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AP Biology Unit 2 - Chapter 7 Membranes Flashcards

8185159733	plasma membrane	seperates the living cell from its surroundings. Contros traffic in and out of the cell. Is selectively permeable.	0
8185159734	selectively permeable	allows some substances to cross more easily than others.	1
8185159735	phospholipids	most abundant lipids	2
8185159736	lipids and proteins	main macromolecules in membranes	3
8185159737	amphipatic molecules	have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions	4
8185159738	fluid mosaic model	The arrangement of phospholipids and proteins in biological membranes is described by the...	5
8185159740	transmembrane proteins	the integral protein completely spans the membrane as...	6
8185159741	integral proteins	proteins that penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer	7
8185159742	peripheral proteins	proteins that are not embedded in the lipid bilayer	8
8185159743	cell-cell recognition	the ability of a cell to disitnguish one type of neighboring cell from another.	9
8185159745	transport proteins	proteins that span the membrane.	10
8185159746	channel proteins	transport proteins that have a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions use as a tunnel though the membrane.	11
8185159747	aquaporins	channel proteins that facilitate the passage of water	12
8185159748	carrier proteins	transport proteins that bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane.	13
8185159749	diffusion	movement of molecules of any substance to spread out in available space	14
8185159750	concentration gradient	the region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or decreases.	15
8185159751	passive transport	transport that requires no energy from the cell to make it happen	16
8185159752	osmosis	the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane	17
8185159753	tonicity	the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water.	18
8185159754	isotonic (animal cell)	if a cell with no cell wall is immersed in an enviroment where there is no net movement of water across the plasma membrane. Stays the same.	19
8185159755	hypertonic (animal cell)	when the cell is immersed in a solution where it loses water to its environment, shrivels and probably dies.	20
8185159756	hypotonic (animal cell)	when a cell is immersed in a solution, water enters the cell faster than it leaves, it swells and lyses (explodes) like an overfilled water balloon.	21
8185159759	turgid	when the plant cell is very firm, which is a healthy state for most plant cells.	22
8185159760	hypotonic (plant cell)	when a plant cell is immersed in a __________ solution the cell contents swell due to osmosis until the elastic cell wall exerts turgor pressure on the cell that opposes further water outake.	23
8185159761	isotonic (plant cell)	when a plant cell is immersed in a _______ solution; there is no net movement. The cell becomes flaccid and the plant may wilt.	24
8185159762	flaccid	limp, not firm or strong (If a plant is not watered enough, its leaves become droopy and flaccid.)	25
8185159763	hypertonic (plant cells)	the plant cell loses water, its volume shrinks. The plasma membrane pulls away from the wall, this is plasmolysis. It is lethal to the cell.	26
8185159764	plasmolysis	This happens when a cell shrinks inside its cell wall while the cell wall remains intact. The plasma membrane pulls away from the wall.	27
8185159765	facilitated diffusion	the passive movement of molecules down their concentration gradient with the help of transport proteins.	28
8185159766	ion channels (gated channels)	Channels that open or close depending on the presence or abscence of an electrical, chemical, or physical stimulus.	29
8185159768	active transport	transport that requires the cell to expend metabolic energy and enables a cell to maintain internal concentrations of small molecules. Requires energy.	30
8185159769	ATP	supplies energy for most active transport	31
8185159770	sodium-potassium pump	transport protein that, translocating the bound solute across the membrane. Exchanges sodium ions (Na) for potassium ions (K) across the plasma membrane of animal cells.	32
8185159774	sodium-potassium pump	major electrogenic pump in animals. Restores the electrochemical gradient by setting up a concentration gradient. It pumps 2 K ions for every 3 Na ions that it moves out, it generates a voltage.	33
8185159777	exocytosis	transport vesicle budded from the Golgi apparatus is moved by the cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane. When the 2 membranes come in contact, the bilayers fuse spill the contents.	34
8185159778	endocytosis	a cell brings in biological molecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane. 3 types: phagocytosis, pinocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis.	35
8185159779	phagocytosis	a cell engulfs a particle in a vacuole. The vacuole fuses with a lysosome to digest the particle.	36
8185159780	pinocytosis	molecules are taken up when extracellular fluid is "gulped" into tiny vesicles.	37
8185159781	receptor-mediated endocytosis	endocytosis that enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific materials that may be in low concentrations in the environment.	38
8185159782	lipoproteins	complexes of proteins and lipids. Cholesterol travels in low density _______	39
8185159783	ligands	A molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.	40

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AP Biology: Chapter 7 Flashcards

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7987176738	Active Transport	The movement of a substance across a biological membrane against its concentration or electrochemical gradient	0
7987176739	Amphipathic Molecule	A molecule that has both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region	1
7987176740	Aquaporins	A transport protein in the plasma membrane of a plant or animal cell that specifically facilitates the diffusion of water across a membrane	2
7987176741	Concentration Gradient	An increase or decrease in the number of particles per volume of a chemical substance in an area	3
7987176742	Cotransport	The coupling of the "downhill" diffusion of one substance with the "uphill" transport against its own concentration gradient	4
7987176743	Diffusion	the process by which molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration	5
7987176744	Electrochemical Gradient	The diffusion gradient of an ion, which is affected by both the concentration difference of the ion across a membrane (a chemical force) and the ion's tendency to move relative to the membrane potential (an electrical force).	6
7987176745	Electrogenic Pump	An active transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane while pumping ions.	7
7987176746	Endocytosis	the process by which a cell membrane surrounds a particle and encloses the particle in a vesicle to bring the particle into the cell	8
7987176747	Exocytosis	the process by which a substance is released from the cell through a vesicle that transports the substance to the cell surface and then fuses with the membrane to let the substance out	9
7987176748	Facilitated Diffusion	the transport of substances through a cell membrane along a concentration gradient with the aid of carrier proteins	10
7987176749	Flaccid	Limp. Lacking in stiffness or firmness, as in a plant cell in surroundings where there is no tendency for water to enter the cell.	11
7987176750	Fluid Mosaic Model	The currently accepted model of cell membrane structure, which envisions the membrane as a mosaic of individually inserted protein molecules drifting laterally in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.	12
7987176751	Gated Channels	A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.	13
7987176752	Hypertonic	When comparing two solutions, the solution with the greater concentration of solutes	14
7987176753	Hypotonic	When comparing two solutions, the solution with the lesser concentration of solutes	15
7987176754	Ion Channels	A transmembrane protein channel that allows a specific ion to flow across the membrane down its concentration gradient	16
7987176755	Isotonic	When comparing two solutions, both have a solute concentration equal to that of the other solution	17
7987176757	Membrane Potential	The charge difference between a cell's cytoplasm and the extracellular fluid, due to the differential distribution of ions.	18
7987176758	Osmoregulation	The control of water balance in organisms living in hypertonic, hypotonic, or terrestrial environments.	19
7987176759	Osmosis	diffusion of molecules through a semipermeable membrane from a place of higher concentration to a place of lower concentration until the concentration on both sides is equal	20
7987176760	Passive Transport	The movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell.	21
7987176761	Plasmolysis	When a cell is in a hypertonic environment, the cell will lose water to its surroundings, shrink, and its plasma membrane will pull away from the wall	22
7987176762	Proton Pump	An active transport mechanism in cell membranes that consumes ATP to force hydrogen ions (H+) out of a cell and, in the process, generates a membrane potential	23
7987176763	Selective Permeability	A property of biological membranes that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.	24
7987176764	Sodium-potassium pump	A special transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell against their concentration gradients.	25
7987176765	Tonicity	The ability of a solution to cause a cell within it to gain or lose water.	26
7987176766	Transport Proteins	Protein molecules that help to transport substances throughout the body and across cell membranes	27
7987176767	Turgid	Firm. Walled cells become turgid as a result of the entry of water from a hypotonic environment.	28
7987176768	Extracellular Matrix	A collection of extracellular molecules secreted by cells that provides structural and biochemical support to the surrounding cells.	29
7987176769	Carbohydrate chain	Made up of sugar molecules and can be joined to protein for cell communication and identification.	30
7987176770	Glycoprotein	Proteins that have carbohydrates covalently bonded to them.	31
7987176771	Cholesterol	Steroid present in the plasma membranes of animal cells. A large amount of this in a phospholipid bilayer at High Temperatures reduces membrane fluidity, but at Lower Temperatures prevents the membrane from solidifying.	32
7987176772	Microfilaments of cytoskeleton	Provide structure and support to the cell, allow for movement and stabilization of organelles.	33
7987176773	Peripheral protein	Bound to the surface of the membrane and integral proteins, but not embedded in the lipid bilayer.	34
7987176774	Glycolipid	Fatty acids with linked sugar groups that are key structural elements in cell membranes and precursors of other biologically active molecules important in cell signaling	35
7987176775	Integral protein	Extend entirely through the membrane with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends (imbedded)	36

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AP Biology Photosynthesis and Cell Resp. Flashcards

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8347352789	Photosynthesis	Making food for a plant, takes place in chloroplast	0
8347352790	Photosynthesis Formula	(in the presence of sunlight) water + carbon dioxide ----> oxygen + glucose	1
8347352791	Glucose	Sugar (food) made during photosynthesis	2
8347352796	Cellular Respiration	Breaking down glucose (food) in the presence of oxygen to make ATP	3
8347352797	Cellular Respiration Location	Cytoplasm/Mitochondria	4
8347352798	Cellular Respiration Formula	Oxygen + Glucose -----> Carbon dioxide + Water and producing ATP	5
8347352799	Process uses water	Photosynthesis	6
8347352800	Process gives off water	Cellular respiration	7
8347352805	Location of Photosynthesis	Chloroplast stroma and thylakoid	8
8347352810	Glycolysis, Kreb Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain	The 3 steps of Cell Respiration	9
8347352811	Light Dependent Reaction and Calvin Cycle	The 2 Steps of Photosynthesis	10
8347352812	endergonic	A chemical reaction that requires the input of energy in order to proceed.	11
8347352813	exergonic	Energy stored in the chemical bonds released	12
8347352814	metabolism	All of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism	13
8347352815	activation energy	Energy needed to get a reaction started	14
8347352816	ATP	(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work	15
8347352817	cellular respiration	Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen	16
8347352818	mitochondrial matrix	The compartment of the mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane and containing enzymes and substrates for the citric acid cycle.	17
8347352819	cristae	Infoldings of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electon transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP.	18
8347352820	glycolysis	A metabolic process that breaks down carbohydrates and sugars through a series of reactions to either pyruvic acid or lactic acid and release energy for the body in the form of ATP	19
8347352821	link reaction	CO2 is removed from pyruvate and NADH is produced to make Acetyl-CoA	20
8347352822	pyruvate	Organic compound with a backbone of three carbon atoms. Two molecules form as end products of glycolysis	21
8347352823	Krebs cycle	second stage of cellular respiration, in which pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting reactions	22
8347352824	electron transport chain	A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that move protons (H+) across the membrane.	23
8347352825	ATP synthase	Large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP	24
8347352826	FADH2	Electron carrier produced during the Krebs cycle.	25
8347352827	NADH	An energy-carrying coenzyme produced by glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. NADH carries energy to the electron transport chain.	26
8347352828	photosynthesis	Conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical energy.	27
8347352829	stomata	Small openings on the underside of a leaf through which oxygen and carbon dioxide can move	28
8347352830	guard cell	Pairs of cells that surround stomata and control their opening and closing.	29
8347352831	xylem	The vascular tissue through which water and nutrients move in plants	30
8347352832	phloem	The vascular tissue through which sugars move in plants	31
8347352833	chloroplast	(in green plant cells) a plastid that contains chlorophyll and in which photosynthesis takes place.	32
8347352834	chlorophyll	Green pigment in plants that absorbs light energy used to carry out photosynthesis	33
8347352835	Calvin cycle	reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugars	34

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AP Biology - Chapter 10 (photosynthesis) Flashcards

Photosynthesis

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5475827898	photosynthesis (definition)	process of harnessing light energy to build carbohydrates in autotrophs (ex. plants, cyanobacteria)	0
5475827899	photosynthesis (equation)	6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6 O2	1
5475827900	autotroph	organism that CAN capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use it to produce its own food (producer)	2
5475827901	heterotroph	organism that CANNOT produce its own food and therefore obtains it by consuming other living things (consumer)	3
5475827902	anabolic	What kind of a process is photosynthesis?	4
5475827903	catabolic	What kind of a process is cellular respiration?	5
5475827904	light-dependent reactions	1st step of photosynthesis during which light energy is captured and used to synthesize ATP and NADPH	6
5475827905	light-independent reactions	2nd step of photosynthesis during which CO2 is incorporated into a sugar molecule using ATP and NADPH produced during the first step	7
5475827906	thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts	location of light-dependent reactions	8
5475827907	stroma of chloroplasts	location of light-independent reactions	9
5475827908	G3P	carbon product of the light-independent reactions	10
5475827909	photon	(1) quantum (discrete quantity) of electromagnetic radiation (light energy) with both wave and particle properties	11
5475827910	inverse	What is the relationship between wavelength and energy?	12
5475827912	pigments	substances that can absorb, reflect, or transmit light	13
5475827913	absorption spectrum	graph of a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light	14
5475827915	violet, blue and red	Which wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls ABSORB?	15
5475827916	green and yellow	Which wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls REFLECT?	16
5475827917	carotenoids	accessory pigments in chloroplasts that broaden the spectrum of colors used in photosynthesis (absorb green/blue but reflect red/yellow/orange)	17
5475827918	mesophyll	(C) ground tissue of a leaf, sandwiched between upper and lower epidermis that specializes in photosynthesis	18
5475827919	chlorophyll b	pigment, green/olive, in chloroplast	19
5475827920	chlorophyll a	pigment, blue/green, in chloroplast	20
5475827921	excited state	(7) when absorbed photon energy causes electron to move away from nucleus	21
5475827922	photosystems	(6) photosynthetic pigments embedded with protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane	22
5475827928	water	splitting this molecule replaces electrons which are excited and passed to primary electron acceptor in PSII	23
5475827929	O2	released as a byproduct of splitting water	24
5475827931	proton-motive force	created by pumping hydrogen ions from stroma to thylakoid space during electron transport chain between PS II and PS I	25
5475827932	ATP synthase	enzyme that synthesies ATP by utilizing a proton-motive force	26
5475827933	Calvin cycle, dark reactions, and carbon fixation	other names for light independent reactions	27
5475827934	3 steps of light independent reaction	1. carbon fixation 2. reduction 3. regeneration of RuBP	28
5475827935	reduction	step in Calvin cycle that produces sugar G3P	29
5475827936	carbon dioxide	molecule reduced in Calvin cycle to produce sugar	30
5475827937	thylakoids	(C) flattened membranous sacs inside chloroplasts that contain systems which convert light energy to chemical energy	31
5475827938	absorbed	energy is ____________ in photosynthesis	32
5475827939	released	energy is _____________ in cellular respiration	33
5475827940	glucose and oxygen	reactants of cellular respiration	34
5475827941	carbon dioxide and water	reactants of photosynthesis	35
5475827942	glucose	source of electrons used in ETC of cellular respiration	36
5475827943	intermembrane space	site of proton gradient built up in cellular respiration	37
5475827944	thylakoid space	site of proton gradient built up in photosynthesis	38
5475827945	NAD+ and FAD	high energy electron carrier(s) before reduction in cellular respiration (after they drop off electrons at ETC)	39
5475827946	NADH and FADH2	high energy electron carrier(s) after reduction in cellular respiration (after they pick up electrons from Kreb's cycle)	40
5475827947	NADP+	high energy electron carrier(s ) before reduction in photosynthesis (after they drop off electrons for Calvin cycle)	41
5475827948	NADPH	high energy electron carrier(s ) after reduction in photosynthesis (after they pick up electrons from ETC)	42
5475827949	ATP	energy product(s) from ETC in cellular respiration	43
5475827950	ATP and NADPH	energy product(s) from ETC in photosynthesis	44
5475827951	glucose, NADH and FADH2	reactant(s) oxidized in cellular respiration	45
5475827952	H2O	reactant(s) oxidized in photosynthesis (source of electrons)	46
5475827953	cyclic electron flow	light dependent reactions using only photosystem I to pump protons and generate excess ATP (not NADPH)	47
5475827954	linear electron flow	light dependent reactions involving both photosystems; electrons from H2O are used to reduce NADP to NADPH	48
5475827955	rubisco	enzyme with affinity for both CO2 and O2 that catalyzes first step of Calvin cycle by adding CO2 to ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)	49
5475827957	stomata	pore-like openings on underside of leaves that allow gases (CO2 and O2) and water to diffuse in and out	50
5475827958	bundle-sheath cells	tightly packed around the veins of a leaf (site of Calvin cycle in C4 plants)	51
5475827959	photorespiration	occurs on hot, dry days when stomata close, O2 accumulates and Rubisco fixes O2 rather than CO2, using up ATP, O2 and sugars	52
5475827960	C3 plants	do not separately fix CO2 and use Rubisco in Calvin Cycle	53
5475827961	C4 plants	spatially separate carbon fixation (mesophyll cells) from Calvin Cycle (bundle-sheath cells); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO2	54
5475827962	CAM plants	temporally separate carbon fixation (day) and Calvin Cycle (night); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO2	55

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AP Biology - Nervous System MHS Flashcards

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7835532568	neuron	nerve cells	0
7835532569	nerve	bundle of neurons	1
7835532570	dendrites	receive chemical signals and converts to electrical single	2
7835532571	axon	one end has receptor, other has axon terminals	3
7835532572	synapse	axon terminals: connects to neurons or muscles	4
7835532573	schwann cell	form myelin sheath	5
7835532574	myelin sheath	fatty tissue: make action potential faster as it jumps from node to node	6
7835532575	saltatory conduction	in a myleinated axon, ions of nerve impulse jump from node (of Ranvier) to node	7
7835532576	pathway of signal in nervous system	stimulus-> sensory receptor -> sensory neurons -> interneurons (control center) -> motor neurons -> muscle	8
7835532577	central nervous system	brain, spinal cord: analyzing, interpreting info	9
7835532578	peripheral nervous system	nerves entering into & extending from the CNS	10
7835532579	somatic	PNS: consciously controlled: to/from skeletal muscles, skin	11
7835532580	autonomic	PNS: function w/out your control: smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, glands	12
7835532581	sensory neuron	gets info from surroundings: sense neurons -> CNC (afferent)	13
7835532582	motor neuron	relays commands from CNC to skeletal muscles/glands (Efferent)	14
7835532583	sympathetic	branch of autonomic nervous system: excites (stress), "fight or flight" response; norepinephrine	15
7835532584	parasympathetic	branch of autonomic nervous system: promotes relaxed state, "rest & digest"; acetylcholine	16
7835532585	reflex arc or pathway	autonomic response to stimuli w/out thought: excite sensory receptors -> spinal cord -> motor neuron	17
7835532586	resting potential	membrane of -70mv: channels shut off, not letting homeostasis sodium external (more positive) potassium internal (less positive) Na+/K+ pumps maintain potential	18
7835532587	Na+/K+ pumps	use ATP to maintain potential; pumps two K+ in & three Na+ out	19
7835532588	Action Potential	reversal of voltage difference across membrane: +30mv sodium channels open, Na+ in sodium channels close while K+ channels open K+ flow out of neuron	20
7835532589	depolarization	Na+ Channels open, K+ are closed: change in polarity of membrane potential, from -70mv to +40mv	21
7835532590	repolarization	decrease in membrane potential: K+ channels open, Na+ channels are closed	22
7835532591	sodium & potassium channel	voltage-gated ion channel	23
7835532592	refractory period	K+ channels close slower, can't send another signal for a moment	24
7835532593	threshold	around -40mv; stimulus must be strong enough; "all or nothing" principal	25
7835532594	axon terminal	the end of an axon; where a synapse occurs	26
7835532595	neurotransmitters	Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons: held in vesicles	27
7835532596	synaptic cleft	space between nerons, nerotransmitters float here	28
7835532597	exocytosis	neurotransmitter vesicles bind to pre-synaptic membrane and expel neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft	29
7835532598	EPSP (excitatory post-synaptic potential)	open Na+ gates on post-synaptic membrane; continues action potential	30
7835532599	IPSP (inhibitory post-synaptic potential)	opens K+ gates on post-synaptic membrane; stops action potential	31
7835532600	synaptic integration	sum of excitory/inhibitory: amplify, dampen, cancel signal	32
7835532601	medulla oblongata	controls breathing, heart rate, digestive system	33
7835532602	pons	accessory portion, controls breathing	34
7835532603	cerebellum	controls movement, balance and coordination	35
7835532604	cerebrum	part of forebrain: regulates conscious functions of the body such as thought and reasoning and perception of stimuli	36
7835532605	cerebral cortex	memory	37
7835532606	hypothalamus	regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst: homeostasis	38
7835532607	interneurons	with highly-branched dendrites found within the CNS; convey messages between parts of the CNS	39
7835532608	hyperpolarization (overshoot or undershoot)	more K+ have moved out of the cell than is actually necessary to establish the resting potential.	40
7835532609	Steps of an Action Potential	1. Resting Potential 2. Depolarization 3. Repolarization 4 Refractory Period	41
7835532610	Nodes of Ranvier	gaps in the mylein sheath; space between schwann cells	42
7835532611	examples of neurotransmitters	acetylcholine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, seratonin, GABA,	43

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AP Biology Chapter 2 Flashcards

The Chemical Context of Life

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7241162560	Van Der Waals Interactions	Weak attractions between molecules. Also called london dispersion forces	0
7241162561	Products	Material resulting from a chemical reaction.	1
7241162562	Chemical Equilibrium	State in which the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction.	2
7241162563	Reactants	Starting material in a chemical reaction.	3
7241162564	Hydrogen bond	Weak chemical bond. Consist of a covalent bond	4
7241162565	Ionic Compound	Compound resulting from the formation of an ionic bond. Also called a salt.	5
7241162566	Ionic Bond	Chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions.	6
7241162567	Anion	Negatively charged ion. Loses an electron.	7
7241162568	Cation	Positively charged ion. Gains an electron.	8
7241162569	Ion	An atom or group of atoms that has gained or lost one or more electrons. Acquiring a charge.	9
7241162570	Polar Covalent Bond	Shared electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom, making it slightly negative and the other atom positive.	10
7241162571	Non-polar Covalent Bond	Covalent bond where electrons are shard equally between two atoms of similar electronegativity.	11
7241162572	Electronegativity	Attraction of a given atom for the electrons of a covalent bond.	12
7241162573	Double Bond	Double covalent bond; sharing of two pairs of valence electrons by two atoms.	13
7241162574	Single Bond	Single covalent bond; sharing of one pair of valence electrons.	14
7241162575	Covalent Bond	Strong chemical bond in which two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons.	15
7241162576	Chemical Bond	Attraction between two atoms, resulting from a sharing of outer shell electrons.	16
7241162577	Orbital	Where an electron is found 90% of the time.	17
7241162578	Potential Energy	Energy that matter possesses as a result of its location.	18
7241162579	Energy	Capacity to cause change, especially to do work.	19
7241162580	Radioactive Isotope	Nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off detectable particles and energy also called unstable isotope.	20
7241162581	Isotopes	Same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.	21
7241162582	Atomic Mass	Total mass of an atom	22
7241162583	Mass Number	Sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.	23
7241162584	Atomic Number	Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, unique for each element.	24
7241162585	Atomic Nucleus	An atom's dense central core, containing protons and neutrons.	25
7241162586	Electrons	A subatomic particle with a single negative electrical charge.	26
7241162587	Neutrons	A subatomic particle having no electrical charge (electrically neutral). Found in the nucleus of an atom.	27
7241162588	Protons	A subatomic particle with a single positive electrical charge. Found in the nucleus of an atom.	28
7241162589	Atom	Smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element.	29
7241162590	Trace Elements	An element indispensable for life but required in extremely minute amounts.	30
7241162591	Essential Elements	A chemical element required for an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce.	31
7241162592	Compound	A substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio.	32
7241162593	Element	Any substance that cannot be broken down to any other substance by chemical reactions.	33
7241162594	Matter	Anything that takes up space and has mass.	34

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GWHS AP Biology - Chapter 20: Biotechnology Flashcards

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8275342783	recombinant DNA	A DNA molecule made in vitro with segments from different sources.	0
8275342784	genetic engineering	The direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes.	1
8275342785	biotechnology	The manipulation of living organisms or their components to produce useful products.	2
8275342786	plasmid	A small ring of DNA that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome; also found in some eukaryotes, such as yeast.	3
8275342787	gene cloning	The production of multiple copies of a gene.	4
8275342788	restriction enzymes	A degradative enzyme that recognizes and cuts up DNA (including that of certain phages) that is foreign to a bacterium; an important tool in biotechnology	5
8275342789	restriction sites	A specific sequence on a DNA strand that is recognized as a cut site by a restriction enzyme.	6
8275342790	sticky end	A single-stranded end of a double-stranded DNA restriction fragment.	7
8275342791	DNA ligase	A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain; useful in forming recombinant DNA	8
8275342792	cloning vector	An agent used to transfer DNA in genetic engineering. A plasmid that moves recombinant DNA from a test tube back into a cell is an example of a cloning vector, as is a virus that transfers recombinant DNA by infection.	9
8275342793	complementary DNA	A DNA molecule made in vitro using mRNA as a template and the enzyme reverse transcriptase. this DNA molecule therefore corresponds to a gene, but lacks the introns present in the DNA of the genome.	10
8275342794	nucleic acid probe	In DNA technology, a labeled single-stranded nucleic acid molecule used to tag a specific nucleotide sequence in a nucleic acid sample. Molecules of the probe hydrogen-bond to the complementary sequence wherever it occurs; radioactive or other labeling of the probe allows its location to be detected.	11
8275342795	nucleic acid hybridization	Base pairing between a gene and a complementary sequence on another nucleic acid molecule.	12
8275342796	electroporation	A technique to introduce recombinant DNA into cells by applying a brief electrical pulse to a solution containing cells. The electricity creates temporary holes in the cells' plasma membranes, through which DNA can enter.	13
8275342797	polymerase chain reaction (PCR)	A technique for amplifying DNA in vitro by incubating with special primers, taq polymerase molecules, and nucleotides.	14
8275342798	gel electrophoresis	The separation of nucleic acids on the basis of their size and electrical charge, due to their different rate of movement through an electrical field in a gel.	15
8275342799	restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)	Differences in DNA sequence on homologous chromosomes that result in different patterns of restriction fragment lengths (DNA segments resulting from treatment with restriction enzymes); .	16
8275342800	Southern Blotting	A hybridization technique that enables researchers to determine the presence of certain nucleotide sequences in a sample of DNA.	17
8275342801	dideoxy chain termination method	a DNA sequencing method in which target DNA is denatured and annealed to an oligonucleotide primer, which is then extended by DNA polymerase using a mixture of deoxynucleotide triphosphates (normal dNTPs) and chain-terminating dideoxynucleotide triphosphates (ddNTPs)	18
8275342802	reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)	a variant of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), is a technique commonly used in molecular biology to detect mRNA expression; useful for studying gene expression during development	19
8275342803	northern blotting	an adaptation of the Southern blot procedure used to detect specific sequences of RNA by hybridization with complementary DNA.	20
8275342804	DNA microarray assay	A method to detect and measure the expression of thousands of genes at one time. Tiny amounts of a large number of single-stranded DNA fragments representing different genes are fixed to a glass slide. These fragments, ideally representing all the genes of an organism, are tested for hybridization with various samples of cDNA molecules.	21
8275342805	in vitro mutagenesis	The creation of mutations in genes; used to knock out genes and then determine their function	22
8275342806	RNA interference	A technique to silence the expression of selected genes in nonmammalian organisms. The method uses synthetic double-stranded RNA molecules matching the sequence of a particular gene to trigger the breakdown of the gene's messenger RNA or block its translation;useful for determining gene function	23
8275342807	single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)	One base-pair variation in the genome sequence; useful as markers for diseases in the human population	24
8275342808	reverse transcriptase	An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.	25
8275342809	CRISPR-cas 9	a system used by bacteria to defend against bacteriophage infections; used in genetic engineering to target and disable genes and thereby determine their function	26
8275342810	totipotent	a cell that can give rise to all specialized cell types; in animals that includes the placenta	27
8275342811	pluripotent	embryonic stem cells from the blastocyst that can give rise to all specialized cell types but not the placenta	28
8275342812	induced pluripotent cells	iPS differentiated cells that are reprogrammed to become pluripotent that can be used to study and treat disease	29
8275342813	somatic cell nuclear transfer	used in organismal cloning; nucleus of a somatic cell replaces the nucleus of an enucleated egg	30
8275342814	epigenetic changes	methylation of DNA and histones and other types of chromatin modification that need to be reversed in reprogramming of a differentiated cell for organismal cloning to be successful	31

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Campbell AP Biology--CHAPTER 1 Flashcards

Terms and Concepts

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7300413933	Biology is...	the study of life	0
7300413934	Properties of Life (7)	Order Evolutionary Adaption Response to the environment Regulation Energy processing Growth and Development Reproduction	1
7300413935	Levels of Biological Organization (10)	Biosphere Ecosystems Communities Populations Organisms Organs and organ systems Tissues Cells Organelles Molecules	2
7300413936	Biosphere	most regions of land, bodies of water, and atmosphere to an altitude of several kilometers	3
7300413937	Ecosystems	All living things in a particular area along with all the nonliving components such as soil, water, atmospheric gases and light	4
7300413938	Communities	many kinds of trees, plants, animals, fungi/mushrooms. "species"	5
7300413939	Populations	all individuals of a species living within the bounds of a specified area	6
7300413940	Organisms	Individual living things	7
7300413941	Organs	a system of tissues; these can coordinate together to make a bigger system with a particular function.	8
7300413942	Tissues	A group of cells tissues make up organs	9
7300413943	Cells	fundamental unit of structure and function.	10
7300413944	Organelles	Ex) Chloroplasts are organelles of plants. Photosynthesis	11
7300413945	Molecules	a chemical structure consisting of two of more small chemical units called atoms.	12
7300413946	Producers	plants and other photosynthetic organisms that convert light energy to chemical energy	13
7300413947	Consumers	organisms that feed on producers and other consumers	14
7300413948	deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)	the substance for genes, the units of inheritance that transmit information from the parents to the offspring.	15
7300413949	DNA	two long chains arranged into a double helix each link of the chain is made up of 4 chemical building blocks called nucleotides	16
7300413950	proteins	genes are instructions for making __	17
7300413951	Genome	the entire "library" of genetic instructions that an organism inherits	18
7300413952	prokaryotic Cells	Bacteria and Archaea DNA is not separated from the rest of the cell No nucleus	19
7300413953	eukaryotic Cells	Plants and animals Nucleus and Cytoplasm	20
7300413954	Human Genome Project	sequenced many genomes.	21
7300413955	negative feedback	accumulation of an end product of a process slows the process the cell's breakdown of sugar generates ATP. an excess amount would trigger an enzyme to slow it down	22
7300413956	Classification order (smallest to largest)	Species Genus Family Order Class Phylum Kingdom Domain	23
7300413957	Taxonomy	the branch of biology that names and classifies species, formalizes this ordering of species into a series of groups of increasing breadth.	24
7300413958	Domain	The 3 ___ of life: Bacteria, Archaea Eukarya	25
7300413959	Domain Bacteria and Archaea	prokaryotes unicellular and microscopic	26
7300413960	Domain Eukarya	microorganisms (protozoans) includes kingdoms: plantae, fungi, and animalia	27
7300413961	Charles Darwin	On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection Descent with modification and Natural Selection Galapagos studying finches	28
7300413962	natural selection	the natural environment "selects" for the propagation of certain traits,	29
7300413964	inquiry	a search for information and explanations, often focusing on specific questions.	30
7300413965	Data	items of information on which scientific inquiry is based. Qualitative and Quantitative	31
7300413966	Inductive reasoning	derive generalizations based on a large number of specific observations	32
7300413967	hypothesis	a tentative answer to a well-framed question (explanation on trial) "if...then..." statements must be falsifiable and testable	33
7300413968	deductive reasoning	from the general to the specific.	34
7300413969	experimental group	the group that is being manipulated. the group being experimented on	35
7300413970	control group	the group that stays the same as a reference.	36
7300413971	theory	a broader scope than a hypothesis able to spin off specific hypotheses supported by a much more massive body of evidence	37
7300413972	Themes of Biology	The Cell Heritable information Emergent properties of biological systems regulation Interaction with Environment Energy and life Unity and Diversity Evolution Structure and Function Scientific Inquiry Science, Technology, and Society	38

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AP Biology - Chapter 9 Cellular Respiration Flashcards

Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

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7725867042	fermentation	anaerobic process that produces little ATP, includes glycolysis, and restores NAD+	0
7725867043	aerobic respiration	catabolic pathway which requires oxygen and occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria	1
7725867044	anaerobic respiration	catabolic pathway which does not require oxygen and occurs only in cytoplasm	2
7725867045	oxidation	loss of electrons from atoms of a substance	3
7725867046	reduction	addition of electrons to atoms of a substance	4
7725867047	reducing agent	electron donor in a redox reaction	5
7725867048	oxidizing agent	electron acceptor in a redox reaction	6
7725867049	NAD+	electron carrier used in cellular respiration to transfer electrons from Kreb's cycle to ETC	7
7725867050	electron transport chain (ETC)	(1) transfer of electrons from glucose via NADH/FADH2 to transmembrane proteins and subsequently using their high energy to pump protons to intermembrane space in mitochondria or thylakoid space in chloroplasts	8
7725867051	citric acid (Kreb's) cycle	(B) 2nd step of cellular respiration that breaks down AcetylCoA to 2 carbon dioxide, 1 ATP, 3NADH, and 1 FADH2 molecules in mitochondrial matrix (aerobic)	9
7725867052	glycolysis	(A) 1st step of cellular respiration that splits glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid and 2 ATPs (anaerobic, catabolic/exergonic)	10
7725867053	Pi (not π)	inorganic phosphate	11
7725867054	oxidative phosphorylation	(3) synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi at ATP synthase using energy from glucose electrons which are ultimately transferred to oxygen (final electron acceptor) using ETC in mitochondrial cristae (aerobic)	12
7725867055	substrate level phosphorylation	synthesis of ATP by transferring a phosphate group directly to ADP using an enzyme	13
7725867056	chemiosmosis	(3) movement of protons down their concentration gradient coupled to ATP synthesis	14
7725867057	proton motive force	potential energy stored in form of an electrochemical gradient generated by pumping hydrogen ions across membranes during ETC	15
7725867058	alcohol fermentation	conversion of pyruvate to carbon dioxide and 2-carbon compound in absence of oxygen to regenerate NAD+ needed for glycolysis (in yeast)	16
7725867059	lactic acid fermentation	conversion of pyruvate to 3-carbon compound in absence of oxygen to regenerate NAD+ needed for glycolysis (in our muscles)	17
7725867060	obligate anaerobes	organisms that can only survive WITHOUT oxygen	18
7725867061	beta oxidation	metabolic pathway that breaks down fatty acids into two-carbon fragments which enter Krebs cycle as acetyl CoA	19
7725867062	redox	electron transfer reactions that occur together and in which one chemical is oxidized and the other reduced	20
7725867063	formation of acetyl CoA	metabolic link between glycolysis and aerobic respiration	21
7725867064	cellular respiration	exergonic process that includes 3 steps and releases energy (ATP) by breaking down glucose and other molecules in presence of oxygen	22
7725867065	cytochromes	iron-containing proteins that play key role in electron transport chains in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and cell membranes of prokaryotes	23
7725867066	ATP synthase	enzyme in mitochondrial cristae and chloroplast thylakoids that uses energy of proton gradient to add a phosphate group to ADP and so form ATP	24
7725867067	facultative anaerobes	organisms that can survive with OR without oxygen	25
7725867068	dehydrogenases	enzymes that transfer hydrogen atoms	26
7725867069	isomerases/mutases	enzymes that move atoms within a molecule	27
7725867070	kinases/phosphatases	enzymes that transfer phosphate groups	28
7725867071	adolases	enzymes that cut molecules	29
7725867072	enolases	enzymes that add double bonds to molecules	30

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AP Biology - Chapter 10 (photosynthesis) Flashcards

Photosynthesis

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6212395447	photosynthesis (definition)	process of harnessing light energy to build carbohydrates in autotrophs (ex. plants, cyanobacteria)	0
6212395448	photosynthesis (equation)	6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6 O2	1
6212395449	autotroph	organism that CAN capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use it to produce its own food (producer)	2
6212395450	heterotroph	organism that CANNOT produce its own food and therefore obtains it by consuming other living things (consumer)	3
6212395451	light-dependent reactions	1st step of photosynthesis during which light energy is captured and used to synthesize ATP and NADPH	4
6212395452	light-independent reactions	2nd step of photosynthesis during which CO2 is incorporated into a sugar molecule using ATP and NADPH produced during the first step	5
6212395453	thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts	location of light-dependent reactions	6
6212395454	stroma of chloroplasts	location of light-independent reactions	7
6212395455	G3P	carbon product of the light-independent reactions	8
6212395456	photon	(1) quantum (discrete quantity) of electromagnetic radiation (light energy) with both wave and particle properties	9
6212395457	inverse	What is the relationship between wavelength and energy?	10
6212395458	reflected, transmitted, or absorbed	When a photon strikes a substance it can be _____________________	11
6212395459	pigments	substances that can absorb, reflect, or transmit light	12
6212395460	absorption spectrum	graph of a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light	13
6212395461	action spectrum	graph of a plant's photosynthesis rate at different wavelengths of light	14
6212395462	violet, blue and red	Which wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls ABSORB?	15
6212395463	green and yellow	Which wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls REFLECT?	16
6212395464	carotenoids	accessory pigments in chloroplasts that broaden the spectrum of colors used in photosynthesis (absorb green/blue but reflect red/yellow/orange)	17
6212395465	mesophyll	(C) ground tissue of a leaf, sandwiched between upper and lower epidermis that specializes in photosynthesis	18
6212395466	chlorophyll b	pigment, green/olive, in chloroplast	19
6212395467	chlorophyll a	pigment, blue/green, in chloroplast	20
6212395468	excited state	(7) when absorbed photon energy causes electron to move away from nucleus	21
6212395469	photosystems	(6) photosynthetic pigments embedded with protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane	22
6212395470	parts of photosystems	(3+4) reaction-center complex and light harvesting complex	23
6212395471	reaction-center complex	(4) centrally located proteins associated with a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor	24
6212395472	light harvesting complex	(3) proteins associated with pigment molecules that capture light energy and transfers it to center of a photosystem	25
6212395473	photosystem II (PS II)	1st of two light harvesting units in thylakoid membrane that passes excited electrons to reaction-center chlorophyll	26
6212395474	primary electron acceptor	(2) electrons from the reaction-center in thylakoid membranes are transferred to this molecule	27
6212395475	water	splitting this molecule replaces electrons which are excited and passed to primary electron acceptor in PSII	28
6212395476	O2	released as a byproduct of splitting water	29
6212395477	photosystem I (PS I)	2nd of two light-capturing units in thylakoid membranes that replaces its electrons by those from the 1st complex and results in production of NADPH	30
6212395478	proton-motive force	created by pumping hydrogen ions from stroma to thylakoid space during electron transport chain between PS II and PS I	31
6212395479	ATP synthase	enzyme that synthesies ATP by utilizing a proton-motive force	32
6212395480	Calvin cycle, dark reactions, and carbon fixation	other names for light independent reactions	33
6212395481	3 steps of light independent reaction	1. carbon fixation 2. reduction 3. regeneration of RuBP	34
6212395482	reduction	step in Calvin cycle that produces sugar G3P	35
6212395483	carbon dioxide	molecule reduced in Calvin cycle to produce sugar	36
6212395484	thylakoids	(C) flattened membranous sacs inside chloroplasts that contain systems which convert light energy to chemical energy	37
6212395485	absorbed	energy is ____________ in photosynthesis	38
6212395486	released	energy is _____________ in cellular respiration	39
6212395487	glucose and oxygen	reactants of cellular respiration	40
6212395488	carbon dioxide and water	reactants of photosynthesis	41
6212395489	glucose	source of electrons used in ETC of cellular respiration	42
6212395490	intermembrane space	site of proton gradient built up in cellular respiration	43
6212395491	thylakoid space	site of proton gradient built up in photosynthesis	44
6212395492	NAD+ and FAD	high energy electron carrier(s) before reduction in cellular respiration (after they drop off electrons at ETC)	45
6212395493	NADH and FADH2	high energy electron carrier(s) after reduction in cellular respiration (after they pick up electrons from Kreb's cycle)	46
6212395494	NADP+	high energy electron carrier(s ) before reduction in photosynthesis (after they drop off electrons for Calvin cycle)	47
6212395495	NADPH	high energy electron carrier(s ) after reduction in photosynthesis (after they pick up electrons from ETC)	48
6212395496	ATP	energy product(s) from ETC in cellular respiration	49
6212395497	ATP and NADPH	energy product(s) from ETC in photosynthesis	50
6212395498	glucose, NADH and FADH2	reactant(s) oxidized in cellular respiration	51
6212395499	H2O	reactant(s) oxidized in photosynthesis (source of electrons)	52
6212395500	cyclic electron flow	light dependent reactions using only photosystem I to pump protons and generate excess ATP (not NADPH)	53
6212395501	linear electron flow	light dependent reactions involving both photosystems; electrons from H2O are used to reduce NADP to NADPH	54
6212395502	rubisco	enzyme with affinity for both CO2 and O2 that catalyzes first step of Calvin cycle by adding CO2 to ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)	55
6212395503	PEP carboxylase	enzyme with great affinity for CO2 (gas) adds it to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to form oxaloacetate (4-carbon solid) prior to photosynthesis	56
6212395504	stomata	pore-like openings on underside of leaves that allow gases (CO2 and O2) and water to diffuse in and out	57
6212395505	bundle-sheath cells	tightly packed around the veins of a leaf (site of Calvin cycle in C4 plants)	58
6212395506	photorespiration	occurs on hot, dry days when stomata close, O2 accumulates and Rubisco fixes O2 rather than CO2, using up ATP, O2 and sugars	59
6212395507	C3 plants	do not separately fix CO2 and use Rubisco in Calvin Cycle	60
6212395508	C4 plants	spatially separate carbon fixation (mesophyll cells) from Calvin Cycle (bundle-sheath cells); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO2	61
6212395509	CAM plants	temporally separate carbon fixation (day) and Calvin Cycle (night); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO2	62
6212395510	autotroph	organism capable of synthesizing its own food from CO₂ and other inorganic raw materials. The producers.	63
6212395511	heterotroph	an organism that depends on other's complex organic substances for nutrition.	64
6212395512	photoautotroph	plants that use energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water to carbon compounds.	65
6212395513	chlorophyll	the green pigment located within chloroplasts. It absorbs light energy to drive the synthesis of food molecules in the chloroplast.	66
6212395514	mesophyll	the tissue in the interior of the leaf, contains 30-40 chloroplasts	67
6212395515	stomata	microscopic pores, help CO₂ enter the cell and O₂ exit.	68
6212395516	stroma	thick fluid contained in the inner membrane of a chloroplast, surrounding thylakoids membranes.	69
6212395517	photosynthesis	process by which plants and some other organisms use light energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and high-energy carbohydrates such as sugars and starches 6CO₂ + 12H₂O + Light Energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ + 6H₂O	70
6212395518	splitting of water	hydrolysis that occurs inside the thylakoid space, splits H₂O to produce H+ and O₂.	71
6212395519	pigment	a molecule that absorbs certain wavelengths of light	72
6212395520	light reactions	the steps of photosynthesis that convert solar energy to chemical energy. Light absorbed by chlorophyll drives a transfer of electrons and hydrogen from water to an acceptor, called NADP⁺. give off O₂. Happen in thylakoid or in chloroplast in eukaryotic cells.	73
6212395521	NADP⁺	nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, temporarily stores the energized electrons	74
6212395522	photophosphorylation	The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of a proton-motive force generated by the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast during the light reactions of photosynthesis.	75
6212395523	Calvin cycle	carbon fixation using energy from ATP and NADPH from the light reactions to produce a three carbon sugar, happens in stroma.	76
6212395524	carbon fixation	incorporating CO₂ from the atmosphere into organic molecules from the chloroplast	77
6212395525	rubisco	Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase, an enzyme that fixes CO₂ together with RuBP.	78
6212395526	RuBP	ribulose biphosphate	79
6212395527	wavelength	the distance between the crests of electromagnetic waves, range from less than a nanometer to more than a kilometer	80
6212395528	electromagnetic spectrum	the entire range of radiation	81
6212395529	visible light	380-750nm	82
6212395530	spectrometer	a machine that measures the ability of a pigment to absorb various wavelengths of light	83
6212395531	absorption spectrum	a graph plotting a pigments light absorption versus wavelength. (a) shows the absorption of each chlorophyll	84
6212395532	chlorophyll a	first type of pigment in chloroplasts, participate directly in light reactions; works best with blue and red light, blue-green	85
6212395533	chlorophyll b	accessory pigment; almost identical to chlorophyll a, but slightly different absorption spectra, yellow-green	86
6212395534	action spectrum	profiles the relative performance of different wavelengths	87
6212395535	carotenoids	second accessory pigment, hydrocarbons that are various shades of yellow and orange, may broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis	88
6212395536	photosystems	has a light-gathering antenna complex consisting of a cluster of a fer hundred chlorophyll a, a chlorophyll b, and carotenoid molecules	89
6212395537	reaction center	where the first light-driven chemical reaction of photosynthesis occurs, e⁻ goes in, gets excited and jumps up, grabbed by PEA	90
6212395538	primary electron acceptor	grabs the e⁻ when it gets excited and dumps it into ETC	91
6212395539	photosystem II	first photosystem, center is p680, takes in H₂O, splits and leaves out 1/2 O₂ and takes 2 e⁻, excites electrons and sends to primary acceptor	92
6212395540	photolysis	takes the H₂O, splits, releasing 2 H⁺ and 1/2 O₂, sending 2 e⁻ to photosystem	93
6212395541	photosystem I	takes e⁻ from ETC and excites them (uses light), gives them to primary acceptor in noncyclic, go down ETC again	94
6212395542	noncyclic electron flow	A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems and produces ATP, NADPH, and oxygen. The net electron flow is from water to NADP+.	95
6212395543	noncyclic photophosphorylation	ATP synthesis during noncyclic electron flow	96
6212395544	cyclic electron flow	uses photosystem I but not photosystem II, no production of NADPH and no release of oxygen, but does generate ATP	97
6212395545	cyclic photophosphorylation	ATP synthesis in cyclic electron flow	98
6212395546	G3P	glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, the threecarbon sugar formed in the Calvin cycle	99
6212395547	C₃ plants	produce less food when their stomata close on hot/dry days.	100
6212395548	photorespiration	A metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen, releases carbon dioxide, generates no ATP, and decreases photosynthetic output; generally occurs on hot, dry, bright days, when stomata close and the oxygen concentration in the leaf exceeds that of carbon dioxide.	101
6212395549	C₄ plants	corn, sugarcane, grass. forms a four carbon sugar, contains bundle sheath and mesophyll cells. spacial separation of steps	102
6212395550	bundle-sheath cell	arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins of the leaf. CO₂ is released and enters the calvin cycle	103
6212395551	mesophyll cell	more loosely arranged between bundle-sheath and leaf surface. takes in CO₂, fixed by PEP carboxylase	104
6212395552	PEP carboxylase	adds CO₂ to PEP, higher affinity to CO₂ than rubisco	105
6212395553	CAM plants	(crassulacean acid metabolism) temporal adaptation, open stomata during the night, closed during day. store organic acids made during night in vacuoles	106