons	23
6841907042	Valence	the bonding capacity of two atoms and usually equals the number of electrons required to complete the atoms outermost valence shell	24
6841907043	Electronegativity	The attraction of a particular atom for the electrons of a covalent bond. The more electronegative an atom is, the more strongly it pulls shared electrons toward itself.	25
6841907044	Nonpolar covalent bond	Between two or more atoms of a common element, where the charges of the molecule are balanced and equal.	26
6841907045	Polar covalent bond	Between two or more atoms of different elements, where they are not balanced and thus polar	27
6841907046	Ion	A charged atom/molecule	28
6841907047	Cation	A positively charged ion	29
6841907048	Anion	A negatively charge ion	30
6841907049	Ionic Bond	The attraction between cation and anion, where electrons are transfered.	31
6841907050	Ionic Compounds/Salts	Compounds formed by ionic bonds.	32
6841907051	Hydrogen bonds	The noncovalent attraction between a hydrogen and an electronegative atom	33
6841907052	van der Waals interactions	Individually weak and occur only when atoms and molecules are very close together. This is what gives certain organisms the ability to stick to things.	34
6841907053	Chemical reaction	The making and breaking of chemical bonds, leading to a change in the composition of matter	35
6841907054	What is the chemical equation of photosynthesis?	6 CO2 + 6 H2O --> C6H12O6 + 6 O2	36
6841907055	Chemical equilibrium	The point at which the reactions offset one another exactly. Reactions are still going on, but with no net effect on the concentrations of reactants and products. Does NOT mean the ^ and the ^ are equal in concentration.	37
6841907056	Cohesion	Hydrogen bonds holding a substance together	38
6841907057	Adhesion	The clinging of one substance to another	39
6841907058	Surface tension	A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid.	40
6841907059	Kinetic energy	Anything that moves, the energy of motion	41
6841907060	Thermal energy	The kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules, and depends on the matter's volume	42
6841907061	Temperature	Represents the average kinetic energy of molecules, regardless of volume	43
6841907062	Heat	Thermal energy transferred from one body of matter to another	44
6841907063	Calorie	Unit of heat. Is the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 degree Celsius.	45
6841907064	Kilocalroie	1,000 calories, is the quantity of heat required to raise the temp of 1 kilogram of water by 1 degree Celsius	46
6841907065	Joule	Another energy unit, equals 0.239 cal. One cal equals 4.184 j	47
6841907066	Specific heat	the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of that substance to change its temperature by 1*C	48
6841907067	Heat of vaporization	The quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g of it to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state	49
6841907068	Evaporation cooling	Occurs because the hottest molecules (those with the greatest kinetic energy) are the ones most likely to leave as gas.	50
6841907069	Solution	A liquid that is a completely homogeneous mixture of two or more substances	51
6841907070	Solvent	The dissolving agent of a solution	52
6841907071	Solute	The substance that is being dissolved	53
6841907074	Hydrophilic	Any substance with an affinity for water (water-loving)	54
6841907075	Hydrophobic	Substances that are nonionic/nonpolar and can't for hydrogen bonds repel water. Ex: oils and water	55
6841907081	Acid	Is a substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution	56
6841907082	Base	A substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution	57
6841907085	pH	What	58
6841907086	Buffers	A substance that minimizes changes in the concentration of H+ and OH- in a solution.	59

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AP Biology Chapters 4-7 Flashcards

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7269730283	organic chemistry	study of carbon compounds	0
7269730284	hydrocarbons	- organic molecules only consisting of carbon and hydrogen - hydrocarbon chains are hydrophobic due to their non-polar CH bonds - release energy when broken down	1
7269844674	isomers	compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements and properties	2
7269847005	cistrans isomers	same sequence of covalently bonded atoms but overall differ in structure due to inflexibility of double bonds - cis isomer has same atoms attached to same carbons on one side of double bond - trans has atoms on opposite sides of double bond	3
7269857536	enantiomers	left and right handed versions of a molecule and can differ greatly in biological activity - ex: pharmacy - 2 enantiomers of a drug may not be equally effective (ex: crank vs. nasal inhaler) (mirrored versions of a molecule)	4
7269864316	functional groups	may affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical reactions - hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, methyl	5
7269873639	what do the functional groups hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate all have in common?	they are all hydrophilic, functional, and increase solubility of organic compounds in water	6
7269876936	what is different between hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate functional groups and methyl?	methyl isn't reactive	7
7269877007	hydroxyl group	-OH name: alochols (ex: ethanol) is polar because electrons spend more time near electronegative oxygen atom form hydrogen bonds with water helping dissolve organic compounds like sugars	8
7269884782	carbonyl	name: ketones (in cytoskeleton), aldehydes (at end of C skeleton) ex: ketones - acetone ex: aldehydes - propanol can be structural isomers with different properties found in sugars. give rise to ketoses adn aldoses	9
7269892679	carboxyl	name: carbolxyc acids ex: acetic acid acts as an acid - donates H+ becauses the covalent bond between O and H is so polar	10
7269900300	amino	name: amines ex: glycine compounds with both amino and carboxyl group are amino acids acts as a base. picks up H+ from surrounding solution	11
7269903633	sulfahydryl	name: thiols ex: cysteine- sulfur containing amino acid two groups react forming covalent bond. stabilizes protein structure (tertiary) cross linking in hair proteins maintains curls/straight hair	12
7269909165	phosphate	name: organic phosphates ex: glycerol phosphate-phospholipids contributes negative charge when at end of molecules molecules with these groups have the potential to interact with water, releasing energy	13
7269914528	methyl	name: methylated cmpds ex: methyl cytosine-component modified by methyl group affects expression of genes arrangement gives male and female sex hormones an affected shape and function	14
7269921656	ATP	consists of organic molecule adenosine to which 3 phosphates are attached when reacts with water, third phosphate splits off releasing energy	15
7269925259	macromolecules	carbs, proteins, nucleic acids, are huge	16
7269925287	polymer	long macromolecule with many similiar building blocks with covalent bonds	17
7269927753	monomers	repeating unit in polymers	18
7269927754	enzymes	specializes macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions	19
7269930150	dehydration synthesis	monomers connected in reaction in which 2 molecules are covalently bonded with loss of water molecule when bond forms, each monomer contributes either a -OH or -H to water molecules catalyzed by enzymes endergonic - needs energy	20
7269934581	hydrolysis	- dissasembly of polymers - bond broken by additional addition of water - H+ attaching to one monomer and OH to another - exergonic - release of energy	21
7269936457	carbohydrates	sugars and polymers of sugars	22
7269937568	monosaccharieds	general formula CH2O - number of these units form a sugar vary	23
7269941105	what kind of functional groups are in a sugar	a carbonyl and multiple hydroxyl groups	24
7270250771	disaccharide	consists of 2 monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage	25
7270252913	glycosidic linkage	covalent bond between 2 monosaccharides joined by dehydration reaction	26
7270262106	polysaccharides	polymers with thousands of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages	27
7270263991	starch	-what plants store -polymer of glucose monomers, with plastids that have chloroplasts -synthesizing starch enables the plant to stockpile surplus glucose -is stored energy -can be withdrawn through hydrolysis, breaking down into glucose monomers -simplest form is amylose, then amylopectin (complex) -has alpha linkages ( repeating monomers in the same direction )	28
7270275750	glycogen	-what animals store -like amylopectin but more extensively branched - in muscle and liver cells -hydrolysis of glycogen releases glucose when the demand for sugar increases	29
7270284425	cellulose	-tough outside wall that encloses plant cells - is unbranched - has beta glycosidic linkages -enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing alpha linkages can't do the same to cellulose because beta ones are a different shape. - some hydroxyls free to hydrogen bond with other hydroxyls to cellulose moleculse paralle to it -parallel cellulose held together by hydrogen bonds between hydroxyl groups attached to carbon - repeating units that are in opposite directions	30
7270303659	beta linkages	monomers in alternating orientation (one upside down, the other right side up, etc) linkages in cellulose	31
7270307135	alpha linkages	all monomers are in the same orientation linkages in starch	32
7279144204	chitin	structural polysaccharide formed from glucose monomers - found in exoskeletons and fungi have nitrogen containing group	33
7279159298	Lipids	fats, pospholipids, steroids hydrophobic do NOT form polymers	34
7279161018	fats	fatty acids attached to the 3-carbon, alcohol, glycerol - are an excellent storage of molecules - twice the reserve of carbs	35
7279163193	fatty acid	long, hydrocarbon chain with carboxyl group at one end - non polar hydrocarbons make them hydrophobic	36
7279169153	triaglycerol	3 fatty acids, each linked by an ester linkage- a bond between a hydroxyl and carboxyl	37
7279172118	ester linkage	bond between hydroxyl and carboxyl	38
7279176600	unsaturated fatty acids	fatty acids with double bonds in their carbon chain - is liquid at room temperature -cis double bond makes a kink - prevents unsaturated fatty acids from packing and solidifying together - plants and fish fat - oils - liquid at room temperature	39
7279183005	saturated fatty acids	no double bonds animal fats solid at room temperature	40
7279184699	trans fats	made in the process of hydrogenated vegetable oils unsaturated fats with trans double bond	41
7279196152	phospholipids	glycerol linked to 2 fatty acids and a negatively charged phosphate group - phosphate head is hydrophilic - fatty acid tail is hydrophobic (ideal for membranes)	42
7279201204	steroids	class of lipids distinguished by 4 connecting carbon rings with various attached groups - components of cell membranes (cholesterol) - signaling molecules that travel through the body (Horemones)	43
7279205389	cholesterol	component in animal cell membranes - precursor for other steroids, including many hormones - help maintain fluidity in the cell membrane	44
7279210426	catalysts	enzymes (proteins) that speed up reactions	45
7279210427	polypeptide	polymer of amino acid	46
7279211659	protein	functional molecule of one or more polypeptides, each folded in 3D shape	47
7279216743	amino acids	- composed of alpha carbon bonded to a hydrogen atom, carboxyl group, amino group, variable side chain called R group - R group refers to unique physical and chemical properties - side chains may either be polar or charged and hydrophilic, or nonpolar and hydrophobic - amino and carboxyl usually ionized	48
7279222599	examples of proteins	enzymes structural storage transport hormones receptor proteins motor proteins defensive proteins	49
7279227404	peptide bond	bond linking carboxyl group of one amino acid with an amino acid of another - through dehydration reaction	50
7279230463	N-terminus	amino end of polypeptide	51
7279231621	C-terminus	carboxyl end of polypeptide	52
7279233944	protein structure and function	amino acid sequence determines 3D shape - globular - sphere - fibrous - long fibers	53
7279238707	what does the functionality of a protein depend on?	ability of the protein to recognize and bind to other molecules depends on molecular order also depends on physical and chemical enviornment	54
7279243049	denaturation	protein loses native shape weak chemical bonds and interactions destroyed ex: when it moves from an aqueous to a nonpolar solvent .......	55
7279247151	chaperonins	protein molecules assist in folding of proteins keep new polypeptide segregated from bad influences in cytoplasmic environemnt from e. coli	56
7279250711	xray crystallography	determines 3D structure of a protein	57
7279252442	gene	amino acid sequence of a polypeptide programmed by a discrete unit of inheritance	58
7279256431	nucleic acid	polymers made of monomers called nucleotides	59
7279257828	deoxyribonucleic acid	enable organisms to reproduce their complex components through each generation	60
7279262593	polynucleotides	nucleic acids make up polymers	61
7279264801	nucleotide	made up of nitrogenous base, 5 carbon sugar (pentose), one or more phosphate groups	62
7279266392	pyrimidine	one six membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms cytosine and thymine (remember: both contain a y in the name)	63
7279269306	purines	larger, six membered ring fused to a five membered ring adenine and guanine	64
7279275832	what are the different types of nitrogenous bases and who do they pair with	cytosine and guanine pair thymine and adenine pair	65
7279276984	deoxyribose and ribose	- deoxyribose lacks an oxygen atom on the second carbon in the ring - second carbon is 2' - fifth carbon (sticks up from ring) is 5'	66
7279531842	how to make a nucleotide	attach a phosphate group to the 5' carbon of the sugar which equals a nucleoside monophosphate = nucleotide	67
7279534050	phosphodiester linkage	linkage between the phosphate group and sugars	68
7279537992	double helix	2 strands	69
7279537993	antiparallel	2 phosphate-sugar backbones rune in opposite 5' to 3' direction	70
7279541101	complimentary	each side of DNA is predictable	71
7279542540	primary structure	linked series of amino acids with a unique sequence - determined by inherited genetic info - LINEAR chain - dictates other structures, due to the back bone and variable side chains of the amino acids	72
7279545417	secondary structure	regions stabilized by hydrogen bonds between atoms of polypeptide backbone - coils and folds of peptide chain due to the hydrogen bonds O atoms have partial (-) charge and H+ on Nitrogens have partial (+) charge, causing hydrogen bonds to form	73
7279553434	what are the two types of secondary structures	alpha helix beta pleated sheet	74
7279554488	alpha helix	form of secondary structure - delicate coil held by hydrogen bonding on every 4th amino acid	75
7279557929	beta pleated sheet	2+ strands of polypeptide chains side by side connected by hydrogen bonds between the 2 parallel peptide backbones	76
7279565661	tertiary structure	3D shape stabilized by interactions of the side chains (R groups)	77
7279569448	hydrophobic interaction	interaction between amino acids with hydrophobic (nonpolar) side chains usually end up in clusters at core of protein. hydrophobic interaction caused by explosion of nonpolar substances by H20 molecules - once nonpolar amino acids are close to gether, van der waals hold them together - hydrogen bonds between polar side chains and ionic bonds help hold them together and stabilize the tertiary structure	78
7279576950	disulfide bridges	covalent bonds from where 2 cytosine monomers, that have sulfhydryl groups on the side chain, are brought close together by folding of side chain	79
7279582075	quaternary structure	overall protein structure that results from aggregation of polypeptide subunits - association of multiple polypeptides forming a functional protein	80
7279585029	light microscope	visible light is passed through the specimen and then through glass lenses. bend light so specimin is magnitized (LIVE specimins)	81
7279587940	magnification	ratio of objects size to true size of real image	82
7279588696	resolution	measure of clairty of image	83
7279588697	contrast	differences in parts of sample	84
7279589502	electron microscope	focuses bam of electrons through specimines. study organelles better KILLS live specimines	85
7279591123	scanning electron microscope	used for detail of topography - scans surface of sample	86
7279592913	transmission microscope	study the internal structure of cells	87
7279594145	cell fractionation	takes cells apart and separates major organelles and other subcellular structures from one another - centrifuge spins test tube. causes cell components to fall to bottom - allows researchers to prepare specific cell components in bulk and identify functions	88
7279603645	cytosol	jelly fluid organelles are in	89
7279604591	eukaryotic cells	DNA in nucleus that has a double membrane	90
7279605112	prokaryotic	no nucleus - DNA in nucleoid	91
7279606159	nucleoid	not membrane bound place where DNA is	92
7279606786	cytoplasm	between nucleus and plasma membrane	93
7279607269	plasma membrane	selective barrier allowing passage of oxygen, nutrients, waste - smaller objects have greater ratio of surface area to volume - necessary to exchange things across the barrier	94
7279609775	nucleus	contains most of genes	95
7279610397	nuclear envelope	encloses nucleus. double membrane	96
7279610398	nuclear lamina	netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of nucleus by supporting nuclear envelope - nuclear lamina and filaments help organize genetic material	97
7279619711	chromosomes	structures carrying genetic info	98
7279621574	chromatin	complex of DNA and proteins in chromosome	99
7279622884	nucleolus	-nondividing structure in nucleus -synthesis of rRNA -combines rRNA with protein to assemble ribosomal subunits, then passes through nuclear pores	100
7279626562	ribosomes	made of protein and ribosomal RNA - free - in cytosol - bound - attached to ER- make proteins in membranes, packed in organelles, or exported out of cell	101
7279629243	endomembrane system	nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi, lysosomes, vesicles, vacuoles, plasma membrane membranes related through contact or vesicles	102
7279630710	vesicles	membrane bound sacs that transfer membrane segments	103
7279635942	ER	- membranous system continuous with nuclear envelope and enclosed in a network of interconnected tubules or compartments called cisternae	104
7279636898	Rough ER	has ribosomes attached proteins meant for secretion made by ribosomes then threaded through lumen of RER. most proteins are glycoproteins	105
7279640812	glycoproteins	proteins covalently bonded to small carbohydrates	106
7279637501	Smoother ER	doesn't have ribosomes attached enzymes involved in phospholipid and steroid synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, detox of drugs and poisons, storage release of Ca ions during muscle contraction - alcohol makes liver increase production of smooth ER, leading to increased tolerance	107
7279646582	transport vesicles	what proteins are transported in from RER	108
7279653200	Golgi	stack of flattened sacs - golgi products are processed and tagged as cisternae - products of ER are modified and stored and transported to other places	109
7279658786	what are the two faces of the golgi body	CIS and TRANS	110
7279659459	what is the CIS face of the Golgi	CIS - near ER - side of ER - entrance of stuff	111
7279660104	what is the TRANS face of the golgi	TRANS - gives rise to vesicles pinching off and traveling to other sites carrying golgi products - of plant manufactures polysaccharides	112
7279662518	lysosomes	membrane enclosed sacs containing hydrolytic enzymes that digest macromoleucules - can provide acidic pH for these enzymes - recycles cells own macromolecules by fusing with damaged organelles	113
7279665425	autophagy	when lysosomes fuse with damaged organelles to recycle them	114
7279667637	vacuoles	large vesicles	115
7279669286	phagocytosis	when protists engulf particles how lysosomes can digest food vacuoles	116
7279667638	food vacuoles	as a result of phagocytosis stores food	117
7279671543	contractile vacuoles	pump excess water out of fress water protists	118
7279672259	what can vacuoles in plant cells do	can store organic and inorganic ions, contain dangerous metabolic byproducts, protect plant from predators	119
7279673734	central vacuole	found in mature plant cells contain solution called cell sap	120
7279674365	mitochondria	where cellular respiration happens to make ATP	121
7279678772	cisternae	folds of membrane of mitochondria create a large surface area enclose mitochondria matrix	122
7279675545	endosymbiont theory	mitochondria was prokaryote - mitochondria has 2 membranes, phospholipid bilayer with special proteins, own DNA, ribosomes	123
7279677673	chloroplasts	where photosynthesis happens makes sugars from CO2, H2) and solar energy have 2 membranes	124
7279681158	thylakoids	intermembrane system of connected sacs in chloroplasts	125
7279681807	grana	stacks of thylakoids	126
7279681808	stroma	fluid fillid around the thylakoids contain chloroplast DNA, ribosomes, enzymes	127
7279683194	plastids	plant organelle (chloroplasts) include amyloplasts which stores starch, chromoplasts which contain pigments	128
7279684383	amyloplasts	type of plastid that stores starch	129
7279684795	peroxisomes	specialized metabolic compartment bound by a membrane contain enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms from substrates and transfer them to oxygen to make hydrogen peroxide (H202)	130
7279687787	function of peroxisomes	- break down fatty acids for energy, detox alochol and poisons - has enzymes that converts hydrogen peroxide to water - glyoxysomes	131
7279690591	glyoxysomes	Specialized peroxisomes found in the fat storing tissues of plant seeds - convert fatty acids to sugars	132
7279701034	cytoskeleton	network of protein fibers give mechanical support and function in cell mobility interacts with motor proteins to produce cellular movements	133
7279722788	microtubules	- hollow rods constructed of colums of globular proteins called tublins. thickest . ex: separate chromosomes during cell division - are tracks taht roganelles move along with aid of motor proteins - grow out of centrosome	134
7279765721	centrosome	region near nucleus called microtuble organizing center	135
7279766159	centrioles	part of centrosome pair of centrolies, each made of 9 sets of triplet microtubules in a ring, is associated with centrosome and replicated before cell divison	136
7279770794	cilia and flagella	locomoter extensions both composed of 2 single microtubules surrounded by a ring of 9 doublets of microtubules enclosed in extension of plasma membrane	137
7279772029	basal body	with "9+0+ pattern of microtubule triplits, anchors a cilium or flagellum in cell.	138
7279773225	dyneins	large motor proteins composed of several polypeptides -responsable for bending movement of organism - atp provides energy to allow dynein proteins to change shape to preform complex movements	139
7279776644	microfilament	smallest solid rods build from actin is a twisted chain of actin subunits form a structural network when proteins bind to side of actin filament structural purpose is to bear tension (pull force) and support the shape of the cell	140
7279776645	actin	globular protein. units of microfilament	141
7279779681	cortex	outer cytoplasmic layer of cell microfilament structure gives the cortex its gel consistency - microfilaments increase surface area of intestinal cells - microfilaments on length of muscle cell with myosin	142
7279782789	myosin	thicker filaments made of a protein acts as a motor protein- walks along actin filaments contraction of a muscle cell is bc of actin and myosin filaments sliding past another, shortening of cell	143
7279785095	cytoplasmic streaming	involves both actin myosin interactions and sol-gel conversions - circular flow of cytoplasm in cells	144
7279786154	intermediate filaments	smaller than microtubules, bigger than microfillaments maintain cell shape nucleus security held by web of intermediate fillaments nuclear lamina made of intermediate filaments -permanent network of cell	145
7279788370	cell wall	composed of microfibrils of cellulose embedded in a matrix of polysaccharides and protein	146
7279789505	microfibrils	made of polysaccharide cellulose synthesized by cellulose synthase	147
7279789504	primary cell wall	young plant thin and flexible microtubules in cell cortex guide path of cellulose synthase, determining pattern of cellulose fibril deposition and thus direction of cell expansion	148
7279792169	middle lamella	between primary walls of adjacent cells - thin layer of polysaccharides (PECTIN)	149
7279793134	secondary wall	between plasma membran and primary cell wall	150
7279793889	extracellular matrix	made of glycoproteins and other carbohydrae containing molecules	151
7279794344	glycoproteins	are proteins covalently bonded with carbs, usually in sort chain fo sugars	152
7279795452	collagen	forms strong fibers embedded in a network of proteoglycan complexes (outside of cell)	153
7279796890	proteoglycans	consist of small core protein with many carbohydrate chains all attached to long polysaccharides	154
7279797498	fibronectins	how cells attach to ECM	155
7279797513	integrins	span plasma membrane. what fibronectins bind to bind to microfilaments bind to micro filaments via other proteins of cytoskeleton	156
7279807511	plasmodesmata	channels in plant cell walls which plasma membranes connect linking plant cells into a living continuoum	157
7279808926	tight junction	proteins hold adjacent membranes tightly together creating impermeable seal across layer of epithelial cells - prevent leakage	158
7279811104	desmosomes	reinforced by intermediate filaments. rivet cells into strong sheets (in muscle)	159
7279813304	gap junction	cytoplasmic connections allow for exchange of small molecules and ions between cells to protein lined pores	160
7279815897	fluid mosaic model	biological membranes consist of various proteins that are attached to or embedded in bylayer of phospholipids	161
7279817699	amphipathic	both hydrophilic and phdrophobic	162
7279819242	parts of plasma membrane	- membranes held together by weak hydrophobic interactions that allow the lipid and some of the proteins to drift laterally - soe membrane proteins held by cytoskeleton or ECM - others directed in movements - phospholipids with unsaturated carbon tails maintain membrane fluidity at a lower temp	163
7279822468	cholesterol	restricts movement of phospholipids reducing fluidity at warmer temps and enhancing fluidity at lower temps	164
7279823709	integral proteins	extended though membrane with 2 hydrophilic ends and a hydrophobic midsection made of one or more alpha helical structures of nonpolar amino acids	165
7279825228	peripheral proteins	attached to surface of membrane - attachments of membrane proteins to cytoskeleton and fibers of ecm provide support for membrane	166
7279826800	glycolipids	cacarbs covalently bonded to lipids	167
7279828129	what do glycolipids and glycoproteins have to do with the plasma membrane	the diversity and location of these molecules enable membrane carbs to funciton as markers that distinguish one cell to another	168
7279828965	channel proteins	have hydrophilic channel to allow passage of polar molecules	169
7279829518	transport proteins	help move ions and polar molecules across membrane	170
7279829820	aquaporins	allows passage of water through membranes	171
7279829821	diffusion	movement of substance down conentration gradient due to random thermal motion	172
7279830743	passive transport	no energy expenditure	173
7279830744	osmosis	diffusion of free water across permeable membrane. diffuses down concentration gradient	174
7279831536	tonicity	clustering of water around solute adn free water particles tendency of a surrounding solution to gain or lose water	175
7279832515	isotonic	neigher gain or lose water	176
7279833194	hypertonic	more non-penetrating solutes - water will flow out of cell when it is in a hypertonic environment, causing it to shrivel	177
7279835490	hypotonic	less solutes outside of cell than inside, cause water to go into cell and burst	178
7279836533	turgid	firm, healthy state for plant cells turgor pressure water moving in cell causes cell to swell against cell wall	179
7279837302	flaccid	plant clels in isotonic surrounding (limp)	180
7279837761	plasmolysis	plasma membrane pulls away from cell wall as water exists and cell shrivels, when in hypertonic solution	181
7279840569	facilitated diffusion	diffusion of polar molecules with the aid of transport proteins	182
7279841292	ion channel and gated channels	open and close in response to electrical stimuli	183
7279841937	active transport	requires energy to transport ATP phosphate group may be transferred to carrier protein, making it change shape and translocate from bound solute to membrane	184
7279843235	sodium potassium ion pump	exchanges Na and K across animal cell membranes, creating a high concentration of K ions and a low concentration of sodium ions in cell	185
7279844527	membrane potential	voltage across a membrane - favors transport of cations into cell because inside is negative and outside is positive	186
7279846291	electrochemical gradient	combination of forces acting on ion - chemical - conecntration gradient - electrical - effect of membrane potential	187
7279847272	proton pump	transports H out of cell and generates voltage across membrane in plants, fungi and bacteria	188
7279849724	cotransport	mechanism through which the active transport of a solute is indirectly driven by an ATP powered pump that transports another substance down its gradient - as the actively transported substance diffuses back down its concentration gradient through cotransporter, the solute is carried against concentration gradient across membrane	189
7279852445	exocytosis	cell secretes large molecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane	190
7279852999	phagocytosis	form of endocytosis -pseudopodia wrap around a food particle adn engulf it, creating a vacuole - fuses with lysosome	191
7279854178	pinocytosis	droplets of extracelluar fluid taken into the cell in small vesicles	192
7279854602	receptor mediated endocytosis	enables a cell to aquire specific substances from extracellular fluid	193
7279855261	ligands	molecules that bind to receptor cites - attach receptor proteins (usually coated in clustered pits on cell surface) and are carried into cell when vesicle forms	194

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AP Biology Unit 3 - Chapter 10 Photosynthesis Flashcards

Chapter 10 Vocabulary for AP Biology

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8258504321	Chlorophyll	Green Pigment Main photosynthetic pigmnet Absorbs primarily violet-blue and red wavelengths	0
8258504322	Thylakoids	dense interconnected membranous sacs	1
8258504323	Grana	stacks of thylakoid	2
8258504324	Granum	singular of grana	3
8258504325	Chloroplast	sites of photosynthesis	4
8258504326	Photosynthesis	conversion of light energy into chemical energy stored in sugar and other organic molecules	5
8258504327	Photosynthesis Equation	6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light --> C6H12O6 + 6 O2	6
8258504328	Carbon Dioxide	source of carbon and is considered inorganic carbon	7
8258504329	Electromagnetic Spectrum	Electromagnetic Energy which travels in waves	8
8258504330	Colors	Light we see is reflected off objects and light we dont see is absorbed by objects	9
8258504333	Chlorophyll a	main photosynthetic green pigment, absorbs primarily violet-blue and red wavelengths	10
8258504334	Accessory Pigment	a molecule that absorbs wavelengths in the visible light spectrum other than the primary pigments	11
8258504335	Carotenoid	absorbs blue and blue-green wavelengths Beta-Carotene; gives materials an orange color	12
8258504336	Light Reactions	Occur in thylakoid membrane and are also called light dependent reactions	13
8258504337	Photophosphorylation	Light is captured by pigments and used to convert ADP + Pi into ATP	14
8258504338	Photosystem	Consists of a reaction-center complex surrounded by light-harvesting complexes	15
8258504339	Light-Harvesting Complex	Contains chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids (within the photosystem)	16
8258504340	Photosystem 1	Has P700 chlorophyll a in reaction-center complex	17
8258504341	Photosystem 2	Has P680 chlorophyll a in reaction-center complex	18
8258504342	Cytochrome	Iron-containing carrier protein also found in mitochondrial electron transport (specific name of ETC protein)	19
8258504343	Calvin Cycle	Light-Independent reactions Occurs in stoma, does not use light directly	20
8258504344	Rubisco	The most abundant protein on Earth Carbon Fixation is catalyzed by Rubisco	21
8258504345	Reduction	The carbon molecules made in Carbon Fixation are reduced into to G3P that can be used to make glucose or perform other processes	22
8258504346	1 Cycle of Calvin Cycle	1 CO2 is fixed 3 ATP are used 2 NADPH are used 1 RuBP is regenerated 6 cycles needed to make 1 glucose molecule	23
8258504347	C4 Photosynthesis	A method that bypasses photorespiration Happens in corn, sugarcane, and other plants in hot, dry environments Moves from mesophyll to bundle-sheath cells	24
8258504348	C3 Plant	Calvin cycle, taking in carbon dioxide through the leaves' minuscule pores, called stomata. An enzyme called RuBisCO helps the carbon dioxide combine with sugar.	25

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AP Biology Chapter 54 Flashcards

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8563260058	Community	A group of populations of different species living close enough to interact	0
8563260059	Interspecific interactions	Interactions with individuals of other species in the community	1
8563260060	Interspecific competition	(-/-) interaction that occurs when individuals of different species compete for a resource that limits their growth and survivial	2
8563260061	Competitive Exclusion Principle	A slight reproductive advantage (use resources efficiently) of one species will eventually lead to local elimination of the inferior competitor	3
8563260062	(Ecological) Niche	The sum of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources in its environment (role) (Space, Food, Location, Breeding)	4
8563260063	Relationship between coexistence and niches	Two species CANNOT coexist if they have identical niches, but they CAN coexist if they find significant differences in their niches	5
8563260064	Resource partitioning	Differentiation of species that allows similar species to coexist in a community	6
8563260065	Fundamental niche	Niche that could be potential occupied by a species	7
8563260066	Realized niche	The portion of its niche a species actually occupies	8
8563260067	Allopatric	Geographically separate	9
8563260068	Sympatric	Geographically overlapping	10
8563260069	Character displacement	Characteristics typically diverge more in geographically overlapping regions than in separated regions	11
8563260070	Predation	(+/-) Predator/Prey	12
8563260071	Predator Senses	Heat-sensing, smell, sight, claws, venom	13
8563260072	Prey Protection	Hiding, Fleeing, Herding, Alarm calls	14
8563260073	Aposematic Coloration	Warning Coloration/ Effective chemical defense system	15
8563260074	Cryptic Coloration	Camouflage	16
8563260075	Batesian mimicry	Harmless species can mimic a harmful species	17
8563260076	Mullerian mimicry	Two or more harmful species resemble each other, warns off predators	18
8563260077	Predator mimicry	Predator poses to be harmless	19
8563260078	Herbivory	(+/-) Organism eats parts of plants or algae	20
8563260079	Herbivore adaptation	Chemical sensor, smell, specialized teeth, specialized digestion	21
8563260080	Plant Defense	Poison, bad taste	22
8563260081	Symbiosis	When individuals of two or more species live in direct and intimate contact with one another	23
8563260082	Parasitism	(+/-) Parasite organism derives nutrients from host organism, and the host organism is harmed	24
8563260083	Endoparasites	Parasites that live in the body of their hosts	25
8563260084	Ectoparasites	Parasites that feed on the external surface of a host	26
8563260085	Parasite Behvaior	Sometimes require multiple hosts, change behavior of hosts	27
8563260086	Mutualism	(+/+) Interspecific interaction that benefits both species	28
8563260087	Obligate mutualism	One of the species in the interaction has lost the ability to survive on its own	29
8563260088	Facultative Mutualism	Both species can survive alone	30
8563260089	Commensalism	(+/0) Interaction that benefits one species but has no effect on the other	31
8563260090	Facilitation	Species have positive effects on the survival and reproduction of other species without necessarily in a symbiosis	32
8563260091	Species Diversity	Variety of different kinds of organisms that make up a community, species richness+relative abundance	33
8563260092	Species richness	Number of different species int he communtiy	34
8563260093	Relative abundance	The proportion each species represents of all individuals in the community	35
8563260094	Shannon diversity	A way to calculate indexes of diversity	36
8563260095	Why is it hard to determine the number and relative abundance of species in a community	Most species in a community are relatively rare, micro, and hard to identify	37
8563260096	Biomass	The total mass of all organisms in a habitat	38
8563260097	Invasive Species	Organisms that become established outside their native range	39
8563260098	Trophic Structure	The feeding relationships between organisms in a community (food energy)	40
8563260099	Food Chain	TROPHIC LEVELS: Producers (Autotrophs)-> Consumers-> Decomposers, shows an interwoven flow of energy	41
8563260100	Food Web	Food Chains linked together, overlapping parts, shows the flow of energy	42
8563260101	What is the highest number of links on the typical food web	No more than 5	43
8563260102	Energetic Hypothesis	Aims to explain why food chains are short by saying that the length of a food chain is limited by the inefficiency of energy transfer along the chain	44
8563260103	Dominant species	Species in a community that are most abundant- thus play the biggest role (even trees)	45
8563260104	Keystone species	Not usually overly abundant, but play a pivotal ecological role for the community	46
8563260105	Ecosystem engineers	Species that dramatic alter their environment	47
8563260106	Bottom-up model	Unidirectional influence from lower to higher trophic levels N->V->H->P N=nutrients V=plants (vegetation) H=herbivores P=predators	48
8563260107	Top-down model (trophic cascade)	Suggests that predation controls community organization because predators limit herbivores and so on N<-V<-H<-P N=nutrients V=plants (vegetation) H=herbivores P=predators	49
8563260108	Biomanipulation	Using the top-down model to improve the environment (purify lakes)	50
8563260109	Balance of nature view	Biological Communities are at an equilibrium and interspecific competition determines community composition and stability	51
8563260110	Stability	A community's tendency to reach and maintain a relatively constant composition of species	52
8563260111	Climax community	A community controlled and kept stable solely by predictable climate	53
8563260112	Disturbance	an event such as a storm, fire, flood, drought, or human activity that changes a community by removing organisms or resource availability	54
8563260113	Nonequillibrium model	Describes most communities as constantly changing after a disturbance	55
8563260114	Intermediate disturbance hypothesis	Moderate levels of disturbance foster greater species diversity than do high or low levels of disturbance	56
8563260115	What is the norm for most communities in terms of equillibrium	Nonequillibrium	57
8563260116	Ecological succession	Disturbed areas gradually replaced by different species and then replaced by other species and so on	58
8563260117	Primary succession	When species first colonize a disturbed area (usually prokaryotes and protists)	59
8563260118	Secondary succession	An existing community has been cleared by a disturbance that leaves the soil intact- which then allows the area to return to something similar to its original state	60
8563260119	Tropics	Where is plant and animal life generally more abundant compared with the rest of the globe?	61
8563260120	Species richness in a community may occur over time as what occurs?	Speciation	62
8563260121	Evapotransportation	The evaporation of water from soil and plants	63
8563260122	Potential evapotransportation	Measures potential water loss that assumes water is readily available	64
8563260123	Species-area curve	Describes patterns of species richness	65
8563260124	Species area relationship	S is the number of species found in a habitat, A is the area of the habitat, and z tells you how many more species should be found in a habitat was area increases	66
8563260125	Island equillibrium	It is better to study equillibrium on islands because of their isolation and manageable size	67
8563260126	Two factors that determine the number of species on islands	Rate of immigration of new species, rate of extinction of species	68
8563260127	Island equilibrium model	Predicts that an equilibrium will be reached when the rate of species immigration equals the rate of extinction	69
8563260128	Pathogens	Disease-causing microorganisms, viruses, viroids, or prions	70
8563260129	Zoonotic pathogens	Cause 3/4 of emerging human diseases and many of the most devastating diseases-- pathogens transferred to humans from animals	71
8563260130	Vector	Organism serves as an intermediate species between an infected animal and a human (lice, ticks, mosquitos)	72
8563260131	How much energy is transferred between the links of a food chain?	10% (Ten Percent) (Energy is lost from one trophic level to the next)	73
8563260132	What happens to the other 90% of energy not transferred from trophic levels	Lost as heat, motion, maintaining life	74
8563260133	How much energy starts with the autotroph?	100% (One Hundred Percent)	75
8563260134	Species Abundance	Proportion each species represents of all individuals in the community	76

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GWHS AP Biology - Nervous System Flashcards

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6205132316	neuron	nerve cells	0
6205132317	nerve	bundle of neurons	1
6205132318	dendrites	receive chemical signals and converts to electrical single	2
6205132319	axon	one end has receptor, other has axon terminals	3
6205132320	synapse	axon terminals: connects to neurons or muscles	4
6205132321	schwann cell	form myelin sheath	5
6205132322	myelin sheath	fatty tissue: make action potential faster as it jumps from node to node	6
6205132323	saltatory conduction	in a myleinated axon, ions of nerve impulse jump from node (of Ranvier) to node	7
6205132324	pathway of signal in nervous system	stimulus-> sensory receptor -> sensory neurons -> interneurons (control center) -> motor neurons -> muscle	8
6205132325	central nervous system	brain, spinal cord: analyzing, interpreting info	9
6205132326	peripheral nervous system	nerves entering into & extending from the CNS	10
6205132327	somatic	PNS: consciously controlled: to/from skeletal muscles, skin	11
6205132328	autonomic	PNS: function w/out your control: smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, glands	12
6205132329	sensory neuron	gets info from surroundings: sense neurons -> CNC (afferent)	13
6205132331	motor neuron	relays commands from CNC to skeletal muscles/glands (Efferent)	14
6205132333	sympathetic	branch of autonomic nervous system: excites (stress), "fight or flight" response; norepinephrine	15
6205132334	parasympathetic	branch of autonomic nervous system: promotes relaxed state, "rest & digest"; acetylcholine	16
6205132335	reflex arc or pathway	autonomic response to stimuli w/out thought: excite sensory receptors -> spinal cord -> motor neuron	17
6205132336	resting potential	membrane of -70mv: channels shut off, not letting homeostasis sodium external (more positive) potassium internal (less positive) Na+/K+ pumps maintain potential	18
6205132337	Na+/K+ pumps	use ATP to maintain potential; pumps two K+ in & three Na+ out	19
6205132338	Action Potential	reversal of voltage difference across membrane: +30mv sodium channels open, Na+ in sodium channels close while K+ channels open K+ flow out of neuron	20
6205132339	depolarization	Na+ Channels open, K+ are closed: change in polarity of membrane potential, from -70mv to +40mv	21
6205132340	repolarization	decrease in membrane potential: K+ channels open, Na+ channels are closed	22
6205132341	sodium & potassium channel	voltage-gated ion channel	23
6205132343	refractory period	K+ channels close slower, can't send another signal for a moment	24
6205132344	threshold	around -40mv; stimulus must be strong enough; "all or nothing" principal	25
6205132345	axon terminal	the end of an axon; where a synapse occurs	26
6205132346	neurotransmitters	Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons: held in vesicles	27
6205132347	synaptic cleft	space between nerons, nerotransmitters float here	28
6205132348	exocytosis	neurotransmitter vesicles bind to pre-synaptic membrane and expel neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft	29
6205132349	EPSP (excitatory post-synaptic potential)	open Na+ gates on post-synaptic membrane; continues action potential	30
6205132350	IPSP (inhibitory post-synaptic potential)	opens K+ gates on post-synaptic membrane; stops action potential	31
6205132351	synaptic integration	sum of excitory/inhibitory: amplify, dampen, cancel signal	32
6205132352	medulla oblongata	controls breathing, heart rate, digestive system	33
6205132353	pons	accessory portion, controls breathing	34
6205132354	cerebellum	controls movement, balance and coordination	35
6205132355	cerebrum	part of forebrain: regulates conscious functions of the body such as thought and reasoning and perception of stimuli	36
6205132356	cerebral cortex	memory	37
6205132358	hypothalamus	regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst: homeostasis	38
6254888038	interneurons	with highly-branched dendrites found within the CNS; convey messages between parts of the CNS	39
6255090495	hyperpolarization (overshoot or undershoot)	more K+ have moved out of the cell than is actually necessary to establish the resting potential.	40
6255099117	Steps of an Action Potential	1. Resting Potential 2. Depolarization 3. Repolarization 4 Refractory Period	41
6255126030	Nodes of Ranvier	gaps in the mylein sheath; space between schwann cells	42
6255140170	examples of neurotransmitters	acetylcholine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, seratonin, GABA,	43

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AP Biology: Chapter 7 Flashcards

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7822237968	Active Transport	The movement of a substance across a biological membrane against its concentration or electrochemical gradient	0
7822237969	Amphipathic Molecule	A molecule that has both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region	1
7822237970	Aquaporins	A transport protein in the plasma membrane of a plant or animal cell that specifically facilitates the diffusion of water across a membrane	2
7822237971	Concentration Gradient	An increase or decrease in the number of particles per volume of a chemical substance in an area	3
7822237972	Cotransport	The coupling of the "downhill" diffusion of one substance with the "uphill" transport against its own concentration gradient	4
7822237973	Diffusion	the process by which molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration	5
7822237974	Electrochemical Gradient	The diffusion gradient of an ion, which is affected by both the concentration difference of the ion across a membrane (a chemical force) and the ion's tendency to move relative to the membrane potential (an electrical force).	6
7822237975	Electrogenic Pump	An active transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane while pumping ions.	7
7822237976	Endocytosis	the process by which a cell membrane surrounds a particle and encloses the particle in a vesicle to bring the particle into the cell	8
7822237977	Exocytosis	the process by which a substance is released from the cell through a vesicle that transports the substance to the cell surface and then fuses with the membrane to let the substance out	9
7822237978	Facilitated Diffusion	the transport of substances through a cell membrane along a concentration gradient with the aid of carrier proteins	10
7822237979	Flaccid	Limp. Lacking in stiffness or firmness, as in a plant cell in surroundings where there is no tendency for water to enter the cell.	11
7822237980	Fluid Mosaic Model	The currently accepted model of cell membrane structure, which envisions the membrane as a mosaic of individually inserted protein molecules drifting laterally in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.	12
7822237981	Gated Channels	A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.	13
7822237984	Hypertonic	When comparing two solutions, the solution with the greater concentration of solutes	14
7822237985	Hypotonic	When comparing two solutions, the solution with the lesser concentration of solutes	15
7822237987	Ion Channels	A transmembrane protein channel that allows a specific ion to flow across the membrane down its concentration gradient	16
7822237988	Isotonic	When comparing two solutions, both have a solute concentration equal to that of the other solution	17
7822237989	Ligands	A molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.	18
7822237990	Membrane Potential	The charge difference between a cell's cytoplasm and the extracellular fluid, due to the differential distribution of ions.	19
7822237991	Osmoregulation	The control of water balance in organisms living in hypertonic, hypotonic, or terrestrial environments.	20
7822237992	Osmosis	diffusion of molecules through a semipermeable membrane from a place of higher concentration to a place of lower concentration until the concentration on both sides is equal	21
7822237993	Passive Transport	The movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell.	22
7822237995	Plasmolysis	When a cell is in a hypertonic environment, the cell will lose water to its surroundings, shrink, and its plasma membrane will pull away from the wall	23
7822237996	Proton Pump	An active transport mechanism in cell membranes that consumes ATP to force hydrogen ions (H+) out of a cell and, in the process, generates a membrane potential	24
7822237997	Selective Permeability	A property of biological membranes that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.	25
7822237998	Sodium-potassium pump	A special transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell against their concentration gradients.	26
7822237999	Tonicity	The ability of a solution to cause a cell within it to gain or lose water.	27
7822238000	Transport Proteins	Protein molecules that help to transport substances throughout the body and across cell membranes	28
7822238001	Turgid	Firm. Walled cells become turgid as a result of the entry of water from a hypotonic environment.	29
7822289193	Extracellular Matrix	A collection of extracellular molecules secreted by cells that provides structural and biochemical support to the surrounding cells.	30
7822292696	Carbohydrate chain	Made up of sugar molecules and can be joined to protein for cell communication and identification.	31
7822298347	Glycoprotein	Proteins that have carbohydrates covalently bonded to them.	32
7822301280	Cholesterol	Steroid present in the plasma membranes of animal cells. A large amount of this in a phospholipid bilayer at High Temperatures reduces membrane fluidity, but at Lower Temperatures prevents the membrane from solidifying.	33
7822305854	Microfilaments of cytoskeleton	Provide structure and support to the cell, allow for movement and stabilization of organelles.	34
7822309855	Peripheral protein	Bound to the surface of the membrane and integral proteins, but not embedded in the lipid bilayer.	35
7822314368	Glycolipid	Fatty acids with linked sugar groups that are key structural elements in cell membranes and precursors of other biologically active molecules important in cell signaling	36
7822326882	Integral protein	Extend entirely through the membrane with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends (imbedded)	37

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