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AP Biology The Chemistry of Organic Molecules Flashcards

7978802686	Organic Chemistry	The chemistry of living things	0
7978802687	Inorganic Chemistry	The chemistry of nonliving matter	1
7978802688	Organic Molecules	Molecules that contain --both-- carbon and hydrogen atoms	2
7978802689	Biomolecules	The four main molecules in biology: carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids	3
7978802690	Carbon	One of the most important organic elements that have the ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules. Important properties include: - contains 4 valence elections - can form up to 4 covalent bonds - can create single, double, or triple covalent bond - Can form large, chained, or branched molecules	4
7978802691	Functional Group	Specific combination of bonded atoms that always react in the same way, regardless of the carbon skeleton	5
7978802692	Hydroxyl	Functional group that: - is polar, forms hydrogen bonds - present in sugars, some amino acids - just the addition of OH	6
7978802695	Carboxyl	Functional group that: - polar & acidic - present in fatty acids; forms amino acids	7
7978802696	Amino	Functional group that: - is polar, basic, forms hydrogen bonds - present in amino acids	8
7978802698	Phosphate	Functional group that: - polar & acidic - Present in nucleotides & phospholipids	9
7978802700	Monomers	Subunits of polymers	10
7978802701	Polymers	Largest of the biomolecules that are constructed by linking together monomers	11
7978802702	Dehydration Reaction	A process that is used to synthesize a biomolecule by removing water (H2O)	12
7978802703	Hydrolysis	A process that is used to break down biomolecules by adding water to the reaction	13
7978802704	Enzyme	A molecule that speeds a reaction by bringing reactants together and helping them form new molecules	14
7978802705	Carbohydrates	An organic biomolecule that is composed of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen (CH2O) Its function is to provide fast energy, provide short-term energy storage, and provide structure. Monomer = monosaccharide Polymer = polysaccharide	15
7978802706	Monosaccharides	The monomer of carbohydrates that are composed of only a single simple sugar molecule (aka simple sugars).	16
7978802707	Glucose	The most important hexose (monosaccharide) that has the formula C6H12O6 and is critical to biological function as a big source of energy	17
7978802710	Polysaccharide	The polymer of Carbohydrates that can take on many different forms for plants and animals. They provide short-term energy storage and fast energy access.	18
7978802711	Starch	A polysaccharide that is used by plants for energy storage. These are mostly in linear shape since plants don't move and can break down this carbohydrate slowly.	19
7978802712	Glycogen	A polysaccharide that is used by animals and takes the form of branched carbs. Because they are branched, the animal has several ends of this carbohydrate to break down for energy much more quickly than plants.	20
7978802713	Cellulose	The most abundant organic (and carbohydrate) compound on Earth that can't be digested by humans. This carbohydrate is only digested by microorganisms, especially those found in other animals like cows.	21
7978802714	Chitin	A structural carbohydrate that is found in fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of organisms.	22
7978802715	Lipids	A group of organic biomolecules that are insoluble (hydrophobic) in water due to hydrocarbon chains found in these. Their primary functions are for insulation and long-term energy storage.	23
7978802716	Fatty Acid	A subunit of lipids that have a long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at one end. They come in the form of unsaturated and saturated fats.	24
7978802717	Saturated Fats	A type of fatty acid that has no double bonds between the carbons, which compactly stores as many hydrogens as possible. They form a straight linear form and are found solids at room temperature. (ex. animal fats & triglycerides)	25
7978802718	Unsaturated Fats	A type of fatty acid that has at least one double bond between the carbons, which loosely stores hydrogens and forms crooked (kinks in double bonds) branches. They are usually liquid at room temperature. (ex. margarine & plant oils).	26
7978802719	Glycerol	A subunit of lipids that is a 3-carbon compound with three hydroxyl (OH) groups.	27
7978802720	Phospholipids	A type of lipid that contains a phosphate group and its primary function is to form cell membranes in ALL cells. Its form contains a polar (hydrophilic) head and nonpolar (hydrophobic) tails. They wholly take the forms of a circle (heads on the outside) or a double wall (heads on the outside).	28
7978802721	Steroids	A type of lipid with a backbone of 4-carbon rings and contain different attached groups. (ex. hormones & cholesterol)	29
7978802722	Hormones	Messenger steroid lipids that contain signals and go throughout the body delivering these signals	30
7978802723	Cholesterol	A type of lipid that forms steroids. They are necessary for flexibility maintenance & starting molecules to make other steroids.	31
7978802724	Protein	An organic biomolecule that is basically involved in almost everything biological. Functions: - Enzymes (pepsin, DNA polymerase, etc.) - Structure (keratin, collagen, etc.) - Carrier & transport (hemoglobin) - Cell communication (insulin & other hormones) - Defense (antibodies) - Movement (building muscle) Monomer: amino acid Polymer: polypeptide chain	32
7978802725	Peptide Bond	A type of bond found in proteins that connect two amino acids together at the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another (H2O Dehydration Synthesis) (formed at C-N)	33
7978802726	Amino Acid	The monomer of proteins and all must contain a central carbon group, an amino group, and a carboxyl group. There are 20 of these, 9 of which are produced by human bodies. They differ in the R-Groups about the central carbons.	34
7978802727	Primary Structure	The first structure of the protein where the sequence of amino acids is arranged and determined by DNA and is held together by peptide bonds.	35
7978802728	Secondary Structure	The second structure of the protein where there is local folding along the protein through hydrogen bonds about the amino & carboxyl groups. Proteins either take the shape of an alpha helix or a beta-pleated sheet.	36
7978802729	Alpha Helix	A secondary structure of a protein that forms a helix.	37
7978802730	Beta-Pleated Sheet	A secondary structure of a protein that forms a flat sheet	38
7978802731	Tertiary Structure	The third structure of a protein where the whole protein is folded through hydrophobic interactions, ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonding, and through disulfide bridges. These interactions usually occur about the R-Groups of amino acids.	39
7978802732	Quaternary Structure	The fourth structure of a protein where two or more proteins interact with each other through hydrophobic interactions, ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonding, and disulfide bridges at the R-Groups.	40
7978802733	Denaturing	The breaking down of a protein through the destruction of some of its bonds. Form = function ; if form is modified, so is the function This can happen if the temperature, pH level, or salinity changes drastically.	41
7978802734	Nucleic Acids	An organic biomolecule that stores genetic information and provides instructions for life. Monomer: nucleotide	42
7978802735	DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)	A type of nucleic acid that stores information about how to copy/replicate itself and specifies the order of amino acids to make a protein.	43
7978802736	RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)	A type of nucleic acid that creates copies of a gene in DNA in Meiosis and Mitosis.	44
7978802737	Nucleotide	The monomer of nucleic acids that contains a pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base through hydrogen bonds. They come in the form of pyrimidines and purines. (Cytosine::Guanine, Adenine::Thymine) (Adenine::Uracil)	45
7978802738	Pyrimidines	A group of nucleotides that contain a single ring Nitrogenous base in Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil. They can only be paired with a purine.	46
7978802739	Purines	A group of nucleotides that contain a double ring Nitrogenous base in Adenine & Guanine. These can only be paired with a pyrimidine.	47

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AP Biology Chapter 17: Protein Synthesis Flashcards

From Gene to Protein

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8429426442	Gene Expression	process by which DNA directs synthesis of proteins	0
8429426443	Transcription	-synthesis of RNA under direction of DNA -DNA serves as template for assembling complementary RNA molecule -resulting RNA molecule faithful transcript of gene's protein-building instructions -occurs in nucleus	1
8429426444	Messenger RNA (mRNA)	RNA molecule that carries genetic message from DNA to protein synthesizing machinery of cell	2
8429426445	Translation	-synthesis of polypeptide -occurs under direction of mRNA -change in language-cell must translate base sequence of mRnA molecule into amino acid sequence of polypeptide -occurs in cytoplasm	3
8429426446	Ribosomes	-sites of translation -complex particles that facilitate orderly linking of amino acids into polypeptide chains	4
8429426447	Primary Transcript	initial RNA transcript from any gene, including those coding for RNA that is not translated into protein	5
8429426448	Triplet Code	genetic instructions for polypeptide chain written in DNA as series of non-overlapping, 3 nucleotide words	6
8429426449	Template Strand	DNA strand that provides pattern/template for sequence of nucleotides in RNA transcript	7
8429426450	Codons	mRNA base triplets written 5'-3' direction	8
8429426451	Reading Frame	grapings w/ symbols w/ message that needs to be translated to written language	9
8429426452	RNA Polymerase	-pries 2 strands of DNA apart -joins RNA nucleotides as they base pair along DNA template -assemble polynucleotides 5' -> 3' -can start chain from scratch-no primer needed	10
8429426453	Promoter	DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches and initiates transcription	11
8429426454	Terminator	sequence that signals end of transcription in bacteria	12
8429426455	Transcription Unit	stretch of DNA transcribed into RNA molecule	13
8429426456	Transcription Factors	proteins that mediate binding of RNA polymerase and initiation of transcription	14
8429426457	Transcription Initiation Complex	complex of transcription factors and RNA polymerase II bound to promoter	15
8429426458	TATA Box	crucial promoter DNA sequence	16
8429426459	RNA Processing	enzymes in eukaryotic nucleus modify pre-mRNA in specific ways before genetic messages dispatched to cytoplasm	17
8429426460	5' Cap	modified form of guanine added onto 5' end after transcription 1. facilitates export of mature mRNA from nucleus 2. helps protect mRNA from degradation by hydrolytic enzymes 3. helps ribosomes attach to 5' end of mRNA once mRNA reaches cytoplasm	18
8429426461	poly-A Tail	-50-250 more A nucleotides added to 3' end by enzyme 1. facilitates export of mature mRNA from nucleus 2. helps protect mRNA from degradation by hydrolytic enzymes 3. helps ribosomes attach to 5' end of mRNA once mRNA reaches cytoplasm	19
8429426462	RNA splicing	removal of large portions of RNA molecule initially synthesized	20
8429426463	Introns	noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding regions	21
8429426464	Exons	nucleotide regions that are expressed, usually translated into amino acid sequences	22
8429426465	Spliceosome	interacts w/ certain sites along introns, releasing intron and joining together 2 exons that flanked intron	23
8429426466	Ribozymes	RNA molecules that function as enzymes, can b/c: 1. RNA single stranded, region of RNA molecule may base-pair w/ complementary region elsewhere in same molecule-gives molecule particular 3D structure-essential to catalytic function of ribozymes, just like in enzymatic proteins 2. some RNA bases have functional groups that may participate in catalysis 3. ability of RNA to hydrogen bond w/ other nucleic acid molecules-adds specificity to catalytic activity	24
8429426467	Alternative RNA Splicing	many genes can give rise to 2+ polypeptides, depending on which segments are treated as exons during RNA processing -# different protein products > # genes	25
8429426468	Domains	functional regions part of protein architecture	26
8429426469	Transfer RNA (tRNA)	transfer amino acids from cytoplasmic pool of AA to ribosome	27
8429426470	Anticodon	nucleotide triplet that base pairs of complementary codon of mRNA	28
8429426471	Aminoacyl tRNA Synthetases	-able to bind to different tRNAs that code for specific amino acid -catalyzes covalent attachment to tRNA -> aminoacyl tRNA released from enzyme -available to deliver AA to growing polypeptide chain of ribosome	29
8429426472	Wobble	flexible base pairing at codon position	30
8429426473	Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)	made in nucleolus, make up ribosomal subunits	31
8429426474	P Site (peptidyl-tRNA site)	holds tRNA carrying growing polypeptide chain	32
8429426475	A Site (aminoacyl-tRNA site)	holds tRNA carrying next AA to be added in chain	33
8429426476	E Site (exit site)	where discharged tRNAs leave ribosome	34
8429426477	Release Factor	protein that binds to stop codon @ A site	35
8429426478	Polyribosomes	-strings of ribosomes trailing along mRNA -enables cells to make many copies of polypeptide quickly	36
8429426479	Signal Peptide	-targets protein to ER -marks if polypeptide of proteins destined for endomembrane system or for secretion	37
8429426480	Signal Recognition Particle (SRP)	brings ribosome to receptor protein into ER membrane	38
8429426481	Signal Mechanism for Targeting Proteins to ER	1. polypeptide synthesis begins on free ribosome in cytosol 2. SRP binds to signal peptide, halting synthesis momentarily 3. SRP binds to receptor proteins in ER membrane (receptor is part of protein complex w/ membrane and signal cleaving enzyme) 4. SRP leaves, and polypeptide synthesis resumes w/ simultaneous translocation across membrane (signal peptide stays attached to translocation complex) 5. signal cleaving enzyme cuts off signal peptide 6. rest of complexed polypeptide leaves ribosome and folds into final conformation	39
8429426482	Mutations	-change into genetic information of cell -responsible for huge diversity of genes found along organisms	40
8429426483	Point Mutations	-chemical changes in a single base pair of a gene -if occurs in a gamete, can be transmitted to offspring and future generations	41
8429426484	Base Pair Substitutions	replacement of one nucleotide and its partner w/ another pair of nucleotides	42
8429426485	Missense Mutations	-change one amino acid to another -new amino acid may have properties similar to replaced amino acid, or may be in region where exact sequence of amino acids not essential to proteins functions	43
8429426486	Nonsense Mutation	-change codon for amino acid into stop codon -causes translation to be terminated prematurely -resulting polypeptide shorter than polypeptide encoded by normal gene	44
8429426487	Insertions	additions of nucleotide pairs in gene	45
8429426488	Deletion	losses of nucleotide pairs in gene	46
8429426489	Frameshift Mutations	-# nucleotides inserted/deleted NOT multiple of 3 -may alter reading frame of genetic message	47
8429426490	Mutagen	physical and chemical agents that interact w/ DNA that cause mutations	48
8429426491	rRNA	makes up 60% of the ribosome; site of protein synthesis	49
8429426492	gene	equals one RNA molecule	50
8429426493	snRNA	small nuclear RNA	51
8429426494	srpRNA	signal recognition particle that binds to signal peptides	52
8429426495	RNAi	Interference RNA	53
8429426496	ribozyme	RNA molecule that functions as an enzyme	54

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AP Biology Chapter 1 Flashcards

Vocabulary: evolution, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), emergent properties, biosphere, ecosystems, community, population, organism, organs and organ systems, tissues, organelles, cell, molecule, eukaryotic cell, prokaryotic cell, gene, genome, negative feedback, positive feedback, adaptation, inductive reasoning, data, hypothesis, deductive reasoning, controlled experiment, dependent variable, independent variable, theory
Objectives:
After attending lectures and studying the chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Define biology.
2. List and explain the characteristics of life.
a. Define metabolism.
b. Define adaptation.
3. Distinguish between types of organisms by describing the differences between and
give examples of:
a. unicellular and multicellular organisms; and,
b. prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.
4. List and explain the levels of biological organization.
5. Relating to major concepts in biology, explain what is meant by:
a. "the cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living things";
b. "the continuity of life depends on the inheritance of biological information";
c. "form fits function";
d. "the unity and diversity of life"; and,
e. "life forms change".
6. Explain why DNA is considered the molecule of inheritance in all organisms.
7. Define evolution.
a. Define population and give examples of characteristics of populations.
b. Explain evolution through natural selection.
c. Explain how adaptations come about through natural selection.
d. Explain why evolution is a central theme in biology.
8. Define science and explain why biology is a science.
9. Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning and explain how these
processes of logic are used in science.
10. List in order and explain the logical relationship between the steps of the
scientific method.
11. Explain the difference between hypothesis, theory, and law.
12. Explain the "if . . .

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7267300175	Evolution	Evolution is the process of change that has transformed life on Earth	0
7267300176	DNA	Deoxyribonucleic acid: a long linear polymer found in the nucleus of a cell and formed from nucleotides and shaped like a double helix	1
7267300177	Biology	The scientific study of life	2
7267300178	Emergent properties	New properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases.	3
7267300179	Systems Biology	An approach to studying biology that aims to model the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems based on a study of the interactions among the system's parts.	4
7267300180	Eukaryotic Cell	A type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. Organisms with eukaryotic cells (protists, plants, fungi, and animals) are called eukaryotes.	5
7267300181	Prokaryotic Cell	A type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. Organisms with prokaryotic cells (bacteria and archaea) are called prokaryotes.	6
7267300182	Gene	A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).	7
7267300183	Gene expression	The process by which information encoded in DNA directs the synthesis of proteins or, in some cases, RNAs that are not translated into proteins and instead function as RNAs.	8
7267300184	Genome	The genetic material of an organism or virus; the complete complement of an organism's or virus's genes along with its noncoding nucleic acid sequences.	9
7267300185	Biosphere	The entire portion of Earth inhabited by life; the sum of all the planet's ecosystems.	10
7267300186	Ecosystems	All the organisms in a given area as well as the abiotic factors with which they interact; one or more communities and the physical environment around them	11
7267300187	Community	All the organisms that inhabit a particular area; an assemblage of populations of different species living close enough together for potential interaction.	12
7267300188	Population	A group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and interbreed, producing fertile offspring.	13
7267300189	Organism	a creature such as a plant, animal or a single-celled life form, or something that has interdependent parts and that is being compared to a living creature	14
7267300190	Organs	A specialized center of body function composed of several different types of tissues.	15
7267300191	Organ Systems	A group of organs that work together in performing vital body functions.	16
7267300192	Tissues	An integrated group of cells with a common structure, function, or both.	17
7267300193	Organelles	Any of several membrane-enclosed structures with specialized functions, suspended in the cytosol of eukaryotic cells.	18
7267300194	Cell	The part of a neuron that houses the nucleus and most other organelles.	19
7267300195	Molecule	Two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds.	20
7267300196	Negative Feedback	A form of regulation in which accumulation of an end product of a process slows the process; in physiology, a primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a variable triggers a response that counteracts the initial change.	21
7267300197	Positive Feedback	A form of regulation in which an end product of a process speeds up that process; in physiology, a control mechanism in which a change in a variable triggers a response that reinforces or amplifies the change.	22
7267300198	Adaptation	Inherited characteristic of an organism that enhances its survival and reproduction in a specific environment.	23
7267300199	Inductive Reasoning	Induction moves from a set of specific observations (humans require organic molecules, fish require organic molecules) to reach a general conclusion (all animals require organic molecules	24
7267300200	Data	Recorded observations.	25
7267300201	Hypothesis	A testable explanation for a set of observations based on the available data and guided by inductive reasoning. A hypothesis is narrower in scope than a theory.	26
7267300202	Deductive Reasoning	A type of logic in which specific results are predicted from a general premise.	27
7267300203	Controlled Experiment	An experiment in which an experimental group is compared with a control group that varies only in the factor being tested.	28
7267300204	Dependent Variable	It is something that depends on other factors.	29
7267300205	Independent Variable	It is a variable that stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are trying to measure.	30
7267300206	Theory	An explanation that is broader in scope than a hypothesis, generates new hypotheses, and is supported by a large body of evidence.	31
7267300207	What are the 7 Characteristics of Life?	1. Order 2. Regulation 3. Energy Processing 4. Evolutionary Adaptation 5. Response to the Environment 6. Reproduction 7. Growth and Development	32
7267300208	Metabolism	The totality of an organism's chemical reactions, consisting of catabolic and anabolic pathways, which manage the material and energy resources of the organism.	33
7267300209	Why is Biology a Science?	Biology is a science since it takes care to interpret the nature, according to the scientific method, which establishes the resolution of hypotheses raised by the researcher, by means of using different techniques for the creation of representative models of nature.	34
7267300210	Distinguish between Inductive and Deductive Reasoning	Inductive reasoning derives generalizations from specific cases and deductive reasoning predicts specific outcomes from general premises.	35
7267300211	What are the 7 steps of the Scientific Method?	1. Observe 2. Research 3. Form a hypothesis 4. Test the hypothesis 5. Analyze results and draw conclusions 6. Report your findings 7. Conduct more research	36
7267300212	What is the difference between hypothesis, theory and law?	The Difference between a Hypothesis a Theory and a Law there are very distinct. A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested. A theory is a statement that has not been tested. A Law is a statement that is relevant and is true.	37
7267300213	What is the difference between observational and experimental investigations?	Observational investigations do not manipulate data	38
7267300214	What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative data?	Quantitative data includes recorded measurements which can be organized into tables or graphs and qualitative data would include observations	39
7267300215	What is the relationship between the conclusion and the hypothesis?	The conclusion is a statement about the experiment's results. As a report of your data, it can't be considered wrong even if the results don't support your hypothesis. You have learned that your hypothesis does not answer your original research question.	40
7267300216	What are the three domains by which all living organisms are classified?	Domain Bacteria Domain Archaea Domain Eukarya	41
7267300217	What are the 4 kingdoms in the Domain Eukarya?	Plantae Animalia Fungi Protista	42
7267300218	What are Bacteria?	All unicellular prokaryotic (no nucleus) organisms with peptidoglycan in their cell walls	43
7267300219	What is the Theory of Natural Selection?	A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.	44
7267300220	How do we distinguish between results(data) and conclusions?	Results are measurable data and a conclusion is a report about what you learned based on w the results	45
7267300221	Concept 1.2: Why is evolution considered the core theme of biology?	Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life and it explains the most fundamental aspects of all life on earth. It accounts for the common features shared by all forms of life due to the descent from a common ancestor.	46
7267300222	Concept 1.3: How could natural selection have led to the evolution of adaptations such as the thick, water conserving leaves of the mother of pearl plant?	Ancestors of this plant may have exhibited variation in how well their leaves conserved water. Because not much soil is present in the crevices where these plants are found, the variant plans that could conserve water may hav survived better and been able to produce more offspring.	47
7267300223	Define Biology? What is the definition of Biology	Biology is the scientific study of life	48
7267300224	What is the molecule that can account for both the unity and the diversity of life?	DNA	49
7267300225	What is the appropriate term for an interacting group of individuals of a single type occupying a defined area?	A Population	50
7267300226	How would you define a Eukaryotic cell?	A eukaryotic cell has membrane-enclosed organelles, the largest of which is usually the nucleus	51
7267300227	How would you define a prokaryotic cell?	A prokaryotic cell is simpler and usually smaller, and does not contain a nucleus or other membrane-enclosed organelles	52
7267300228	What is deductive reasoning?	Deductive reasoning uses general premises to make specific predictions	53
7267300229	What are the 7 Properties/Characteristics of Life	1. Order 2. Regulation 3. Energy Processing 4. Evolutionary Adaptation 5. Response to the Environment 6. Reproduction 7. Growth and Development	54
7267300230	What is reductionism?	The approach of reducing complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study.	55
7267300231	What are the 10 levels of Biological Organization?	1. Biosphere 2. Ecosystem 3. Communities 4. Populations 5. Organisms 6. Organs and Organ Systems 7. Tissues 8. Cells 9. Organelles 10. Molecules	56
7267300232	Cell	The lowest level of organization that can perform all activities required for life	57
7267300233	What is a theory?	A theory is a statement that has not been tested	58
7267300234	What is a law?	A Law is a statement that is relevant and is true.	59
7267300235	What is a hypothesis?	A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested	60
7267300236	What are data?	Data are recorded observations or items of information	61
7267300237	Of the three domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya, which one is prokayotic?	Archaea	62
7267300238	The energy used by most organisms for metabolism and growth ultimately comes from....	The sun	63
7267300239	Eukaryotic organisms that decompose dead organisms and absorb the nutrients are generally found in which kingdom?	Fungi	64
7267300240	All the organisms on a campus make up...	a community	65

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AP Biology Chapter 12 & 13 Flashcards

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5720418385	heredity	Passing of traits from parents to offspring	0
5720418386	variation	Differences in the frequency of genes and traits among individual organisms within a population	1
5720418387	genetics	The scientific study of heredity	2
5720418388	genes	DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission.	3
5720418389	gametes	A haploid cell such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.	4
5720418390	gene locus	specific location of a gene on a chromosome	5
5720418391	asexual reproduction	A reproductive process that involves only one parent and produces offspring that are identical to the parent.	6
5720418392	clone	An organism that is genetically identical to the organism from which it was produced	7
5720418393	sexual reproduction	A reproductive process that involves two parents that combine their genetic material to produce a new organism, which differs from both parents	8
5720418394	life cycle	The entire sequence of stages in the life of an organism, from the adults of one generation to the adults of the next.	9
5720418395	somatic cell	Any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg cell.	10
5720418396	karyotype	A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape.	11
5720418397	homologous chromosomes	Chromosomes that have the same sequence of genes and the same structure	12
5720418398	sister chromatids	Identical copies of a chromosome; full sets of these are created during the S subphase of interphase.	13
5720418399	sex chromosomes	The pair of chromosomes (X & Y) responsible for determining the sex of an individual.	14
5720418400	autosomes	Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome	15
5720418401	diploid cell	A cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n), one set inherited from each parent.	16
5720418402	haploid cell	A cell containing only one set of chromosomes (n).	17
5720418403	fertilization	The union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote	18
5720418404	zygote	Fertilized egg cell	19
5720418405	meiosis	A modified type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms consisting of two rounds of cell division but only one round of DNA replication. It results in cells with half the number of chromosome sets as the original cell.	20
5720418406	alternation of generations	the alternation between the haploid gametophyte and the diploid sporophyte in a plant's life cycle	21
5720418407	sporophytes	the multicellular diploid form that results from the union of gametes. The sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis that develop into gametophytes	22
5720418408	spores	(1)in the life cycle of a plant or alga undergoing alternation of generations, a haploid cell produced in the sporophyte by meiosis. A spore can divide by mitosis to develop into a multicellular haploid individual, the gametophyte, without fusing with another cell. (2) In fungi, a haploid cell, produced either sexually or asexually, that produces a mycelium after germination.	23
5720418409	gametophyte	The multicellular haploid form that produces haploid gametes by mitosis.	24
5720418410	meiosis I	Homologous chromosomes separate	25
5720418411	meiosis II	the second phase of meiosis consisting of chromatids separating, along with the two diploid cells splitting in two	26
5720418412	prophase I	The first phase of meiosis I. During prophase I the replicated chromosomes condense, homologous chromsomes pair up, crossing over occurs between homologous chromosomes, the spindle is formed, and the nuclear envelope breaks apart into vesicles. Prophase I is the longest phase of meiosis.	27
5720418413	metaphase I	The second phase of meiosis I. During metaphase I the paired homologous chromsomes (tetrads) align at the center of the cell (the metaphase plate).	28
5720418414	anaphase I	The third phase of meiosis I. the replicated homologous chromosomes are separated (the tetrad is split) and pulled to opposite sides of the cell.	29
5720418415	telophase I	the fifth and final stage of mitosis, to which daughter nuclei are forming and cytokinesis has typically begun.	30
5720418416	cytokinesis	Division of the cytoplasm during cell division	31
5720418417	prophase II	The first phase of meiosis II. Prophase II is identical to mitotic prophase, except that the number of chromosomes was reduced by half during meiosis I.	32
5720418418	metaphase II	The second phase of meiosis II. Metaphase II is identical to mitotic metaphase, except that the number of chromosomes was reduced by half during meiosis I.	33
5720418419	anaphase II	The third phase of meiosis II. During anaphase II the sister chromatids are finally separated at their centromeres and pulled to opposite sides of the cell. Note that anaphase II is identical to mitotic anaphase, except the number of chromosomes was reduced by half during meiosis I.	34
5720418420	Telophase II	The fourth and final phase of meiosis II. Telophase II is identical to mitotic telophase, except that the number of chromosomes was reduced by half during meiosis. I.	35
5720418421	daughter cells	The cells that are produced as a result of mitosis. These cells are identical to each other, and also to the original parent cell.	36
5720418422	synapsis	the pairing of homologous chromosomes during meiosis	37
5720418423	crossing over	the reciprocal exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids during prophase I of meiosis	38
5720418424	chiasma	The X-shaped, microscopically visible region where homologous nonsister chromatids have exchanged genetic material through crossing over during meiosis, the two homologs remaining associated due to sister chromatids cohesion.	39
5720418425	homologs	closely related genes	40
5720418426	cohesins	Proteins that hold sister chromatids together	41
5720418427	reductional division	another name for meiosis I	42
5720418428	equatorial division	Meiosis 2	43
5720418429	alleles	Different forms of a gene	44
5720418430	independent assortment	The random distribution of the pairs of genes on different chromosomes to the gametes.	45
5720418431	recombinant chromosomes	Chromosomes that combine genes from both parents due to crossing-over	46
5720418432	Rudulf Virchow	Physician and biologist who discovered cell division, "All cells come from other cells" or "Omnis cellula e cellula"	47
5720418433	Cell division	the process in reproduction and growth by which a cell divides to form daughter cells, also functions in renewal, repair and growth	48
5720418434	Metastasis	Spread of cancer cells beyond their original site in the body	49
5720418435	Zygote	The diploid cell resulting from the union of an ovum and a spermatozoon (including the organism that develops from that cell)	50
5720418436	Cell Cycle	The regular sequence of growth and division that cells undergo.	51
5720418437	Genome	A cell's total endowment of DNA, in eukaryotes this consists of a large number of DNA molecules, while in prokaryotes it is just a single long molecule.	52
5720418438	Chromosomes	thread like structures that have genetic info (DNA) that is passed down from one generation to the next, make the large amount of DNA that is packaged in them very managable. Are named because of the cewrtain dyes that they take up when used in microscopy.	53
5720418439	Somatic Cells	Any cell in multicellular organism EXCEPT an egg or sperm(gametes), they each contain 46 chromosomes made up of two sets of 23.	54
5720418440	Gametes	They are haploid reproductive cells like sperm cells or egg cells 23 chromosomes.	55
5720418441	Chromatin	Long strands of DNA found in the eukaryotic cell nucleus; condense to form chromosomes and wrapped around histones.	56
5720418442	Histones	Globular protein molecule around which DNA is tightly coiled in chromatin, helps in the regulation of the first level of DNA packing	57
5720418443	Sister Chromatids	Each duplicated chromosome has 2 _____________. , Each conatining an identical DNA molecule attached by adhesve proteins all olong their lengths.	58
5720418444	Sister Chromatids	Identical copies of a chromosome; full sets of these are created during the S(DNA replication) subphase of interphase, joined at the middle by the centromere.	59
5720418445	Centromere	a specialized condensed region of each chromosome that appears during mitosis where the sister chromatids are held together to form an X shape	60
5720418446	Mitosis	In eukaryotic cells, a process of cell division that forms two new nuclei, each of which has the same number of chromosomes. 5 Phases	61
5720418447	Cytokinesis	Organic process consisting of the division of the cytoplasm of a cell following karyokinesis bringing about the separation into two daughter cells, involves the formation of cleavage furrow formation.	62
5720418448	Meiosis	Process by which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell, leading to nonidentical daughter cells that have only one set of chromosomes and produces reproductive cells.	63
5720418449	Walther Flemming	German scientist who in 1882 developed dyes that allowed him to observe the behavior of chromosomes during mitosis and cytokinesis,	64
5720418450	Mitotic Phase	A phase of the cell cycle that include both mitosis and cytokinesis, and is the shortest part of the cell cycle, alternates with interphase and is abreviated (M)phase.	65
5720418451	Interphase	The longest phase of the cell cycle (accounting for 90% of the cycle), it is during this phase that the cell grows and copies its chromosomes in preparation for cell division, divied into 3 phases ( G1 phase(first gap), S phase(synthesis), and G2 phase(second gap), during this phase the single centrosome replicate but stay near the nucleus.	66
5720418452	S phase	The phase( and only phase) of interphase in which cell chromosomes are duplicated	67
5720418453	24	A human cell usually undergoes one divisipn every ______ 24 hours. Of this time M phase would last 1 hour, S phase 10-12 hours, and the rest would be split between G1 and G2.	68
5720418454	G1 Phase	The most variable in time of the interphase phases depending on the type of cell.	69
5720418455	Prophase	1st Phase of the mitosis where chromatin fiber becomes tightly coiled condensing into chromosomes, the nucleoli disappear, the mitotic spindle begins forming(composed of centrosomes and microtubules), and the centrosomes begin to move away from each other	70
5720418456	Prometaphase	2nd phase of mitosis, where the nucleur envolope fragments, microtubules go through nucleur area and interact with chromosomes, each of the chromatids of the chromosomes has a kinetochore at the centromere which attacth to the microtubules, amd nonkinetochore microtubules interact with those on opposite pole of spindle.	71
5720418457	Metaphase	3rd phase of mitosis, and the longest lasting about 20 minutes, the centrosomes are now at opposite ends of the cell, the chromosomes have now convened at the metaphase plate(imaginary plane that is equidistant between the spindles 2 poles) each chromosomes kinetochore is connected to kinetochore microtubules coming from opposite poles, the entire apparatus is now called a spindle because of its shape.,	72
5720418458	Anaphase	4th Phase of mitosis, and the shortest lasting a few minutes, begins when the two sister chromatids suddenly part, making each one a seperate chromosome, which then begin to move to opposite sides of the cell by making their kinetochore microtubules shorten (centromere first), and the cell elongates, and by the end of this phase the two ends hav equivalent and complete collections of chromosomes.	73
5720418459	Telophase	5th and Final phase of mitosis, where two daughter nuclei start to form , and nuclear envolopes begin to form from the fragments of the parents cell's nuclear envolope and other portion of the endomembrane system, the chromosomes also become less condensed and mitoisis is complete.	74
5720418460	Mitotic Spindle	Joined microtubules and associated proteins that form around the nucleus; pushing the centrioles to opposite ends of the cells, begins to form in the cytoplasm during prophase(1st). When it assembles the other microtubules of the cytoskeleton partially disassemble to help provide the material to build this.	75
5720418461	Centrosome	A nonmembrane organelle that functions throughout the cell cycle to organize the cell's microtubules , and is for that reaswon that it is also called the (microtubule-organizing center), usually has a pair of centrioles in the middle of it (although these are not essential for reproduction)	76
5720418462	Kinetochore	A structure of proteins that are associated with specific sections of chromosomal DNA, each of the 2 sister chromatids have one,=.	77
5720418463	Asters	Starlike arrangement of microtubules around the poles of the spindles	78
5720418464	Metaphase Plate	An imaginary plane during metaphase in which the centromeres of all the duplicated chromosomes are located midway between the two poles	79
5720418465	Cleavage Furrow	The first sign of cytokinesis during cell division in an animal cell; a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate	80
5720418466	Tubulin	In Anaphase, kinetochore microtubules shorten at their kinetochore ends NOT at their spindle pole ends, because as a microtubule depolarizes at its kineochore end it releases _______ subunits.	81
5720418467	Microfilaments	The ___________made up of a ring of contractile actin and myosin proteins are on the cytoplasmic side of the cleavage furrow, pull on each other and deepen until the two cells have seperated, these _________ are also important in muscle contraction. (Only in Animal Cytokinesis)	82
5720418468	Cell Plate	A double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis. Actually derived from vesicles of the golgi apparatus which move to the middle os the cell wall and then coalesce forming the __________.	83
5720418469	Binary Fission	Type of asexual reproduction in prokaryotes which an organism replicates its DNA and divides in half, producing two identical daughter cells	84
5720418470	Origin of Replication	The specific location on a DNA strand where replication begins.. Prokaryotes typically have a single origin of replication, while eukaryotes have several per chromosome.	85
5720418471	Liver Cells	Detoxify poisonous substances like bacteria & certain drugs, reseve the ability to divide until it needs to.	86
5720418472	Cell Cycle control system	A cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle. is regulated at certain "checkpoints" like G1, G2 and M1.	87
5720418473	Checkpoint	A specific point where stop and go signals can regulate the cell cycle.	88
5720418474	G1 Checkpoint	The most important checkpoint, dubbed the restriction point in "mammalian cells" if as cell recieves the go ahead it will usually complete all other parts of the cell cycle.and divide, but if it doesn't it will enter the nondividing G0 phase	89
5720418475	G0 phase	a non dividing face of the cell cycle consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins(Most cells of the human body are actually in this phase) For Example: Nerve cells, muscle cells, and liver cells.	90
5720418476	Cdks	Enzymes in an inactive form that are present in consistent concentrations over the cell cycle; *most significant enzyme in regulating cell cycle	91
5720418477	Cyclins	A group of proteins whose function is to regulate the progression of a cell through the cell cycle and whose concentrations rise and fall throughout the cell cycle, attach to kinase(which are at constant concentration)	92
5720418478	MPF	Maturation-promoting factor (M-phase-promoting factor); a protein complex required for a cell to progress from late interphase to mitosis. The active form consists of cyclin and a protein kinase. The first Cdk complex that was discovered first., Causes the phosphoryladtion of various proteins of the nuclear lamina.	93
5720418479	Mitogen	A substance which increases mitosis; causes a general cell response to a growth signal, such as platelet derived growth factor(PDGF)	94
5720418480	PDGF	A mitogen( growth factor) that is made by blood cells called platelets,is required for the division of fibrolasts in culture(As they have these receptors (which are tryosine kinase) in their plamsa membrane	95
5720418481	Fibroblasts	The type of connective tissue cell that is the most numerous. It secretes fibers and components of the ground substance of the matrix, has receptor molecules in their plasma membrane that are tyrosine kinase which have to bind to PDGF in order to divide.	96
5720418482	Density - dependent Inhibition	An external physical factor and phenomena that explains why crowded cells stop dividing, means that the amount of growth factor and nutrients per cewll are more important than number of cells, and when the population of a group of cells reaches a certain density it becomes insufficientto allow cell growth and divison.	97
5720418483	Anchorage Dependence	The requirement that a cell must be attached to a substratum in order to divide, experiments have suggested that this type of dependence is signaled into the cell cycle via pathways controling plasma membrane proteins and elements of the cytoskeleton linked to them	98
5720418484	HeLa Cells	Cultured cells from cancer patient Henrietta Lacks from 1951 that continue to divide quntil today . they have an immortal cell line and are used to study cancer, actually used by Jonas Salk to test his polio vaccine.	99
5720418485	Transformation	The process by which a normal cell is converted into a cancer cell, the first step of cencer.	100
5720418486	Tumor	A mass of abnormal cells that are within otherwise normal tissue. Must secrete signal molecules that cause blood vessels to grow towards the tumor	101
5720418487	Benign Tumor	A mass of abnormal cells that remains at the site of origin, do not cause serious problems.	102
5720418488	Malignant Tumor	A cancerous tumor that is invasive enough to impair the functions of one or more organs., usually either poliferate to much , metastaze or have an abnormal amount of chromosomes.	103
5720418489	Chemotherapy	The type of treatment that is frequently used with cancer that is non-local, but that has to be limited becasue of the danger that it can have on your body, is used in total with drugs like Taxol which freezes mitotic spindle by preventing microtuble depolymerization.	104
5720418490	Taxol	Anti-cancer drug that prevents depolymerization of microtubules whish effectively stops the cell cycle., found in the bark of pacific yew trees.	105

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Campbell Biology Chapter 16- AP Flashcards

Molecular Basis of Inheritance

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8257133461	Watson and Crick	discovered the structure of DNA as double helix in 1953 based off of the x-ray images taken by Franklin	0
8257133462	DNA replication	process by which DNA is copied in a cell before a cell divides by mitosis, meiosis, or binary fission; must start from the 3' end of the parent strand working its way down to the 5' end	1
8257133463	Griffith	experimented on mice with two strands of pneumonia; found the bacteria can transform	2
8257133464	transformation	(genetics) modification of a cell or bacterium by the uptake and incorporation of exogenous DNA	3
8257133465	Avery (McCarthy and MacLeod)	discovered that DNA was the transforming factor not the protein; when bacteria come across forge in DNA, they pick it up and incorporate it with their own DNA	4
8257133468	Hershey and Chase	blender experiment; identified DNA to be genetic material through experiments with bacteriophages	5
8257133469	Chargaff's rules	developed rules based on a survey of DNA composition in organisms: 1. number of adenines = number of thymines number of cytosines = number of guanines 2. species differ in the number of relative amounts of bases	6
8257133470	double helix	twisted-ladder shape of DNA, formed by two nucleotide strands twisted around each other	7
8257133471	antiparallel	parallel, but running in opposite directions. The 5' end of one strand of DNA aligns with the 3' end of the other strand in a double-helix.	8
8257133472	semiconservative model	the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand; this is the model we use	9
8257133475	origin of replication	site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins, consisting of a specific sequence of nucleotides that can repeatedly be found at multiple places in the strands	10
8257133476	replication fork	Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where new strands are growing	11
8257133477	helicase	an enzyme that untwists the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and making them available as template strands	12
8257133478	single strand binding proteins	proteins that bind to and stabilize the single strands of DNA exposed when helicase unwinds the double helix in preparation for replication	13
8257133479	primer	already existing RNA chain bound to template DNA to which DNA nucleotides are added during DNA synthesis; necessary so DNA polymerase can continue and created the daughter strand	14
8257133480	primase	makes the primer	15
8257133481	DNA polymerase	enzyme that catalyzes the elongation of the daughter strand by the adding nucleotides to the existing chain or primer	16
8257133482	leading strand	the new complementary DNA strand synthesized continuously along the template strand toward the replication fork in the mandatory 5' to 3' direction	17
8257133483	lagging strand	DNA that is copied in short fragments because it's growing from the 3' end of the daughter strand; as the replication fork grows larger, primate has to continuously add new primers down in order for polymerase to fill in the gaps and make the daughter strand	18
8257133484	Okazaki fragments	short fragments of DNA that are a result of the synthesis of the lagging strand during DNA replication.	19
8257133485	DNA ligase	joins all of the DNA fragments together by connecting the phosphodiester bonds and replacing all but two primers (those two primers are on the 5' ends of the daughter strand)	20
8257133486	mismatch repair	enzymes remove and replace incorrectly paired nucleotides that have resulted from replication errors	21
8257133487	nuclease	enzyme that cuts out DNA or RNA that is damaged or isn't in the correct spot	22
8257133488	nucleotide excision repair	repair system that removes and then correctly replaces a damaged segment of DNA using the undamaged strand as a guide: 1) nuclease cuts out the damaged DNA 2) polymerase fills in the gaps with DNA 3) ligase smooths out the bonds	23
8257133489	telomeres	repetitive DNA at the end of a eukaryotic chromosome's DNA molecule that's only purpose is to keep the important genetic information from degrading or being lost in replication	24
8257133490	telomerase	enzyme that creates more telomeres to extend the 3' ends of DNA that are lost in replication	25
8257133491	histone	small protein that interacts with DNA; organizes DNA by coiling the it into chromatin and chromosomes	26
8257133492	nucleosome	looks like a bead wrapped with string; the bead is the bundle of histones and the string is the strand of DNA that wraps itself around the protein core twice	27
8257133493	nucleoid	non-membrane-bounded region in a prokaryotic cell where the DNA is concentrated	28
8257133494	chromatin	combination of DNA and protein molecules, in the form of long, thin fibers, making up the genetic material in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell	29
8257133495	heterochromatin	eukaryotic chromatin that remains highly compacted during interphase and is generally not transcribed	30
8257133496	euchromatin	true chromatin; loosely coiled form that is the site of active transcription of DNA into RNA	31
8257133497	phosphodiester bonds	type of bond that holds the sugar- phosphate backbone of DNA together; strong bonds	32
8257133498	hydrogen bonds	bonds that hold the two stands of DNA together; weak bonds	33
8364019956	DNA helix is same size due to	purine bonding to pyrimidine	34
8364035029	Eukaryotic v. prokaryotic replication	many origins of replication in eukaryotic and only one in bacterial (prokaryotic)	35

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AP Biology: Evolution CH 22-26 Flashcards

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8460214623	homologous structures	structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry	0
8460214624	vestigial structures	remnants of features that served important functions in the the organism's ancestors	1
8460214625	convergent evolution	the independent evolution of similar features in different lineages	2
8460214626	Hardy-Weinberg	the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population will remain constant from generation to generation, provided that only Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles are at work	3
8460214627	gene pool	the aggregate of all of the alleles for all of the loci in individuals in a population	4
8460214628	population	a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and interbreed, producing fertile offspring	5
8460214629	natural selection	a process in which organisms with certain inherited characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce than are organisms with other characteristics	6
8460214630	genetic drift	changes in the gene pool due to random events	7
8460214631	founder effect	when a individuals become isolated from a larger population, this smaller group may establish a new population whose gene pool differs from the source population	8
8460214632	bottleneck effect	when there is a severe drop in population size, certain alleles may be overrepresented among the survivors, others may be underrepresented, and some may be absent altogether	9
8460214633	gene flow	the transfer of alleles into or out of a population due to the movement of fertile individuals or their gametes	10
8460214634	directional selection	when conditions favor individuals exhibiting one extreme of a phenotypic range, thereby shifting the frequency curve for the phenotypic character in one direction or the other	11
8460214635	disruptive selection	when conditions favor individuals at both extremes of a phenotypic range over individuals with intermediate phenotypes	12
8460214636	stabilizing selection	acts against both extreme phenotypes and favors intermediate variants	13
8460214637	sexual selection	a form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates	14
8460214638	sexual dimorphism	marked differences between the two sexes in secondary sexual characteristics, which are not directly associated with reproduction or survival (differences in size, color, ornamentation, and behavior)	15
8460214640	heterozygote advantage	when individuals who are heterozygous at a particular locus have greater fitness than do both kind of homozygous	16
8460214642	speciation	the process by which one species splits into two or more species	17
8460214645	species	a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring- but do not produce viable, fertile offspring with members of other such groups	18
8460214646	reproductive isolation	the existance of biological barriers that impede members of two species from producing viable offspring	19
8460214647	hybrids	offspring that result from interspecific mating	20
8460214648	prezygotic barriers	impede mating or hinder fertilization if mating occurs (five types: habitat, temporal, behavioral, mechanical, gametic)	21
8460214649	post zygotic barriers	prevents hybrid zygote from developing into a viable fertile adult through reducing hybrid viability, reducing hybrid fertility, or hybrid breakdown	22
8460214650	allopatric speciation	gene flow is interrupted when a population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations	23
8460214651	sympatric speciation	speciation occurs in populations that live in the same geographic area (usually occurs due to polyploidy, habitat differentiation, and sexual selection)	24
8460214652	polyploidy	extra sets of chromosomes due to accidents during cell division	25
8460214653	punctuated equilibrium	the theory that in the evolution there are long periods of little morphological change punctuated by relatively short periods of significant change	26
8460214654	endosymbiosis	mitochondria and chloroplasts were formally small prokaryotes that began living within larger cells	27
8460214655	adaptive radiation	Period of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill vacant ecological roles in their communities	28
8460214656	homeotic genes "hox"	master regulatory genes that determine such basic features as where a pair of wings and a pair of legs will develop on a bird or how a plant's flower parts are arranged	29
8460214657	phylogeny	the evolutionary history of a species or group of species	30
8460214658	phylogenetic tree	evolutionary history of a group of organisms represented in a branching diagram	31
8460214660	homology	similarity due to shared ancestry	32
8460214661	clade	a group of species which includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants	33
8460214662	outgroup	a species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that includes the species we are studying	34
8460214663	Darwin's Theory (five parts)	1. Variation 2. Overproduction 3. Competition 4. Survival of the fittest 5. Overtime, emergence of new species (new alleles)	35
8460214665	abiotic synthesis	formation of organic molecules from inorganic material	36
8460214669	fitness	ability to produce surviving offspring	37
8460214673	biological species concept	group of populations whose members have potential to produce fertile offspring.	38
8460214678	absolute dating	relies on radiometric dating to assign an age to a fossil	39
8460933494	Miller Urey Experiment	Found that organic molecules can form in a strongly reducing atmosphere.	40
8460939404	niche	the status of an organism within its environment and community (affecting its survival as a species)	41
8460946190	derived trait	a novel trait present in a clade but not in the clade's ancestors	42
8460964121	Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium	The condition describing a non-evolving population (genetic equilibrium).	43
8460986489	Hardy Weinberg Equation	Used for finding allele frequencies: p2 +2pq+q2=1; p+q=1, where p and q are allele frequencies	44
8460996469	conserved	trait found in ancestors; very important for survival	45
8461011319	cladogram	diagram that shows the evolutionary relationships among a group of organisms	46
8461025995	phylogenetic	A family tree that shows the evolutionary relationships thought to exist among groups of organisms	47
8461038011	allele frequency	proportion of one allele, compared with all the alleles for that trait, in the gene pool	48
8461048157	RNA world model	RNA was first genetic material; carries genetics info and can catalyze proteins and act as dicer	49
8461091706	Postzygotic examples include	hybrid inviability (dies), hybrid sterility (can't produce egg/sperm), hybrid breakdown (weak)	50
8461118734	How do postzygotic barriers separate species?	maintains reproductive isolation/prevents gene flow	51
8605583178	Relative dating	Estimate of the age of a fossil based on the location of fossils in strata	52
8605593274	Amniotic egg	an egg which encases the embryo in a secure, self-contained aquatic environment (reptile, bird, mammal)	53

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AP Biology: Big Idea 2 Flashcards

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6716248307	entropy	A measure of disorder or randomness.	0
6716248308	endergonic reaction	Reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings.	1
6716248309	exergonic reaction	Reaction that proceeds with a net release of free energy.	2
6716248310	ATP (adenosine triphosphate)	Composed of a sugar ribose, nitrogenous base adenine, and a chain of three phosphate groups bonded to it.	3
6716248311	endothermic	Animals that are warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism.	4
6716248312	ectothermic	Animals that gain heat mostly from external sources.	5
6716248313	homeostasis	"Steady state" or "constant internal milieu".	6
6716248314	heterotroph	Organism that obtains energy from the foods it consumes.	7
6716248315	chemosynthesis	Process by which some organisms, such as certain bacteria, use chemical energy to produce carbohydrates.	8
6716248316	autotroph	Organism that can capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use it to produce its own food from inorganic compounds.	9
6716248317	chlorophyll	Green pigment located within the chloroplasts.	10
6716248318	stomata	Microscopic pores in the leaf which lets carbon dioxide in and oxygen out. Also where water is lost.	11
6716248319	grana	Stack of thylakoids.	12
6716248320	stroma	Fluid inside the chloroplast where the Calvin Cycle happens.	13
6716248321	thylakoid	Flattened membranes in the chloroplast where the light reactions take place.	14
6716248322	photosynthesis equation	H2O + CO2 + sun -> C6H12O6 + O2	15
6716248323	light reactions	Part of photosynthesis that involves light. ATP and NADPH are produced. Takes place on the thylakoid membrane.	16
6716248324	pigments	Molecules that absorb, reflect, or transmit light.	17
6716248325	photosystem	A cluster of pigments embedded into a thylakoid membrane (II then I).	18
6716248326	photolysis	In the thylakoid membranes of a chloroplast during light-dependant reactions, two molecules of water are split to form oxygen, hydrogen ions, and electrons.	19
6716248327	phosphorylation	Process of adding a phosphate group (i.e. what is done by ATP synthase to make ATP)	20
6716248328	carbon fixation	The initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds.	21
6716248329	glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)	The intermediate molecule that will be eventually turned into glucose in the Calvin cycle	22
6716248330	RuBisCO	enzyme involved in the first step of carbon-fixation; must abundant enzyme on Earth	23
6716248331	Calvin cycle	Carbon fixation process in photosynthesis. Forms sugar and other organic compounds.	24
6716248332	chemiosmosis	Process by which protons are pumped into the thylakoid membrane. Protons passively flow through the ATP synthase, which leads to the synthesis of ATP.	25
6716248333	fermentation	A partial degradation of sugars that occur without the use of oxygen (only glycolysis).	26
6716248334	cellular respiration	When oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel.	27
6716248335	electron transport chain	Breaks the fall of electrons to oxygen in several energy-releasing steps.	28
6716248336	glycolosis	Breaking glucose into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate.	29
6716248337	Krebs cycle	Completes the breakdown of glucose by oxidizing a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide.	30
6716248338	oxidative phosphorylation	When energy is released at each step of the chain is stored in a form the mitochondrion can use to make ATP.	31
6716248339	ATP synthase	The enzyme that make ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.	32
6716248340	anaerobic respiration	Occurs by fermentation	33
6716248341	alcohol fermentation	When pyruvate is converted to ethanol in 2 steps.	34
6716248342	lactic acid fermetation	When pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactic as am end product, with no release of carbon dioxide.	35
6716248343	polar	Molecule with partial charges. Mixes with water. (Hydrophilic)	36
6716248344	nonpolar	No partial charges. Do not mix with water. (Hydrophobic)	37
6716248345	cohesion	Water molecules sticking to each other.	38
6716248346	adhesion	Water molecules sticking to other surfaces.	39
6716248347	specific heat	The heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance one degree centigrade.	40
6716248348	heat of vaporization	The heat absorbed by a unit mass of a material at its boiling point in order to convert the material into a gas at the same temperature.	41
6716248349	evaporative cooling	The property of a liquid whereby the surface becomes cooler during evaporation, owing to a loss of highly kinetic molecules to the gaseous state.	42
6716248350	plasma membrane	The membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, thereby regulating the cell's chemical composition.	43
6716248351	diffusion	When a substance moves from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Due to entropy.	44
6716248352	osmosis	The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.	45
6716248353	passive transport	Transport of a substance across a cell membrane by diffusion. Going with a concentration gradient.	46
6716248354	active transport	When a cell gets materials or excretes them by using its own energy, usually through ATP; going against a concentration gradient.	47
6716248355	hypertonic	Describes a solution that has a greater concentration of total solute.	48
6716248356	hypotonic	Describes a solution that has a lesser concentration of total solute.	49
6716248357	isotonic	Describes solutions that have an equal concentration of total solutes.	50
6716248358	turgor pressure	The pressure inside of a cell as a cell pushes itself against the cell wall.	51
6716248359	water potential	The physical property predicting the direction in which water will flow, governed by solute concentration and applied pressure.	52
6716248360	selective permeability	A property of a plasma membrane that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.	53
6716248361	amphipathic	Molecules are said to be this when it has regions that are both hydrophilic and hydrophobic.	54
6716248362	fluid mosaic model	Structural model of the plasma membrane where molecules are free to move sideways within a lipid bilayer.	55
6716248363	transmembrane proteins	Integral proteins that span the membrane.	56
6716248364	glycolipids	Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to lipids.	57
6716248365	glycoproteins	Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to proteins.	58
6716248366	transport protein	A membrane protein that is responsible for moving hydrophilic substances from one side to the other.	59
6716248367	channel protein	A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that has a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel.	60
6716248368	aquaporin	A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that facilitates the passage of water through channel proteins.	61
6716248369	carrier protein	A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that holds onto molecules and changes their shapes in a way that shuttles them across the membrane.	62
6716248370	concentration gradient	A difference in the concentration of a substance across a distance.	63
6716248371	osmoregulation	The control of water balance.	64
6716248372	facilitated diffusion	Passive diffusion that is aided by transport proteins, but that does not require cellular energy.	65
6716248373	membrane potential	The voltage of a plasma membrane.	66
6716248374	gated channel	A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.	67
6716248375	phagocytosis	Process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell.	68
6716248376	endomembrane system	A network of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles.	69
6716248377	smooth ER	Synthesis of lipids, phospholipids and steroid sex hormones, and helps detoxify drugs and toxins.	70
6716248378	rough ER	A network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins.	71
6716248379	Golgi apparatus	Stack of membranes in the cell that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum.	72
6716248380	lysosome	A cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes.	73
6716248381	cell wall	Strong layer around the cell membrane in plants, algae, and some bacteria.	74
6716248382	negative feedback	A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will counteract the change. Maintains a steady state.	75
6716248383	positive feedback	A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will amplify the change. Takes organism away from a steady state.	76
6716248384	thermoregulation	Process of maintaining an internal temperature within a tolerable range.	77
6716248385	kinesis	A simple change in activity or turning rate in response to a stimuli.	78
6716248386	taxis	Automatic, oriented movement toward or away from some stimuli.	79
6716248387	innate immunity	Immunity that is present before exposure and effective from birth. Responds to a broad range of pathogens.	80
6716248388	acquired immunity	Immunity that is present only after exposure and is highly specific.	81
6716248389	lymphocytes	White blood cells.	82
6716248390	antibodies	Protein that is produced by lymphocytes and that attaches to a specific antigen.	83
6716248391	inflammtory response	Innate response with the purpose of containing a site of damage, localizing the response, eliminating the invader and restore tissue function.	84
6716248392	histamine	Chemical stored in mast cells that triggers dilation and increased permeability of capillaries.	85
6716248393	antigen	Any foreign molecule that is specifically recognized by lymphocytes and elicits an immune response.	86
6716248394	B lymphocytes (B cells)	Lymphocyte that matures in the bone marrow and secretes antibodies.	87
6716248395	T lymphocytes (T cells)	Lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and acts directly against antigens in cell-mediated immune responses.	88
6716248396	antigen presentation	The process by which an MHC molecule binds to a fragment of an intracellular protein antigen and carries it to the cell surface, where it is displayed and can be recognized by a T cell.	89
6716248397	memory cells	General term for lymphocytes that are responsible for immunological memory and protective immunity.	90
6716248398	primary immune response	Immune response the first time the body is exposed to a particular antigen. Does not peak until 10-17 days after exposure.	91
6716248399	secondary immune response	Immune response after the body has already been exposed to a specific antigen. Response is faster, of greater magnitude, and more prolonged.	92
6716248400	humoral immune response	The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies.	93
6716248401	cell-mediated immune response	The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend against infected cells.	94
6716248402	helper T cells	Activate macrophages, B cells and T cells.	95
6716248403	cytotoxic T cells or "killer T cells"	T cells that directly attack infecting organisms; these cells attack antigen labeled foreign or host tissue.	96
6716248404	density-dependent inhibition	The phenomenon observed in normal animal cells that causes them to stop dividing when they come into contact with one another.	97
6716248405	mutualism	Symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit from the relationship.	98
6716248406	commensalism	Symbiotic relationship in which one member of the association benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed.	99
6716248407	parasitism	Symbiotic relationship in which one organism lives in or on another organism, called the host, and consequently harms it.	100
6716248408	pathogen	An organism that causes disease.	101
6716248409	invasive species	Species introduced to new areas that often disrupt the indigenous communities.	102
6716248410	macrophage	A phagocytic cell present in many tissues that functions in both specific and nonspecific immunity.	103
6716248411	cell differentiation	The process by which a cell becomes specialized for a specific structure or function.	104
6716248412	zygote	Diploid cell resulting from the union of a haploid egg and a haploid sperm.	105
6716248413	apoptosis	Programmed cell death.	106
6716248414	totipotent stem cells	Stem cell that can divide and become a full organism (i.e. the zygote)	107
6716248415	pluripotent stem cells	stem cell that can become any type of cell in an organism, but cannot actually divide into the full organism itself	108
6716248416	multipotent stem cells	stem cell that can become just a few different types (organ stem cells)	109
6716248417	homeotic (hox) genes	genes that control the general body blueprint of an organism; highly conserved through evolution	110

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AP Biology: Chapter 19 (viruses) Flashcards

Viruses

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8743891372	Virus	-smaller and simpler than eukaryotes and prokaryotes -cannot reproduce/carry out metabolic activity outside host cell	0
8743891373	Capsid	-protein shell enclosing viral genome -built from capsomere protein subunits -usually have few types of proteins making up capsid	1
8743891374	Viral Envelopes	-membranous envelope surrounding capsids of many animal viruses -derived from membranes of host cells -contain host cell phospholipids and membrane proteins -contain viral proteins and glycoproteins	2
8743891375	Bacteriophage (Phage)	-viruses that infect bacteria -capsids w/ elongated icosahedral heads w/ DNA -protein tail piece w/ fibers by which phages attach to bacterium attached to head	3
8743891376	Host Range	limited variety of host cells each type of virus can affect, determine by lock and key	4
8743891377	Viral Reproduction	1. virus binds to host cell and enters uncoated, releasing viral DNA and capsid proteins 2. viral genome encodes proteins to have host reprogram cell to copy viral nucleic acid and replicate viral genome 3. meanwhile, host enzymes transcribe viral genome into viral mRNA, which host ribosomes use to make more capsid proteins 4. viral genomes and capsid proteins self-assemble into new virus particles, which exit cell to infect other cells and spread viral infection	5
8743891378	Lytic Cycle	-phage reproductive cycle that culminates in death of host cell 1. Attachment: page uses tail fibers to bind to specific receptor sites on surface bacteria 2. Entry of phage DNA and degradation of host DNA: sheath of tail contracts, injecting the phage DNA into cell and leaving empty capsid outside -> cells DNA hydrolyzed 3. Synthesis of viral genomes and proteins: phage DNA directs production of phage proteins and copies of phage genome w/ host enzymes 4. Assembly: 3 separate sets of proteins self-assemble to form phage heads, tails, and tail fibers; genome packaged in capsid as head forms 5. Release: phage directs production of enzyme that damages bacterial cell wall -> fluid enters -> cell swells and bursts, releasing 100-200 phage particles	6
8743891379	Virulent Phage	phage that reproduces only by lytic cycle	7
8743891380	Lysogenic Cycle	phage reproductive cycle w/ replication of phage genome w/o destroying host 1. phage DNA incorporated on site of bacterial chromosome -> prophage 2. bacterium reproduces normally, copying prophage and transmitting it to daughter cells 3. many cell divisions -> large population of infected bacteria	8
8743891381	Temperate Phage	phage capable of using both modes of reproduction (lytic and lysogenic) in bacteria	9
8743891382	Prophage	phage DNA incorporated into bacterial DNA	10
8743891384	Retrovirus (Class VI)	-RNA animal virus w/ most complex reproductive cycles -have reverse transcriptase enzyme	11
8743891385	Reverse Transcriptase	enzyme that transcribes RNA template to DNA	12
8743891386	HIV	-Human Immunodeficiency Virus -retrovirus causing AIDS	13
8743891387	AIDS	Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome	14
8743891389	Vaccine	harmless variant of pathogen that stimulates immune system to mount defenses against harmful purposes	15
8743891390	Emerging Viruses	viruses that are new to medical scientists/suddenly appear b/c: 1. mutation of existing viruses -> new strains of disease -> epidemics 2. dissemination of viral disease from small, isolated human population-can be due to technological and social factors (radiation, travel, blood transfusion, sexual promiscuity, drugs, etc...) 3. spread of existing virus from other animals	16
8743891391	Epidemic	huge outbreak of disease	17
8743891392	Pandemic	global epidemic	18
8743891393	Viroid	-circular RNA molecules that infect plants -replicate in host plant cells using host enzymes instead of encoding proteins -cause errors in regulatory system that control plant growth -> stunted growth, abnormal development	19
8743891394	Prion	-infection proteins that cause many degenerative brain diseases of many animals -mostly transmitted w/ food-incubation 10+ years -virtually indestructible propagate by: -misfolded versions of normal brain proteins -contact w/ normal folded protein -> normal gets abnormal shape -chain rxn of misfolding -> cellular malfunction, brain degeneration	20

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AP Biology - Chapter 10 (photosynthesis) Flashcards

Photosynthesis

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5920624807	photosynthesis (definition)	process of harnessing light energy to build carbohydrates in autotrophs (ex. plants, cyanobacteria)	0
5920624808	photosynthesis (equation)	6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6 O2	1
5920624809	autotroph	organism that CAN capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use it to produce its own food (producer)	2
5920624810	heterotroph	organism that CANNOT produce its own food and therefore obtains it by consuming other living things (consumer)	3
5920624811	anabolic	What kind of a process is photosynthesis?	4
5920624812	catabolic	What kind of a process is cellular respiration?	5
5920624813	light-dependent reactions	1st step of photosynthesis during which light energy is captured and used to synthesize ATP and NADPH	6
5920624814	light-independent reactions	2nd step of photosynthesis during which CO2 is incorporated into a sugar molecule using ATP and NADPH produced during the first step	7
5920624817	G3P	carbon product of the light-independent reactions	8
5920624818	photon	(1) quantum (discrete quantity) of electromagnetic radiation (light energy) with both wave and particle properties	9
5920624820	reflected, transmitted, or absorbed	When a photon strikes a substance it can be _____________________	10
5920624821	pigments	substances that can absorb, reflect, or transmit light	11
5920624822	absorption spectrum	graph of a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light	12
5920624824	violet, blue and red	Which wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls ABSORB?	13
5920624825	green and yellow	Which wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls REFLECT?	14
5920624826	carotenoids	accessory pigments in chloroplasts that broaden the spectrum of colors used in photosynthesis (absorb green/blue but reflect red/yellow/orange)	15
5920624827	mesophyll	(C) ground tissue of a leaf, sandwiched between upper and lower epidermis that specializes in photosynthesis	16
5920624835	photosystem II (PS II)	1st of two light harvesting units in thylakoid membrane that passes excited electrons to reaction-center chlorophyll	17
5920624837	water	splitting this molecule replaces electrons which are excited and passed to primary electron acceptor in PSII	18
5920624838	O2	released as a byproduct of splitting water	19
5920624839	photosystem I (PS I)	2nd of two light-capturing units in thylakoid membranes that replaces its electrons by those from the 1st complex and results in production of NADPH	20
5920624841	ATP synthase	enzyme that synthesies ATP by utilizing a proton-motive force	21
5920624842	Calvin cycle, dark reactions, and carbon fixation	other names for light independent reactions	22
5920624843	3 steps of light independent reaction	1. carbon fixation 2. reduction 3. regeneration of RuBP	23
5920624845	carbon dioxide	molecule reduced in Calvin cycle to produce sugar	24
5920624846	thylakoids	flattened membranous sacs inside chloroplasts that contain systems which convert light energy to chemical energy	25
5920624847	absorbed	energy is ____________ in photosynthesis	26
5920624850	carbon dioxide and water	reactants of photosynthesis	27
5920624851	glucose	source of electrons used in ETC of cellular respiration	28
5920624852	intermembrane space	site of proton gradient built up in cellular respiration	29
5920624853	thylakoid space	site of proton gradient built up in photosynthesis	30
5920624856	NADP+	high energy electron carrier(s ) before reduction in photosynthesis (after they drop off electrons for Calvin cycle)	31
5920624857	NADPH	high energy electron carrier(s ) after reduction in photosynthesis (after they pick up electrons from ETC)	32
5920624861	H2O	reactant(s) oxidized in photosynthesis (source of electrons)	33
5920624866	stomata	pore-like openings on underside of leaves that allow gases (CO2 and O2) and water to diffuse in and out	34
5920624867	bundle-sheath cells	tightly packed around the veins of a leaf (site of Calvin cycle in C4 plants)	35
5920624868	photorespiration	occurs on hot, dry days when stomata close, O2 accumulates and Rubisco fixes O2 rather than CO2, using up ATP, O2 and sugars	36
5920624869	C3 plants	do not separately fix CO2 and use Rubisco in Calvin Cycle	37
5920624870	C4 plants	spatially separate carbon fixation (mesophyll cells) from Calvin Cycle (bundle-sheath cells); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO2	38
5920624871	CAM plants	temporally separate carbon fixation (day) and Calvin Cycle (night); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO2	39
5920692216	chemoautotroph	organisms that produce their own food using inorganic materials - thermophilic bacteria	40
5920695807	chlorophyll	pigment that absorbs light energy to power the light reactions of photosynthesis	41
5920700584	chloroplast	the organelle where photosynthesis takes place	42
5920723793	stroma	fluid that fills the inner area of a chloroplast	43
5920726330	grana	stacks of thylakoids	44
5920730899	guard cells	responsible for opening and closing stomata	45

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AP Biology Unit 1 Vocabulary Review Flashcards

A review of all of the Campbell 7th Edition terms for the new 2013 AP Biology Curriculum

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5216002031	polar	Molecule with partial charges. Mixes with water.	0
5216002032	nonpolar	No partial charges. Do not mix with water.	1
5216002033	electronegativity	Attraction of an atom for electrons in a covalent bond.	2
5216002034	cohesion	Water molecules sticking to each other.	3
5216002035	adhesion	Water molecules sticking to other surfaces.	4
5216002036	solute	Something dissolved in a solution.	5
5216002037	solvent	Dissolving agent of a solution.	6
5216002038	isomers	Same atoms but different arrangement.	7
5216002039	structural isomers	Differ in arrangement of atoms.	8
5216002040	geometric isomer	Differ in arrangement around a double bond.	9
5216002041	enantiomers	Structures that are like a mirror-image.	10
5216002042	alpha glucose	Monomer for starch and glycogen.	11
5216002043	beta glucose	Monomer for cellulose and chitin.	12
5216002044	cellulose	Carbohydrate component of plant cell walls.	13
5216002045	starch	Storage polysaccharide of plants.	14
5216002046	glycogen	Extremely branched polymer of glucose.	15
5216002047	chitin	Polysaccharide found in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal cell walls.	16
5216002048	-ose	Suffix of a sugar.	17
5216002049	Triglyceride (tryiacylglycerol)	fat molecules composed of three parts fatty acids and one part glycerol	18
5216002050	steroids	Made of four rings of carbon. Lipids that act as chemical messengers	19
5216002051	cholesterol	Steroid common in cell membranes, also in many hormones.	20
5216002052	peptide bond	Bonds that connect amino acids.	21
5216002053	disulphide bridges	Reinforce tertiary structure.	22
5216002054	primary structure	Order of amino acids in a protein.	23
5216002055	secondary structure	Three-dimensional form of segments of protein. Examples are alpha helix or beta pleated sheet.	24
5216002056	tertiary structure	Three-dimensional structure of a single polypeptide chain.	25
5216002057	quaternary structure	Three-dimensional structure of proteins made of multiple polypeptide subunits.	26
5216002058	purines	Bases with a double-ring structure. Adenine & Guanine	27
5216002059	pyrimidines	Bases with a single-ring structure. thymine and cytosine	28
5216002060	phosphodiester bonds	Bonds between phosphate group and pentose sugar in nucleic acids.	29
5216002061	synthesis	To put together.	30
5216002062	digestion	To break apart.	31
5216002063	dehydration synthesis	Condensation reaction where molecules are connected by loss of a water molecule.	32
5216002064	hydrolysis	Reaction where water split into two hydrogens and one oxygen; this breaks a polymer.	33
5216002065	anabolism	Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy.	34
5216002066	catabolism	Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.	35
5216002067	transport protein	A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that has a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel.	36
5216002068	channel protein	A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that has a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel.	37
5216002069	aquaporin	A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that facilitates the passage of water through channel proteins.	38
5216002070	carrier protein	A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that holds onto molecules and changes their shapes in a way that shuttles them across the membrane.	39
5216002071	protein kinase	The enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to protein.	40
5216002072	ATP (adenosine triphosphate)	Composed of a sugar ribose, nitrogenous base adenine, and a chain of three phosphate groups bonded to it.	41
5216002073	phosphorylation	The metabolic process of introducing a phosphate group into an organic molecule.	42
5216002074	catalyst	A chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.	43
5216002075	enzyme	A catalytic protein. Speeds up reactions	44
5216002076	activation energy	The amount of energy needed to push the reactants over an energy barrier.	45
5216002077	enzyme-substrate complex	When an enzyme binds to its substrate, it forms:	46
5216002078	active site	A pocket or groove on the surface of the enzyme.	47
5216002079	induced fit	Brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the chemical reaction.	48
5216002080	cofactor	Non-protein helpers that may be bound tightly to the enzyme as a permanent resident, or may bind loosely and reversibly along with the substrate.	49
5216002081	coenzyme	If the cofactor is an organic molecule.	50
5216002082	competitive inhibitors	Reduce the productivity of enzymes by blocking substrates from entering active sites.	51
5216002083	noncompetitive inhibitors	Impede enzymatic reactions by binding to another part of the enzyme (other than the active site).	52
5216002084	allosteric regulation	When a protein's function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a separate site.	53
5216002085	cooperativity	It amplifies the response of enzymes to substrates.	54
5216002086	feedback inhibition	A metabolic pathway is switched off by the inhibitory binding of its end product to an enzyme that acts early in the pathway.	55
5216002087	hydrophilic	water-loving	56
5216002088	hydrophobic	Water fearing	57
5216002089	surface tension	A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. Water has a high surface tension because of the hydrogen bonding of surface molecules. The result of an inward pull among the molecules of a liquid that brings the molecules on the surface closer together	58
5216002090	capillary action	A proccess powered by adhesion that causes water molecules to move upward through a narrow tube such as the stem of a plant.	59
5216002091	functional group	the portion of a molecule that is active in a chemical reaction and that determines the properties of many organic compounds	60
5216002092	hydroxyl group		61
5216002093	carboxyl group		62
5216002094	amino group		63
5216002095	phsophate		64
5216002096	methyl		65
5216002097	saturated fat	A lipid made from fatty acids that have no double bonds between carbon atoms and is solid at room temperature.	66
5216002098	unsaturated fat	A fat derived from plant and some animal sources, especially fish, that is liquid at room temperature and whose fatty acid chains contain at least one double bond.	67
5216002099	phospholipid	A molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes, having a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail.	68
5216002100	denatured	An uncoiled, or unraveled protein, the protein has lost its shape due to high temperatures or strong chemicals, its weak bonds have broken and the protein cannot perform its job, since it no longer "fits" with other molecules	69
5235641909	Enzymes are part which macromolecule group?	Proteins	70
5235648167	Enzymes make products from reactants. Reactants that work with enzymes are called...	substrates	71
5235650935	Where does a substrate bind to an enzyme?	active site	72
5235658461	What is not a way enzymes work to speed up reactions?	Enzymes remove their own H & OH to give water to reactions	73
5235661345	Enzymes rate of production can be affected by all the below except	Concentration of nutrients	74
5235664948	An enzyme is denatured when...	It's shape has changed	75
5235668429	There are two ways to describe data collected, observations are ...... and measurements are ...	Qualitative....Quantitative	76
5235671175	Which of the following statements correctly describe(s) catabolic pathways?	They release energy as they degrade polymers to monomers	77
5235673997	Which of the following is true for all exergonic reactions?	The reaction proceeds with a net release of free energy	78
5235679565	Which of the following underlie all types of enzyme regulation?	Changes in the active site of the enzyme Changes in the activation energy of the reaction	79
5235686035	How does a non-competitive inhibitor decrease the rate of an enzyme reaction?	By changing the structure of the enzyme	80