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Pre-AP Biology Final Review Flashcards

Wilkins-Baker Biology STAAR EOC cards

9989725929	Biomolecules	organic molecules which combine to form living organisms; includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids	0
9989725930	carbohydrates	1. made up of:carbon,hydrogen and oxygen 2. combined in 1:2:1 ratio 3. include simple and complex sugars; 4. Functions: store energy, cell wall structure, & provide sugars for DNA and RNA; 5. monomer - monosaccharaide ; 6. polymer - polysaccharide	1
9989725931	lipids	1. biomolecule composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; 2. includes fats,oils, waxes and steroids; 3. important component of cell membranes	2
9989725932	proteins	1. biomolecule composed of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; 2. monomer amino acids; 3. enzyme is an example 4. functions: regulation, catalyze chemical reactions, cell signaling, structure, transport	3
9989725933	nucleic acids	1. biomolecule made up of CHONP 2. monomer: nucleotides; 3. nucleotides contain a phosphate sugar and nitrogen base; 4. Polymers include DNA and RNA	4
9989725934	monomer	single unit ; small piece of biomolecule	5
9989725935	polymer	multi piece unit; made up of smaller monomers	6
9989725937	dehydration synthesis	A chemical reaction that builds up molecules by losing water molecules	7
9989725938	hydrolysis	The process of splitting a compound into fragments with the addition of water; a kind of reaction that is used to break down polymers into simpler units, e.g. starch into glucose.	8
9989725939	organic molecule	An organic compound always contains carbon; Examples : carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.	9
9989725940	prokaryotic	an organism whose cell generally lacks a true nucleus Examples: bacterial cells	10
9989725941	eukaryotic	organism possessing a membrane-bound nucleus ; animals, plants, fungi, and protists	11
9989725942	homeostasis	The tendency of an organism or a cell to regulate its internal conditions, usually by a system of feedback controls or feedback loops, so as to stabilize health and functioning, regardless of the outside changing conditions ex: sweating when hot	12
9989783218	Positive feedback loop	An escalating cycle which does not stop without intervention ex: childbirth	13
9989789769	negative feedback loop	A feedback loop that causes a system to change in the opposite direction from which it is moving example: body temperature	14
9989725943	energy conversion organelles	1. Chloroplasts - Only in plant cells, these organelles convert solar energy to chemical energy that the cell can use. 2. Mitochondria - The energy center of the cell. Changes food energy into chemical energy the cell can use.	15
9989983988	Photosynthesis	Plants use the sun's energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars	16
9989988221	Photosynthesis Equation		17
9989992653	Cellular Respiration	process of producing ATP by breaking down carbon-based molecules when oxygen is present; 34-36 ATP are produced when oxygen is present	18
9989999165	cellular respiration equation		19
9990054227	Where does cellular respiration take place?	Mitochondria	20
9990058301	Aerobic Respiration	Respiration that requires oxygen	21
9990060025	Anaerobic Respiration	Respiration that does not require oxygen	22
9989725944	transport of molecules organelles	movement of nutrients & wastes must occur within the cell; 1. lysosomes digest wastes; 2. vacuoles stores & removes wastes; 3. cell membrane controls movement of materials in and out of cell; 4. endoplasmic reticulum transports materials inside of cell	23
9990029713	Passive transport	The movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell	24
9990015570	Diffusion	Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.	25
9990020964	facilitated diffusion	Movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels	26
9990019031	Osmosis	Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane	27
9990031121	Active Transport	Movement of particles from low to high concentration across the membrane that requires energy (ATP).	28
9989725945	synthesis of molecules organelles	organelles within a cell must make molecules ; 1. ribosomes make proteins; 2. golgi body repackages proteins for different uses;	29
9989725946	virus	A submicroscopic infectious agent that is unable to grow or reproduce outside a host cell. It is non-cellular but consisting of a core of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat.	30
9989725947	lytic infection	viral infection which immediately makes host sick by destroying cells	31
9989725948	lysogenic infection	viral disease which remain dormant for a time and causes no symptoms	32
9989725949	human immunodeficiency virus	HIV caused AIDS or Aquired Immune Deficiency by destroying a special white blood cell known as a Helper T cell	33
9989725950	influenza	viral disease caused by airborne transmission; vaccines must be taken annually to lower probability of contacting the "flu"	34
9989725951	deoxyribonucleic acid	double-stranded nucleic acid found in the nucleus which provides instruction for making proteins; provides hereditary information	35
9989725952	ribonucleic acid	single stranded nucleic acid made during transcription to provide template for making proteins at ribosome during translation	36
9989725953	cell cycle	components include interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis	37
9989725954	interphase	part of the cell cycle; resting stage of cell and preparation for mitosis; includes G 1 (duplication of organelles) S phase(replication of DNA) and G 2 (checking of replication)	38
9989725955	mitosis	part of cell cycle; division of the nucleus; includes prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase	39
9989725956	cytokinesis	part of cell cycle; division of cytoplasm and organelles except nucleus	40
9989725957	cell differentiation	specialization of cells for a particular function	41
9989725958	cancer	uncontrolled cell division; creates tumors and interferes with normal cell function	42
9989725959	Nucleotide	A subunit (monomer) of nucleic acids like DNA and RNA. Composed of a sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base.	43
9989725961	Deoxyribose	A monosaccharide (sugar) found in each nucleotide in DNA.	44
9989725962	Nitrogen Bases	Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine in DNA. Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine, and Guanine in RNA.	45
9989725963	Genetic Code	The code found in DNA that matches codons in mRNA to amino acids on tRNA.	46
9989725964	Genome	An organism's complete set of genetic information (DNA).	47
9989920671	Protein Synthesis	Forming proteins based on information in DNA and carried out by RNA	48
9989725965	Transcription	The process where a copy of mRNA is made from one gene in DNA; occurs in nucleus	49
9989725966	Translation	The process of making a protein, where tRNA matches amino acids to codons in the mRNA; occurs in ribosome	50
9989725968	Meiosis	cell division creating sex cells with half the amount of DNA	51
9989725969	Monohybrid cross	punnett square showing results of genetic cross of one trait	52
9989725970	Dominant	allele with genetic trait always expressed	53
9989725971	homozygous	alleles with the same genetic information	54
9989835563	Heterozygous	An organism that has two different alleles for a trait	55
9989725972	Non-Mendelian Inheritance	genetic inheritance pattern different from dominant hides recessive trait such as codominance, imcomplete dominance	56
9989725973	Incomplete Dominance	genetic inheritance pattern where phenotype of offspring are a blend between two separate parental phenotypes	57
9989725974	Genetic Mutation	changes in organism's DNA sequence;	58
9989725975	Deletion	changes in genetic code with removal of nucleotides	59
9989725976	Insertion	changes in genetic code with addition of nucleotides	60
9989725977	Inversion	changes in genetic code with nucleotides in opposite order	61
9989725978	Gene	A unit of heredity; A portion of DNA that codes for a trait.	62
9989725979	Punnett Square	graphic organizer showing results of a genetic cross	63
9989725980	Dihybrid cross	punnett square showing results of genetic cross of two traits	64
9989725981	Mendelian Inheritance	genetic inheritance pattern when dominant trait always masks or hides phenotype of recessice trait	65
9989725982	Recessive	Genetic trait which only expresses phenotype when in homozygous state; hides when dominant allel is present	66
9989725985	Co-dominance	genetic inheritance pattern in which two dominant alleles are expressed in phenotype	67
9989725986	DNA fingerprinting	creating a gel electrophoresis of DNA nucleotides to determine similarities in banding patterns	68
9989725987	Genetic Modification	changing of the DNA sequence to alter protein synthesis	69
9989725988	Chromosomal Analysis	karyotype; picture of chromosomes to determine mutations such as nondisjunction	70
9989725989	Sex Cells	Haploid cells created by meiosis; gametes	71
9989725990	Independent Assortment	Mendel principle states different pairs of genes are passed to offsrping separately to form new gene combinations	72
9989725991	Crossing Over	exchange of DNA from separate chromosomes during meiosis	73
9989725992	Segregation	Mendel principle that gene pairs separate during meiosis so each parent passes down one form of gene to offspring.	74
9989725993	Common Ancestor	the most recent ancestral form or species from which two different species evolved	75
9989725994	Fossil Record	A term used by paleontologists to refer to the total number of fossils that have been discovered, as well as to the information derived from them	76
9989725996	Anatomical Homologies	morphological(form or structure) or physiological (function) similarities between different species of plants or animals	77
9989725998	Developmental Homologies	Studying the embryological development of living things provides clues to the evolution of present-day organisms	78
9989725999	Natural Selection	the process by which forms of life having traits that better enable them to adapt to specific environmental pressures	79
9989726001	Diversity	degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet	80
9989726006	Mutation	a permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene's which alters the amino acid sequence of the protein encoded by the gene	81
9989726007	Recombination	change in genetic sequence which increases variation among organisms	82
9989726009	Taxonomy	classfy living organisms into groups; Domain,Kingdom,Phylum,Class,Order,Family,Genus,Species	83
9989726010	Archaea Kingdom	prokaryotic kingdom of bacteria able to live in harsh enviroments which are hot,salty or acidic	84
9989726011	Eubacteria Kingdom	prokaryotic kingdom of bacteria with majority of organisms are beneficial and only a few are harmful	85
9989726012	Protist Kingdom	eukaryotic kingdom of mostly one celled organism divided into 3 groups: animal like, plant like, and fungus like	86
9989726013	Fungi Kingdom	eukaryotic kingdom of heterotrophic decomposers with cell walls made of chitin	87
9989726014	Plant Kingdom	eukaryotic kingdom of autotrophic, multicellular stationary organisms which undergo photosynthesis	88
9989726015	Animal Kingdom	eukaryotic kingdom of heterotrophic, multicellular mobile organisms.	89
9989726017	Reactants	Elements and compounds on left side of chemical equation which enter a chemical reaction	90
9989726018	Products	Elements and compounds on right side of chemical equation which exit a chemical reaction	91
9989726019	Internal Feedback Mechanisms	Chemical signals which communicate within a body system to help an organism maintain homeostasis	92
9989726020	Ecological Succession	how an area changes over time from an area that is uninhabitable to one that is able to support a healthy ecosystem	93
9989726022	Population	a group of organisms of the same species that live in the same area and interbreed	94
9989726023	Community	a group of different populations (different species) that live in the same area	95
9989726024	Biotic Factor	a living thing in an ecosystem; ex. plant, animal, bacteria	96
9989726025	Abiotic Factor	a nonliving thing in an ecosystem; ex: water, rocks, earth	97
9989726027	Limiting Factors	any factor that limits the size of a population by restricting its numbers, reproduction, or distribution	98
9989726028	Carrying Capacity	the maximum population a habitat can sustain	99
9989726029	Predation	a relationship between two species where one species hunts (predator) and eats the other species (prey)	100
9989726030	Competition	a relationship between two species where they both require the same resource (food, water, shelter, space) and must compete for it	101
9989726031	Parasitism	a relationship between two species where one species is helped and the other species is harmed	102
9989726032	Commensalism	a relationship between two species where one species is helped and the other species is not affected	103
9989726033	Mutualism	a relationship between two species where both species are helped	104
9989726034	Autotroph	an organism that can use photosynthesis to make its own food: "self-feeding"	105
9989726035	Heterotroph	an organism that cannot use photosynthesis to make its own food and must eat other organisms to survive: "other-feeding"	106
9989726036	Trophic Level	the position a species occupies in a food chain; ex. producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer	107
9989726037	Food Chain	a sequence of organisms that shows how energy is transferred from plants, to plant eaters, to meat eaters and so on	108
9989726038	Food Web	a combination of several food chains within an ecosystem	109
9989726039	Ecological Pyramid	a graphic representation of the amount of biomass present in each trophic level of a food chain; producers are always on the bottom, then primary consumers, then secondary consumers and so on	110
9989726040	Microorganisms	living things that can only be seen with a microscope; ex. bacteria, protists	111
9989726042	Resource Base	amount of total available food, water , shelter and space; toal amount of biotic and abiotic factors available for organims	112
9989726043	Carbon Cycle	the cyclic movement of carbon atoms between living things (organic carbon) and their environment (inorganic carbon)	113
9989726044	Nitrogen Cycle	the cyclic movement of nitrogen atoms between living things (organic nitrogen) and their environment (inorganic nitrogen)	114
9989726045	Cell Wall	A structure that surrounds the cell membrane and provides support to the cell.	115
9989726046	Cell Membrane	A protective layer that covers the cell's surface and controls what moves in and out of the cell.	116
9989726047	Cytoplasm	The fluid, jelly-like substance that fills the cell.	117
9989726048	Nucleus	A large organelle in a eukaryotic cell that contains the cell's DNA/chromosomes/genetic material.	118
9989726049	Chloroplast	Organelles in plant cells that trap sunlight; organelle in which photosynthesis takes place.	119
9989726050	Chromosome	Structures in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells made of DNA.	120
9989726051	Ribosome	An organelle that makes proteins.	121
9989726052	Lysosome	The organelle that digests food particles, wastes, cell parts, and foreign invaders.	122
9989726053	Mitochondria	The organelles that that break down food/sugar to release energy.	123
9989726054	Endoplasmic Reticulum	The organelle that transports proteins around the cell.	124
9989726055	Golgi Body	The organelle that packages proteins before they leave the cell.	125
9989726056	Vacuole	The organelle that stores water and other materials.	126
9989726057	Nucleolus	The dark area of the nucleus which stores materials that will be used to make ribosomes.	127
9989726080	antiparallel	Having two strands that run parallel to each other, but one is upside down.	128
9989726086	What are unborn pigs called?	Fetal Pigs	129
9989726087	How is their age (length of gestation) determined?	By measuring the length of the pig	130
9989726058	How long does full gestation take?	17 weeks	131
9989726059	anterior	forward	132
9989726060	caudal	pertaining to the tail	133
9989726061	dorsal	toward the backbone	134
9989726062	ventral	toward the belly	135
9989726063	lateral	toward the side	136
9989726064	distal	farthest from the reference area	137
9989726065	cranial	head area	138
9989726066	cervical	neck area	139
9989726067	thoracic	upper trunk	140
9989726068	abdominal	middle trunk	141
9989726069	Is a pig a biped or quadruped? Explain	quadruped; 4 legs	142
9989726070	Are pigs herbivores, carnivores, or omnivores? Explain	omnivores; they eat everything	143
9989726071	What is another name for the chest region of the pig?	thorax	144
9989726072	What is another name for the "belly" region of the pig?	abdomen	145
9989726073	Why is the fetal pig a good specimen to dissect?	it has similar anatomy to the human	146
9989726074	What is the function of the umbilical cord?	to give fetal pig nourishment	147
9989726088	What is the long, external fold of the ear?	Pinnae	148
9989726089	fetal pig digestive system		149

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AP Biology Functional Groups Flashcards

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7745232115	is the hydroxyl group polar or nonpolar?	polar	0
7745232116	hydroxyl group		1
7745232117	is the carbonyl group polar or nonpolar?	polar	2
7745232118	carbonyl group		3
7745232119	is the carboxyl group polar or nonpolar?	polar	4
7745232120	carboxyl group		5
7745232121	which functional group is acidic?	carboxyl group	6
7745232122	is the amino group polar or nonpolar?	polar	7
7745232123	which functional group is basic?	amino group	8
7745232124	amino group		9
7745232125	is the sulfhydryl group polar or nonpolar?	polar	10
7745232126	sulfhydryl group		11
7745232127	is the phosphate group polar or nonpolar?	polar	12
7745232128	phosphate group		13
7745232129	is the methyl group polar or nonpolar?	nonpolar	14
7745232130	which functional group is responsible for gene expression?	methyl group	15
7745232131	methyl group		16
7745232132	which functional group is used for protein structure?	sulfhydryl group	17
7745232133	which functional group is a component of ATP?	phosphate group	18
7745232134	which functional group determines the 2 groups of sugar?	carbonyl group	19
7745232135	ketone	when the carbonyl group is within the carbon skeleton	20
7745232136	aldehyde	when the carbonyl group in a molecule is attached to the end of the carbon skeleton	21
7745232137	which functional group is either a ketone or an aldehyde?	carbonyl group	22
7745232138	which functional group forms alcohols?	hydroxyl group	23

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AP Biology Chapter 20: Biotechnology Flashcards

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6326844756	Recombinant DNA	DNA produced by combining DNA from different sources	0
6326844757	Biotechnology	A form of technology that uses living organisms, usually genes, to modify products, to make or modify plants and animals, or to develop other microorganisms for specific purposes.	1
6326844758	Plasmids	Small rings of DNA found naturally in some bacterial cells in addition to the main bacterial chromosome. Can contain genes for antibiotic resistance, or other "contingency" functions.	2
6326844759	Gene Cloning	The production of multiple copies of a gene.	3
6326844760	Restriction enzymes	Enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides	4
6326844761	Sticky end	A single-stranded end of a double-stranded DNA restriction fragment.	5
6326844762	DNA Ligase	A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.	6
6326844763	Cloning vector	DNA molecules that can carry foreign DNA into a host cell and replicate there.	7
6326844764	Complimentary DNA (cDNA)	is made from mRNA by reverse transcriptase	8
6326844765	polymerase chain reaction (PCR)	A method of producing thousands of copies of DNA segment using the enzyme DNA polymerase	9
6326844766	gel electrophoresis	Procedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments by placing a mixture of DNA fragments at one end of a porous gel and applying an electrical voltage to the gel	10
6326844767	southern blotting	A hybridization technique that enables researchers to determine the presence of certain nucleotide sequences in a sample of DNA.	11
6326844768	reverse transcriptase- PCR	An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.	12
6326844769	Genetic profile	An individual's unique set of genetic markers, detected most often today by PCR or, previously, by electrophoresis and nucleic acid probes.	13

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05 Viruses and Bacteria AP Biology Flashcards

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7689632988	virus	a tiny disease-causing particle that consists of genetic material and a protein coat	0
7689642681	bacteriophage	A virus that infects bacteria	1
7689656142	capsid	The protein shell that encloses a viral genome. It may be rod-shaped, polyhedral, or more complex in shape.	2
7689787475	episome	A genetic element that can exist either as a plasmid or as part of the bacterial chromosome.	3
7689791416	F factor	A piece of DNA that confers the ability form a sex pili.	4
7689800301	F plasmid	The plasmid form of the F factor.	5
7689805369	HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)	The infectious agent that causes AIDS. HIV is a retrovirus.	6
7689815325	host range	The limited range of host cells that each type of virus can infect and parasitize.	7
7689815364	lysogenic cycle	A phage replication cycle in which the viral genome becomes incorporated into the bacterial host chromosome as a prophage and does not kill the host.	8
7689819098	lytic cycle	A type of viral (phage) replication cycle resulting in the release of new phages by lysis (and death) of the host cell.	9
7689821851	nucleoid	A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell.	10
7689854370	plasmid	A small ring of DNA that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome; also found in some eukaryotes, such as yeast.	11
7689863150	prophage	A phage genome that has been inserted into a specific site on the bacterial chromosome.	12
7689867163	provirus	Viral DNA that inserts into a host genome.	13
7689872125	R plasmid	A bacterial plasmid carrying genes that confer resistance to certain antibiotics.	14
7689879366	retrovirus	An RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome; an important class of cancer-causing viruses.	15
7689884464	reverse transcriptase	An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.	16
7689888434	temperate phage	A phage that is capable of reproducing by either the lytic or lysogenic cycle.	17
7689894645	viral envelope	A membrane that cloaks the capsid that in turn encloses a viral genome.	18
7689906229	taxis	a directed movement toward or away from a stimulus	19
7689913909	endospore	prokaryotic cell with a thick, protective wall surrounding its DNA; water is removed, metabolism halts; very durable	20
7689931468	transformation	A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell.	21
7689934464	transduction	phages carry prokaryotic genes from one host cell to another	22
7689934465	conjugation	In bacteria, the direct transfer of DNA between two cells that are temporarily joined.	23
7689939041	binary fission	A form of asexual reproduction in which one cell divides to form two identical cells.	24
7689941487	horizontal gene transfer	movement of genes among individuals from different species	25
7689955396	genetic recombination	the combining of DNA from two sources (transformation, transduction, conjugation)	26
7689984093	obligate aerobes	require oxygen	27
7689984115	obligate anaerobes	carry out fermentation or anaerobic respiration and cannot survive in the presence of O2	28
7689989126	facultative anaerobes	can live with or without oxygen	29
7689989127	heterocycts	specialized nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria that live with photosynthetic cyanobacteria; they exchange nitrogen/sugar	30
7689993963	biofilms	a surface coating colony of prokaryotic that engage in metabolic cooperation	31
7689993964	extremophiles	Archaea that live in extreme environments.	32
7689997860	extreme halophiles	live in highly saline environments	33
7689997861	extreme thermophiles	Microorganisms that thrive in hot environments (often 60-80 degrees C).	34
7690003661	methanogens	Archaea that release methane, a greenhouse gas.	35
7690003662	exotoxins	toxic substances that bacteria secrete into their environment	36
7690006691	endotoxins	released only when bacteria die and their cell walls break down	37
7690006856	bioremediation	The use of living organisms to detoxify and restore polluted and degraded ecosystems	38

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AP Biology (Campbell) Chapter 12 Flashcards

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6895225862	anaphase	fourth stage of mitosis, in which the chromatids of each chromosome have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell	0
6895225863	anchorage dependence	the requirement that to divide, a cell must be attached to the substratum	1
6895225864	aster	a radial array of short microtubules that extends from each centrosome toward the plasma membrane in a cell undergoing mitosis	2
6895225865	benign tumor	a mass of abnormal cells that remains at the site of origin	3
6895225866	binary fission	the type of cell division by which prokaryotes reproduce; each dividing daughter cell receives a copy of the single parental chromosome	4
6895225867	cell cycle	an ordered sequence of events in the life of a eukaryotic cell, from its origin in the division of a parent cell until its own division into two; composed of M, G1, S, G2	5
6895225868	cell cycle control system	a cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle	6
6895225869	cell division	reproduction of a cell	7
6895225870	cell plate	a double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall form during cytokinesis	8
6895225871	centromere	the centralized region joining two chromatids	9
6895225872	centrosome	material present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells, important during cell division; the microtubule organizing center	10
6895225873	checkpoint	a critical control point in the cell cycle where stop and go-ahead signals regulate the cycle	11
6895225874	chromatin	complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome; when a cell is not diving chromatin exists as a mass of very long, thin fibers that are not visible with a light microscope	12
6895225875	chromosome	a threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus; each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins	13
6895225876	cleavage	the process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane. Also, the succession of rapid cell divisions without growth during early embryonic development that converts the zygote into ball of cells	14
6895225877	cleavage furrow	the first sign of cleavage in an animal cell;a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate	15
6895225878	cyclin	a regulatory protein whose concentration fluctuates cyclically	16
6895225879	cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk)	a protein kinase that is only active when attached to a particular cyclin	17
6895225880	cytokinesis	the division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells immediately following mitosis	18
6895225881	density-dependent inhibition	the phenomenon observed in normal animal cells that causes them to stop dividing when they come into contact with one another	19
6895225882	G0 phase	a nondividing state in which a cell has left the cell cycle	20
6895225883	G1 phase	The first gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.	21
6895225884	G2 phase	the second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occur	22
6895225885	gamete	a haploid cell, such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to form a diploid cell	23
6895225886	genome	the complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism.	24
6895225887	growth factor	a protein that must be present in the extracellular environment for growth and normal development of certain types of cells; a local regulator that acts on nearby cells to stimulate cell proliferation and differentiation	25
6895225888	interphase	the period in the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing. During interphase, cellular metabolic activity is high, chromosomes and organelles are duplicated, and cell size may increase. 90% of the cell cycle	26
6895225889	M phase	mitotic phase; the phase of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis	27
6895225890	malignant tumor	a cancerous tumor that is invasive enough to impair the functions of one or more organs	28
6895225891	meiosis	a two-stage type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in cells with half the chromosome number of the original cell	29
6895225892	metaphase	the third stage of mitosis, in which the spindle is complete and the chromosomes, attached to the microtubules at their kinetochores, are all aligned at the metaphase plate	30
6895225893	metastasis	the spread of cancer cells to locations distant from their original site	31
6895225894	mitosis	a process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into 5 stages; prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Mitosis conserves chromosome number by equally allocating replicated chromosomes to each of the daughter nuclei	32
6895225895	mitotic (M) phase	the phase of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis	33
6895225896	mitotic spindle	an assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis	34
6895225897	MPF	maturation-promoting factor (M-phase promoting factor); a protein complex required for a cell to progress from late interphase to mitosis. The active form consists of cyclin and a protein kinase	35
6895225898	prophase	the first stage of mitosis, in which the chromatin is condensing and the mitotic spindle begin to form, but the nucleu and nucleolus are still intact	36
6895225899	S phase	the synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated	37
6895225900	sister chromatids	replicated forms of chromosomes joined together by the centromere and eventually separating during mitosis or meiosis II	38
6895225901	somatic cell	any cell in multicellular organisms except a sperm or egg cell	39
6895225902	telophase	the fifth and final stage of mitosis, in which daughter cells are forming and cytokinesis has typically begun	40

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AP Biology Evolution Test Prep #2 Flashcards

This set covers the most essential topics related to the biological process of natural selection as covered in AP Biology.

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8825886285	Gene Pool	All alleles in a population.	0
8825886286	Allele	A specific form of a gene at a given locus on a chromosome.	1
8825886287	Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium	Theoretically, the gene pool should remain static as long as none of the conditions of _______________ are violated.	2
8825886288	Large population size, random mating, lack of mutations, lack of migration, no selection	The five conditions of Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium.	3
8825886289	Natural Selection	The biological process by which organisms thrive or die off based on having preferential or non-preferential genotypes, either through natural or human-induced means.	4
8825886290	Differential Reproductive Success	The concept that organisms with higher fitness will reproduce more, and therefore be considered more successful than organisms with lower fitness.	5
8825886291	Fitness	Ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment	6
8825886292	Adaptation	A trait of an organism that is maintained and acquired through the means of natural selection.	7
8825886293	Charles Darwin	Natural selection is commonly believed to have been first discovered by _______________.	8
8825886294	Mutation	A change in the genetic material not caused by recombination	9
8825886295	The equation p² + 2pq + q²=1 is the equation for ______________, with p and q representing the frequencies of the __________ and __________ alleles respectively.	Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium, dominant, recessive.	10
8825886296	Population	A group of individuals of a single species that live and interbreed in a particular geographic area at the same time.	11
8825886297	Gene flow	Movement of alleles into or out of a population due to the migration of individuals to or from the population	12
8825886298	Genetic drift	A change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of chance events rather than natural selection.	13
8825886299	Population Bottleneck	The result of an event that causes a population to become extremely small; may cause genetic drift that results in changed allele frequencies and loss of genetic variability	14
8825886300	Founder effect	Genetic drift that occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population and form a new population whose gene pool composition is not reflective of that of the original population.	15
8825886301	Sexual selection	A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates.	16
8825886302	qualitative traits	Traits that are controlled by 1 or 2 gene	17
8825886303	quantitative traits	Traits that show continuous variation because they are influenced by multiple alleles at more than one locus. (i.e.: height, intelligence, athleticism)	18
8825886304	Stabilizing selection	Natural selection that favors intermediate variants by acting against extreme phenotypes	19
8825886305	Directional selection	Form of natural selection in which the entire curve moves; occurs when individuals at one end of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end of the curve	20
8825886306	Disruptive selection	Natural selection in which individuals on both extremes of a phenotypic range survive or reproduce more successfully than do individuals with intermediate phenotypes.	21
8825886307	Heterozygote advantage	Greater reproductive success of heterozygous individuals compared to homozygotes; tends to preserve variation in gene pools.	22
8825886308	purifying selection	Natural selection that removes deleterious variants of a DNA or protein sequence, thus reducing genetic diversity	23
8825886309	positive selection	Process in which advantageous genetic variants quickly increase in frequency in a population	24
8825886310	phylogeny	Evolutionary history of a species or group of species.	25
8825886311	phylogenetic tree	diagram showing evolutionary relationships of organisms with a common ancestor	26
8825886312	lineage	direct descent from an ancestor; derivation	27
8825886313	ancestral	Characteristics that define a group of organisms that are due to shared ancestry	28
8825886314	node	a split in a phylogenetic tree when one lineage diverges into two.	29
8825886315	taxon	A classification of organisms into groups based on similarities of structure or origin	30
8825886316	clade	A group of species that includes an ancestral species and all its descendants.	31
8825886317	homologous	Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry.	32
8825886318	derived trait	New feature that had not appeared in common ancestors	33
8825886319	vertebrate	An animal with a backbone	34
8825886320	convergent evolution	The process by which unrelated species become more similar as they adapt to the same kind of environment	35
8825886321	morphology	Form and structure of an organism or any of its parts	36
8825886322	notochord	a flexible, supportive rod running longitudinally through the dorsum ventral to the nerve cord; found in lower chordates and in the embryos of vertebrates	37
8825886323	amniote	Tetrapods that produce an amniotic egg containing specialized membranes that protect the embryo: mammals, birds, and reptiles	38
8825886324	chordate	The phylum whose members have a notochord, a nerve cord, and slits in their throat area at some point in their lives.	39
8825886325	tetrapod	A vertebrate possessing two pairs of limbs, such as amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals	40
8825886326	bilateral symmetry	body plan in which a single imaginary line can divide the body into left and right sides that are mirror images of one another	41
8825886327	angiosperm	Flowering plants that produce seeds in fruit	42
8825886328	gymnosperm	a plant that has seeds unprotected by an ovary or fruit. Conifers, cycads, and ginkgo.	43
8825886329	paleontology	The study of fossils	44
8825886330	binomial nomenclature	A system for giving each organism a two-word scientific name that consists of the genus name followed by the species name	45
8825886331	phyla	the second largest taxonomic category in the animal kingdom In classification, the taxonomic category above class and below kingdom.	46
8825886332	domain	A taxonomic category above the kingdom level. The three domains are Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.	47
8825886333	species	A group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring.	48
8825886334	speciation	Formation of a new species	49
8825886335	reproductive isolation	Separation of species or populations so that they cannot interbreed and produce fertile offspring	50
8825886336	gamete incompatibility	occurs when sperm from one species cannot fertilize egges of another	51
8825886337	allopatric speciation	The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another.	52
8825886338	sympatric speciation	The process through which new species evolve from a single ancestral species while inhabiting the same geographic region.	53
8825886339	prezygotic isolating mechanisms	Prevents reproduction by making fertilization unlikely through geographical, ecological, behavioral, or other differences.	54
8825886340	postzygotic isolating mechanisms	Factor that prevents a hybrid zygote from developing, or prevents hybrid offspring from reproducing; operates after fertilization	55
8825886341	sympatry	Condition in which two or more populations live in the same geographic area, or close enough to permit interbreeding.	56
8825886342	geographic isolation	Form of reproductive isolation in which two populations are separated by geographic barriers such as rivers, mountains, or bodies of water, leading to the formation of two separate subspecies	57
8825886343	Mechanical isolation	pre-zygotic barrier to reproduction; incompatibility of structures involved in delivering or transferring of gametes	58
8825886344	Temporal isolation	Isolation between populations due to barriers related to time, such as differences in mating periods or differences in the time of day that individuals are most active	59
8825886345	Behavioral isolation	Form of reproductive isolation in which two populations have differences in courtship rituals or other types of behavior that prevent them from interbreeding	60
8825886346	Habitat isolation	Separation of two or more organisms of the same species living in the same area but in separate habitats, such as in the water and on land	61
8825886347	Gametic isolation	A prezygotic reproductive barrier where the sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize the eggs of another species	62
8825886348	half-life	Length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay	63
8825886349	Radiometric dating	The process of measuring the absolute age of geologic material by measuring the concentrations of radioactive isotopes and their decay products	64
8825886350	Continental drift	The gradual movement of the continents across the earth's surface through geological time.	65
8825886351	evolution	A change in the frequency of an allele within a population over generations.	66
8825886352	Miller-Urey Experiment	Considered the classic experiment on the origin of life; this experiment performed in the 1950's tested and confirmed the hypothesis that conditions on the primitive Earth favored chemical reactions that synthesized organic molecules from inorganic precursors.	67
8825886353	RNA world hypothesis	Hypothesis that describes how the Earth may have been filled with RNA-based life before it became filled with the DNA-based life we see today.	68
8825886354	vestigial structure	Remnant of a structure that may have had an important function in a species' ancestors, but has no clear function in the modern species.	69
8825886355	Stanley Miller	Scientist. Performed an experiment that produced amino acids under possible primitive earth conditions	70
8825886356	reduced hybrid viability	Post-zygotic barrier when the genes of different parent species interact in ways that impair the hybrid's development or survival	71
8825886357	Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Family, Order, Genus, Species	8 levels of classification	72
8825886358	analogous structure	Structures, such as a bat's wing and a fly's wing, that have the same function, but the similarity is superficial and reflects an adaptation to similar environments, not a common ancestry	73
8825886359	lobe-finned fish	a fish that has fins whose fleshy bases look like limbs	74

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AP Biology Chapter 48 Flashcards

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9231063780	Nervous System	- Coordinates and controls bodily functions with nerves and electrical impulses - Composed of different types of nerve cells called neurons - Brain provides integrative power that underlies the complex behavior of vertebrates - The spinal cord integrates simple responses to certain kinds of stimuli and conveys information to and from the brain	0
9231063781	Information Processing	- Sensory input, integration, motor output	1
9231063782	Central Nervous System	- Integrates and processes information from the body	2
9231063783	Peripheral Nervous System	- Transmits information to and from the Central Nervous System - Contains sensory and motor division	3
9231063784	Sensory Nervous System	- Sends signals to the Central Nervous System from receptors	4
9231063785	Motor Nervous System	- Sends signals away from the Central Nervous System to the parts of the body - Can be separated into the Somatic Nervous system and the Autonomic Nervous System	5
9231063786	Somatic Nervous System	- Carries signals to skeletal muscles and is voluntarily controlled	6
9231063787	Autonomic Nervous System	: Involuntarily regulates the internal environment : Carries signals to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands : Divides into the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic divisions	7
9231063788	Sympathetic Division	: "Fight or flight" response : Brings the body into a state of arousal	8
9231063789	Parasympathetic Division	: Promotes a return to self-maintenance functions and resting and digesting : Brings the body from a state of arousal back to normal	9
9231063790	Sensory Neurons	: Transmit information from sensory receptors to the Central Nervous System : Detects external stimuli and internal conditions	10
9231063791	Interneurons	: Integrate the information in the Central Nervous System : This can be in the spinal cord or connect up to the brain	11
9231063792	Motor Neurons	: Transmit information away from the Central Nervous System : Neurons communicate with effector organ (muscles and glands)	12
9231063793	Reflex Arc	: Body's automatic response to a stimuli : Pathway includes-receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, effector organ : Much faster response compared to the typical stimulus-response transmission pathways ->does not involve the integration of the brain ->does not require conscious control	13
9231063794	Neuron		14
9231063795	Cell Body	: Contains the organelles	15
9231063796	Dendrites	: Highly branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons	16
9231063797	Axon	: Cytoplasmic extension that transmits signals to other cells at synapses : May be covered with Schwann cells	17
9231063798	Schwann Cells	: A fatty cell wrapped around the axon to form the myelin sheath	18
9231063799	Myelin Sheath	: A fatty covering on the axon that insulates it and speeds up the conducting process	19
9231063800	Nodes of Ranvier	: Space between the Schwann cells on the axon	20
9231063801	Axon terminals	: Contains the vesicles of neurotransmitters	21
9231063802	Glia Cells	: Essential for the structural integrity of the nervous system and for the normal funciotning of neurons	22
9231063803	Resting Membrane Potential	: The electrical potential difference that polarizes the membranes of neurons : The inside of the cell is negative (K+) relative to the outside, which is more positive (Na+) : When a neuron is not transmitting a signal : -70 mV : Depends on the ionic gradients that exist across the membrane ->Ion pumps and ion channels maintain this potential : The diffusion of potassium and sodium through these channels leads to a separation of charges across the membrane, producing the resting potential	23
9231063804	Why is the charge -70 mV?	: Because there are more potassium (K+) channels open compared to sodium (Na+) and there are negative proteins inside the cell	24
9231063805	Action Potential	: Gated ion channels open or close in response to the binding of a specific ligand or a voltage change ->Changes the membrane potential : Two different responses, both graded potentials (because the change in potential varies with the strength of the stimulus) ->Hyperpolarization ->Depolarization	25
9231063806	Hyperpolarization	: An increase in the magnitude of the membrane potential (larger negative difference from inside to outside)	26
9231063807	Depolarization	: A reduction in the magnitude of the membrane potential (move towards a positive difference from outside to inside) : A stimulus strong enough to produce a depolarization that reaches the threshold will trigger and action potential	27
9231063808	Threshold	: Membrane voltage amount needed to cause an action potential : -55 mV	28
9231063809	Action Potential Steps	: A brief all-or-none depolarization of a neuron's plasma membrane that carries information along axons : Depolarization, Action Potential, Repolarization	29
9231063810	Action Potential Steps: Depolarization	: Membrane sodium (Na+) channels open which allows sodium to diffuse into the cell : This causes the charge on the neuron membrane to change to positive inside and negative outside	30
9231063811	Action Potential Steps: Action Potential	: Propagation of the signal is continued depolarization down the axon	31
9231063812	Action Potential Steps: Repolarization	: As the action potential subsides, K+ channels open, and potassium flows out of the cell whcih changes the charge again on the membrane : Na/K pump restores the ion concentration differences with the use of ATP ->Returns to the resting membrane potential : A refractory period follows the action potential during which a second action potential cannot be initiated	32
9231063813	Conduction of Action Potentials	: An action potential can travel long distances by regenerating itself along the axon : The opening of Na+ channels triggers the opening of even more channels : The speed of an action potential increases with the diameter of an axon	33
9231063814	Saltatory Conduction	: A process when action potentials in myelinated axons jump between the nodes of Ranvier : Allows the signal to travel faster down the axon	34
9231063815	Synapse	: Electrical-electrical current flows directly from one cell to another via gap junction : Chemical-a presynaptic neuron releases chemical neurotransmitters, which are stored in the synaptic terminal ->Neurotransmitters will travel through the synaptic cleft to bind the post-synaptic neuron : Calcium forces the neurotransmitters across the gap	35
9231063816	Direct Synaptic Transmission	: Involves the binding of neurotransmitters to ligand-gated ion channels : Causes the ion channels to open, generating a postsynaptic potential (either excitatory or inhibitory) : After its release, the neurotransmitter diffuses out of the synaptic cleft (either taken backup or degraded by enzymes)	36
9231063817	Neurotransmitters	: Chemical messengers that act on cells to create a response : Can produce different effects in different types of cells : Acetylcholine, epinephrine and norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin, GABA	37
9231063818	Acetylcholine	: Stimulates muscle contractions	38
9231063819	Epinephrine and Norepinephrine	: Fight or flight response	39
9231063820	Dopamine and Serotonin	: Excitatory responses	40
9231063821	GABA	: Represses neuron activity especially during fear or anxiety when neurons are overstimulated	41
9231063822	Gray Matter	: No myelin sheath : Located outside in brain and inside in spinal cord	42
9231063823	White Matter	: Has a myelin sheath : Located on outside in spinal cord and inside in brain	43
9231063824	Brainstem	: Midbrain-contains centers for passing, ascending, and descending signals : Pons-controls breathing : Medulla oblongata-controls heart rate, breathing, swallowing, and vomiting	44
9231063825	Cerebellum	: Important for coordination and balance : Also involved in earning and rememebering motor skills	45
9231063826	Diencephalon	: Epithalamus-includes pineal gland (releases melatonin for sleep) : Thalamus-sends sensory and motor information to the cerebrum : Hypothalamus-regulates homeostasis (the four F's-feeding, fighting, fleeing, and reproducing)	46
9231063827	Cerebrum	: Centers for planning and learning : Analyzes sensory information	47
9231063828	Limbic System	- Attach emotional "feelings" to survival-related functions	48

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AP Biology - Chapter 10 (photosynthesis) Flashcards

Photosynthesis

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5338648096	photosynthesis (definition)	process of harnessing light energy to build carbohydrates in autotrophs (ex. plants, cyanobacteria)	0
5338648097	photosynthesis (equation)	6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6 O2	1
5338648098	autotroph	organism that CAN capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use it to produce its own food (producer)	2
5338648099	heterotroph	organism that CANNOT produce its own food and therefore obtains it by consuming other living things (consumer)	3
5338648100	anabolic	What kind of a process is photosynthesis?	4
5338648101	catabolic	What kind of a process is cellular respiration?	5
5338648102	light-dependent reactions	1st step of photosynthesis during which light energy is captured and used to synthesize ATP and NADPH	6
5338648103	light-independent reactions	2nd step of photosynthesis during which CO2 is incorporated into a sugar molecule using ATP and NADPH produced during the first step	7
5338648104	thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts	location of light-dependent reactions	8
5338648105	stroma of chloroplasts	location of light-independent reactions	9
5338648106	G3P	carbon product of the light-independent reactions	10
5338648107	photon	(1) quantum (discrete quantity) of electromagnetic radiation (light energy) with both wave and particle properties	11
5338648108	inverse	What is the relationship between wavelength and energy?	12
5338648109	reflected, transmitted, or absorbed	When a photon strikes a substance it can be _____________________	13
5338648110	pigments	substances that can absorb, reflect, or transmit light	14
5338648111	absorption spectrum	graph of a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light	15
5338648112	action spectrum	graph of a plant's photosynthesis rate at different wavelengths of light	16
5338648113	violet, blue and red	Which wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls ABSORB?	17
5338648114	green and yellow	Which wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls REFLECT?	18
5338648115	carotenoids	accessory pigments in chloroplasts that broaden the spectrum of colors used in photosynthesis (absorb green/blue but reflect red/yellow/orange)	19
5338648116	mesophyll	(C) ground tissue of a leaf, sandwiched between upper and lower epidermis that specializes in photosynthesis	20
5338648117	chlorophyll b	pigment, green/olive, in chloroplast	21
5338648118	chlorophyll a	pigment, blue/green, in chloroplast	22
5338648119	excited state	(7) when absorbed photon energy causes electron to move away from nucleus	23
5338648120	photosystems	(6) photosynthetic pigments embedded with protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane	24
5338648121	parts of photosystems	(3+4) reaction-center complex and light harvesting complex	25
5338648122	reaction-center complex	(4) centrally located proteins associated with a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor	26
5338648123	light harvesting complex	(3) proteins associated with pigment molecules that capture light energy and transfers it to center of a photosystem	27
5338648124	photosystem II (PS II)	1st of two light harvesting units in thylakoid membrane that passes excited electrons to reaction-center chlorophyll	28
5338648125	primary electron acceptor	(2) electrons from the reaction-center in thylakoid membranes are transferred to this molecule	29
5338648126	water	splitting this molecule replaces electrons which are excited and passed to primary electron acceptor in PSII	30
5338648127	O2	released as a byproduct of splitting water	31
5338648128	photosystem I (PS I)	2nd of two light-capturing units in thylakoid membranes that replaces its electrons by those from the 1st complex and results in production of NADPH	32
5338648129	proton-motive force	created by pumping hydrogen ions from stroma to thylakoid space during electron transport chain between PS II and PS I	33
5338648130	ATP synthase	enzyme that synthesies ATP by utilizing a proton-motive force	34
5338648131	Calvin cycle, dark reactions, and carbon fixation	other names for light independent reactions	35
5338648132	3 steps of light independent reaction	1. carbon fixation 2. reduction 3. regeneration of RuBP	36
5338648133	reduction	step in Calvin cycle that produces sugar G3P	37
5338648134	carbon dioxide	molecule reduced in Calvin cycle to produce sugar	38
5338648135	thylakoids	(C) flattened membranous sacs inside chloroplasts that contain systems which convert light energy to chemical energy	39
5338648136	absorbed	energy is ____________ in photosynthesis	40
5338648137	released	energy is _____________ in cellular respiration	41
5338648138	glucose and oxygen	reactants of cellular respiration	42
5338648139	carbon dioxide and water	reactants of photosynthesis	43
5338648140	glucose	source of electrons used in ETC of cellular respiration	44
5338648141	intermembrane space	site of proton gradient built up in cellular respiration	45
5338648142	thylakoid space	site of proton gradient built up in photosynthesis	46
5338648143	NAD+ and FAD	high energy electron carrier(s) before reduction in cellular respiration (after they drop off electrons at ETC)	47
5338648144	NADH and FADH2	high energy electron carrier(s) after reduction in cellular respiration (after they pick up electrons from Kreb's cycle)	48
5338648145	NADP+	high energy electron carrier(s ) before reduction in photosynthesis (after they drop off electrons for Calvin cycle)	49
5338648146	NADPH	high energy electron carrier(s ) after reduction in photosynthesis (after they pick up electrons from ETC)	50
5338648147	ATP	energy product(s) from ETC in cellular respiration	51
5338648148	ATP and NADPH	energy product(s) from ETC in photosynthesis	52
5338648149	glucose, NADH and FADH2	reactant(s) oxidized in cellular respiration	53
5338648150	H2O	reactant(s) oxidized in photosynthesis (source of electrons)	54
5338648151	cyclic electron flow	light dependent reactions using only photosystem I to pump protons and generate excess ATP (not NADPH)	55
5338648152	linear electron flow	light dependent reactions involving both photosystems; electrons from H2O are used to reduce NADP to NADPH	56
5338648153	rubisco	enzyme with affinity for both CO2 and O2 that catalyzes first step of Calvin cycle by adding CO2 to ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)	57
5338648154	PEP carboxylase	enzyme with great affinity for CO2 (gas) adds it to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to form oxaloacetate (4-carbon solid) prior to photosynthesis	58
5338648155	stomata	pore-like openings on underside of leaves that allow gases (CO2 and O2) and water to diffuse in and out	59
5338648156	bundle-sheath cells	tightly packed around the veins of a leaf (site of Calvin cycle in C4 plants)	60
5338648157	photorespiration	occurs on hot, dry days when stomata close, O2 accumulates and Rubisco fixes O2 rather than CO2, using up ATP, O2 and sugars	61
5338648158	C3 plants	do not separately fix CO2 and use Rubisco in Calvin Cycle	62
5338648159	C4 plants	spatially separate carbon fixation (mesophyll cells) from Calvin Cycle (bundle-sheath cells); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO2	63
5338648160	CAM plants	temporally separate carbon fixation (day) and Calvin Cycle (night); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO2	64

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AP Biology Chapter 14/15: Genetics Flashcards

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8061240996	why did Mendel work with peas?	they are available in many varieties, short generation time, large number of offspring, and mendel could strictly control mating between plants	0
8061240997	character	a heritable feature that varies among individuals (flower color)	1
8061240998	trait	each variant for a character (purple flower color)	2
8061240999	how do pea plants usually mate?	self-pollination	3
8061241000	how did mendel achieve cross pollination?	by removing immature stamens of a plant before they produced pollen and then dusted pollen from another plant on the altered flowers	4
8061241001	true breeding plants	those that produce offspring of the same variety when they self pollunate	5
8061241002	hybridization	the crossing of two true breeding varieties	6
8061241003	P generation	the parent individuals from which offspring are derived in studies of inheritance	7
8061241004	F1 generation	the first hybrid offspring in a series of genetic crosses	8
8061241005	F2 generation	offspring resulting from allowing the F1 hybrids to self-pollunate	9
8061241006	mendel's two fundamental principles of heredity	law of segregation and law of independent assortment	10
8061241007	alleles	alternative versions of genes	11
8061241008	what are the three mendelian concepts?:	1. alleles account for variation in inherited characteristics 2.for each character, an organism gets two alleles one from each parent 3.the dominant allele determines an organisms appearance while the recessive has no effect	12
8061241009	law of segregation	the two alleles in a pair separate into different gametes during gamete formation	13
8061241010	law of segregation in chromosomes	the distribution of the two members of a homologous pair of chromosomes to different gametes in meiosis	14
8061241011	how are homozygous different from heterozygous?	unlike homozygous, heterozygous are not true breeding because they produce gametes with different alleles	15
8061241012	testcross	breeding an organism of unknown genotype with a recessive homozygote to reveal the genotype of that organism	16
8061241013	monohybrids	individuals heterozygous for one character	17
8061241014	dihybrids	individuals heterozygous for two characters	18
8061241015	law of independent assortment	each pair of alleles assorts independently of each other pair during gamete formation	19
8061241016	incomplete dominance	a phenotype somewhere between those of the two parental varieties (pink)	20
8061241017	codominance	when the two alleles are both equally expressed in the phenotype	21
8061241018	how is an allele dominant?	dominant and recessive alleles coexist but do not interact at all it is the pathway from genotype to phenotype that dominance and recessiveness come into play	22
8061241019	Tay-Sachs disease	when the brain cells of a child cannot metabolize certain lipids because an enzyme doesn't work, accumulation of these lipids causes problems	23
8061241020	pleiotropy	genes with multiple phenotypic effects	24
8061241021	what are two situations where two or more genes are involved in determining a particular phenotype?	epistasis and polygenic inheritance	25
8061241022	epistasis	a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus	26
8061241023	polygenic inheritance	an effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character seen in quantitative characters or those that range	27
8061241024	multifactorial	referring to a phenotypic character that is influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors	28
8061241025	what does an allele that codes for a genetic disorder do?	it codes either for a malfunctioning protein or for no protein at all	29
8061241026	what type of mating is more likely to result in offspring homozygous for a recessive trait?	people with recent common ancestors	30
8061241027	cystic fibrosis	a recessive allele genetic disorder for a chloride channel protein, characterized by excessive mucus and vulnerability to infection	31
8061241028	sickle cell disease	a recessive allele genetic disorder that results in the substitution of a single amino acid in a globin polypeptide that is part of a hemoglobin protein, characterized by deformed red blood cells with numerous symptoms	32
8061241029	how do all lethal alleles arise?	mutation in cells that produce sperm or eggs	33
8061241030	huntingtons disease	a dominant allele genetic disorder, characterized by uncontrollable body movements and degeneration of the nervous system	34
8061241031	some diseases are not simple mendelian disorders, rather...	multifactorial and the hereditary component is polygenic	35
8061241032	amniocentesis	a technique of prenatal diagnosis in which amniotic fluid is analyzed to detect certain genetic and congenital defects in the fetus	36
8061241033	chorionic villus sampling	acquiring a tiny sample of tissue from the placenta which have the same genotype as the individual and can be karyotyped	37
8061241034	what are imaging techniques used to see major anatomical abnormalities in a fetus?	ultrasound (sound waves to produce a fetus image) fetoscopy (a tube to transmit light is inserted into uterus)	38
8061241035	Mendel's heritable factors	genes located on chromosomes	39
8061241036	chromosome theory of inheritance	states that genes are located on specific spots on chromosomes and the chromosomes undergo segregation and independent assortment	40
8061241037	What animal did Thomas Hunt Morgan choose to study and why?	the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster because they produce hundreds of offspring, their generation span is 2 weeks, they only have four pairs of chromosomes	41
8061241038	wild type	phenotype for a character most commonly observed in natural populations	42
8061241039	mutant phenotypes	traits that are alternatives to the wild type	43
8061241040	what did morgan's work support?	the chromosome theory of inheritance, specifically that a specific gene is carried on a specific chromosome	44
8061241041	homologous regions on X and Y chromosomes	short segments at either end of the Y chromosome are the only regions that are homologous with corresponding regions of the X	45
8061241042	egg and sperm containing chromosomes	egg= contains one X chromosome sperm= half contains an X and half contain a Y chromosome	46
8061241043	sex-linked gene	a gene located on either sex chromosome	47
8061241044	fathers can pass sex linked alleles to: mothers can pass sex linked alleles to:	:only daughters :sons or daughters	48
8061241045	Duchenne muscular dystrophy	a sex linked recessive genetic disease, characterized by progressive weakening and a loss of muscle tissue	49
8061241046	Hemophilia	a sex linked recessive disorder defined by the absence of one or more of the proteins required for blood clotting	50
8061241047	why do females not make double the amount of proteins encoded by genes on the X chromosome than males do?	one X chromosome in each cell in females becomes almost completely inactivated during embryonic development	51
8061241048	Barr body	the inactive X in each cell of a female condenses into a compact object called this which lies along the inside of the nuclear envelope	52
8061241049	linked genes	genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together in genetic crosses	53
8061241050	genetic recombination	the production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent	54
8061241051	how do you conclude that genes are on the same chromosome?	a higher proportion of parental types than would be expected of independent assortment (more than 50%)	55
8061241052	parental types	an offspring with a phenotype that matches one of the parental phenotypes	56
8061241053	recombinant types or recombinants	an offspring whose phenotype differs from that of the parents	57
8061241054	crossing over	accounts for the recombination of linked genes	58
8061241055	genetic map	an ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome	59
8061241056	what did Sturtevant discover?	the farther apart two genes are on a chromosome the higher the probability that a crossover will occur between them and therefore the higher the recombination frequency	60
8061241057	linkage map	a genetic map based on recombination frequencies	61
8061241058	map units/ centimorgans	the units Sturtevant used to express the distances between genes (equal to 1% recombination frequency)	62
8061241059	cytogenetic map	locates genes with respect to chromosomal features	63
8061241060	nondisjunction	when the members of a pair of homologous chromosomes do not move apart properly during meiosis 1 or sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis 2, this results in one gamete receiving two of the same type of chromosomes and another receiving none	64
8061241061	aneuploidy	a chromosomal abnormality in which one or more chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number	65
8061241062	monosomic	referring to a cell that has only one copy of a particular chromosome instead of the normal two	66
8061241063	trisomic	referring to a diploid cell that has three copies of a particular chromosome instead of the normal two	67
8061241064	polyploidy	a chromosomal alteration in which the organism possesses more than two complete chromosome sets, it is the result of an accident of cell division	68
8061241065	errors in meiosis or damaging agents such as radiation can cause breakage of a chromosome which can lead to what four types of changes in chromosome structure?	-deletion -duplication -inversion -translocation	69
8061241066	deletion	occurs when a chromosomal fragment is lost thus the chromosome is missing genes	70
8061241067	duplication	if a deleted fragment becomes attached as an extra segment to a sister chromatid or a nonsister chromatid carrying different alleles for certain genes	71
8061241068	inversion	a chromosomal fragment may also reattach to the original chromosome but in the reverse orientation	72
8061241069	translocation	nonhomolgous chromosomes exchange fragments	73
8061241070	syndrome	genetic disorders caused by aneuploidy that can be diagnosed before birth by fetal testing	74
8061241071	Down syndrome	a human genetic disease caused by the presence of an extra chromosome 21, characterized by mental retardation and heart and respiratory defects	75
8061241072	nondisjunction of sex chromosomes produces a variety of aneuploid conditions:	-Klinefelter syndrome= extra x chromosome (male sex organs but female characteristics) -extra Y chromosome in males (taller than average) -extra X chromosome in females (normal in phenotype) -Turner syndrome=one x (phenotypically female but sex organs do not mature)	76
8061241073	deletion in human chromosomes	cause severe problems such as cri du chat	77
8061241074	translocations in human chromosomes	implicated certain cancers such as chronic myelogenous leukemia (translocation in white blood cells with the philadelphia chromosome)	78
8061241075	genomic imprinting	when the expression of an allele in offspring depends on whether the allele is inherited from the male or female parent	79
8061241076	how are the imprints transmitted to all the body cells after occurring during the formation of gametes?	during development so either the maternal or paternal allele of a given imprinted gene is expressed in every cell of that organism	80
8061241077	in a given species, the imprinted genes..	are always imprinted in the same way	81
8061241078	what exactly is a genomic imprint?	a methyl group added to cytosine nucleotides of one of the alleles either silencing it or activating it	82
8061241079	where are genes located?	-nuclear chromosomes -extranuclear or cytoplasmic genes in the mitochondria and chloroplasts	83
8061241080	extranuclear or cytoplasmic genes	are not distributed to offspring according to the same rules that direct the distribution of nuclear chromosomes during meiosis (do not display mendelian inheritance)	84

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04 Cell Structure AP Biology Flashcards

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7653678030	organelle	A tiny cell structure that carries out a specific function within the cell	0
7653692934	membrane bound organelle	organelles with membranes around them	1
7653696012	cytosol	Part of the cytoplasm that is not held by any of the organelles	2
7653698379	cytoplasm	The region of the cell between the cell membrane and the nucleus.	3
7653700399	eukaryotic cell	cell that has a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles	4
7653702536	prokaryotic cell	cell that does not have a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles.	5
7653703678	plasma membrane	A selectively-permeable phospholipid bilayer forming the boundary of the cells	6
7653704551	nuclear envelope	A double membrane that surrounds the nucleus in the cell	7
7653706460	nuclear lamina	A netlike array of protein filaments lining the inner surface of the nuclear envelope; it helps maintain the shape of the nucleus.	8
7653708379	chromosome	A molecule of DNA. In Eukaryotoes, it consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins.	9
7653709244	chromatin	The DNA and proteins in the nucleus of a cell	10
7653719799	nucleolus	Structure found in the nucleus of cells where ribosomes are made	11
7653723529	endomembrane system	A network of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles.	12
7653724624	vesicle	Small membrane-bound sac that functions in moving products into, out of, and within a cell.	13
7653726284	smooth ER	Synthesis of lipids, phospholipids and steroid hormones; specialized in liver cells to help detoxify drugs and poisons;	14
7653729341	rough ER	network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins.	15
7653729960	endoplasmic reticulum	an interconnected network of thin folded membranes	16
7653731514	glycoprotein	A protein with one or more carbohydrates covalently attached to it.	17
7653732676	transport vesicles	Vesicles in transit from one part of the cell to another.	18
7653734637	Golgi apparatus	Stack of membranes in the cell that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum.	19
7653735121	lysosome	A cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes.	20
7653737876	contractile vacuoles	A membranous sac that helps move excess water out of the cell.	21
7653738853	mitochondria	The organelles in which nutrients are converted to ATP.	22
7653741303	chloroplasts	Organelles that capture the energy from sunlight and convert it into chemical energy in a process called photosynthesis.	23
7653742965	chlorophyll	A green pigment found in photosynthetic bacteria and in the chloroplasts of plants and algae	24
7653745489	plastid	Organelles in plants that are surrounded by a double membrane and contain their own DNA	25
7653749402	peroxisome	organelle that breaks down H2O2 and contains catalase	26
7653753081	cristae	Infoldings of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electon transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP.	27
7653754459	thylakoids	Membranous structures within a chloroplast that serve as the site for light harvesting in photosynthesis.	28
7653755404	stroma	The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.	29
7653757228	cytoskeleton	Network of protein filaments within cells that helps the cell maintain its shape and is involved in many forms of cell movement.	30
7653758688	cytoplasmic streaming	The motion of cytoplasm in a cell that results in a coordinated movement of the cell's contents.	31
7653760084	cell wall	Strong layer around the cell membrane in plants, algae, fungi, some protists and most bacteria.	32
7653775806	ribosome	organelle at which proteins are synthesized (found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes)	33
7653778334	nucleoid	A non-membrane-bounded region in a prokaryotic cell where the DNA is concentrated	34
7653781590	synthesis	To make	35
7653783055	secrete	to produce a chemical substance in a cell and release it from the cell	36
7653785038	motile	Able to move	37
7653786864	cilia	Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion	38
7653787855	flagella	A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility.	39
7653802662	vacuole	fluid-filled sac used for the storage of materials needed by a cell (in plants it is large)	40
7653805883	centriole	structure in an animal cell that helps to organize cell division	41
7653810082	bacteria	A single-celled, microscopic prokaryotic organism	42
7716124904	Tight junction	Almost impermeable junction that encircles the cell; helps prevent molecules from passing through the extracellular space between adjacent cells	43
7716128913	Desmosome	Anchoring junction scattered along the sides of cells to prevent their separation; abundant in tissues like skin and heart muscle subjected to great mechanical stress	44
7716130634	Gap junction	A communicating junction between neighboring cells; allows ions to pass between cells; present in electrically excitable tissues like cardiac muscle.	45