| 6451773887 | First Line of Defense | Nonspecific barrier to keep out pathogens
ex: skin, stomach acid, mucous membrane, cilia |  | 0 |
| 6451773888 | Second Line of Defense | Nonspecific defense and inflammatory response initiated by chemical signals to attack and isolate invading pathogens | | 1 |
| 6451773889 | Inflammatory Response | Vasodilation, phagocytosis, and increase in body temperature |  | 2 |
| 6451773890 | Histamines | chemical signals that trigger vasodilation, increasing blood supply to area | | 3 |
| 6451773891 | Phagocytes | White blood cells that engulf invading pathogens
e.g., neutrophils, macrophages | | 4 |
| 6451773892 | Chemokines | chemical signals secreted by blood vessel cells that attract more white blood cells (phagocytes) to the area | | 5 |
| 6451773893 | Specific immunity | B and T cells; humoral and cell-mediated response | | 6 |
| 6451773894 | Adaptive immunity | Specific immunity | | 7 |
| 6451773895 | Lymphocyte | White blood cell |  | 8 |
| 6451773896 | B Cells | Humoral response by producing antibodies; activated by T cells or free antigens | | 9 |
| 6451773897 | T Cells | Cell-mediated response, stimulating by APCs | | 10 |
| 6451773898 | Helper T Cell | Set off an alarm to the immune system that pathogens have broken through the body's line of defense; binds to class II MHC |  | 11 |
| 6451773899 | Cytotoxic T Cell | Kills body cells that have been infected with pathogens; stimulated by antigens and helper T-cells |  | 12 |
| 6451773900 | Macrophages | APC that engulfs large numbers of pathogens; presents antigen to activate T cells |  | 13 |
| 6451773901 | Interleukin 1 | Cytokine secreted by a macrophage after it engulfs and presents antigens on its surface; activates helper T cells | | 14 |
| 6451773902 | Interleukin 2 | Cytokine that stimulates B cells to become active antibody-secreting plasma cells; released by helper T cell | | 15 |
| 6451773903 | MHC I | molecules found on every body cell that presents antigen; signals cytotoxic T to destroy | | 16 |
| 6451773904 | MHC II | molecules found on macrophages, B cells, and activated T cells; signal helper T cells | | 17 |
| 6451773905 | Memory Cells | Responsible for lifelong immunity by storing copy B and T cells to more quickly fight secondary infection |  | 18 |
| 6451773906 | Antibody | Y-shaped protein with variable antigen bind region; slows pathogens to facilitate destruction |  | 19 |
| 6451773907 | Antigen | Identifying marker on the outside of a pathogen |  | 20 |
| 6451773908 | Passive Immunity | Temporary immunity where antibodies are transferred from another animal
ex: mother transfers some of her antibodies to her nursing child | | 21 |
| 6451773909 | HIV | A retrovirus that attacks helper T cells |  | 22 |
| 6451773910 | Autoimmune disease | A mistake in the immune system where the body does not properly distinguish self from nonself | | 23 |
| 6451773911 | Allergy | Hypersensitive immune response to certain substances that causes that release of histamine | | 24 |
| 6451773912 | oral cavity | made up of the mouth, pharynx and esophagus | | 25 |
| 6451773913 | amylase | digests starch | | 26 |
| 6451773914 | ascending colon | first portion of colon from small intestine up to transfer colon |  | 27 |
| 6451773915 | lysozyme | antibacterial enzyme | | 28 |
| 6451773916 | bolus | chewed food with saliva | | 29 |
| 6451773917 | 1 | common area for food and air | | 30 |
| 6451773918 | epiglottis | prevents food from entering the trachea | | 31 |
| 6451773919 | upper esophageal | sphincter that allows food through but not air; located directly below the epiglotis | | 32 |
| 6451773920 | 1 | transports bolus from pharynx to stomach | | 33 |
| 6451773921 | peristalsis | involuntary muscular movement of food | | 34 |
| 6451773922 | lower esophageal | sphincter between esophagus and stomach; can also be called cardiac sphincter | | 35 |
| 6451773923 | 1 | storage and mixing chamber | | 36 |
| 6451773924 | hydrochloric acid | activates pesinogen to pepsin in the stomach for protein digestion | | 37 |
| 6451773925 | pepsin | enzyme that digests protein | | 38 |
| 6451773926 | chyme | what the bolus turns into when in the stomach | | 39 |
| 6451773927 | pyloric | sphincter between stomach and duodenum | | 40 |
| 6451773928 | 1 | made up of the dodenum, jejunum and ileum | | 41 |
| 6451773929 | 1 | location of most digestion | | 42 |
| 6451773930 | 1 | location of most absoption | | 43 |
| 6451773931 | ileoceal | sphincter between the small intestine and the large intestine | | 44 |
| 6451773932 | 1 | storage place for bile | | 45 |
| 6451773933 | 1 | organ that produces bile | | 46 |
| 6451773934 | 1 | produces 4 enzymes and bicarbonate used in digestion | | 47 |
| 6451773935 | E coli | synthesizes vitamin K | | 48 |
| 6451773936 | involuntary anal | sphincter that produces the urge to defecate | | 49 |
| 6451773937 | voluntary anal | sphincter that allows defecation | | 50 |
| 6451773938 | mouth | first site of digestion of carbohydrates and mechanical digestion | | 51 |
| 6451773939 | pharynx | also refereed to as throat, space between mouth and epiglottis (shared respiratory and digestive area) |  | 52 |
| 6451773940 | Esophagus | also refereed to as gullet, tube from mouth to stomach; transports bolus from pharynx to stomach |  | 53 |
| 6451773941 | stomach | location of majority of mechanical digestion of food and first location of protein breakdown |  | 54 |
| 6451773942 | small intestine | location of majority food digestion; located after the stomach before the large intestine; divided into three parts, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum |  | 55 |
| 6451773943 | duodenum | first portion of small intestine, where bile and pancreatic fluids enter the digestion system |  | 56 |
| 6451773944 | jejunum | second portion of small intestine, B |  | 57 |
| 6451773945 | ileum | third portion of small inestine, C | | 58 |
| 6451773946 | liver | multiple functions but for digestion, it produces bile to emulsify fats in the small intestine and filters toxins from the hepatic vein from the stomach, small intestine and large intestine. |  | 59 |
| 6451773947 | gall bladder | stores bile, located under liver on the bile duct from the liver to the duodenum |  | 60 |
| 6451773948 | pancreas | releases amylase (carbohydrate enzyme) and trypsin (protein enzyme) into the duodenum for digestion |  | 61 |
| 6451773949 | large intestine | primary purpose is water absorption; highest level of digestive absorption;. where chyme is converted to feces; also called the colon and divided into ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon,sigmoid colon and rectum |  | 62 |
| 6451773950 | transverse colon | second portion of colon going across from ascending to descending |  | 63 |
| 6451773951 | sigmoid colon | last portion of colon from descending to rectum |  | 64 |
| 6451773952 | rectum | end of the colon from sigmoid colon to anal sphincters |  | 65 |
| 6451773953 | Nitrogenous wastes | products containing nitrogen | | 66 |
| 6451773954 | ammonia | When cells break down proteins, one of the byproducts is ammonia which is toxic to the body so organisms either convert it into uric acid or urea | | 67 |
| 6451773955 | uric acid | Birds and reptiles convert ammonia into uric acid | | 68 |
| 6451773956 | urea | Most mammals convert ammonia into urea, excreted in urine. | | 69 |
| 6451773957 | Kidney | In humans, the major organ that regulates excretion | | 70 |
| 6451773958 | Nephrons | Each kidney is made up of a million tiny structures called neprons. Parts of the nephron: The Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule, the collecting duct | | 71 |
| 6451773959 | Bowman's capsule | Part of the renal cortex (outer most part of the nephron), blood enters the nephron through the Bowman's capsule | | 72 |
| 6451773960 | Proximal convoluted tubule | Part of the renal cortex (outer most part of the nephron), the filtrate from the bownmans capsule passes through the proximal convoluted tubule | | 73 |
| 6451773961 | loop of Henle | from the proximal convoluted tubule, the filtrate passes through the loop of henle | | 74 |
| 6451773962 | distal convoluted tubule | from the loop of henle, the filtrate passes through the distal convoluted tubule | | 75 |
| 6451773963 | collecting duct | From the distal convoluted tubule, the filtrate goes to the collecting duct, as it has traveled through the tube, it has been modified to form urine | | 76 |
| 6451773964 | renal cortex | The outer section of the kidney. The portion of nephron present contains the Bowmans capsule and the proximal convoluted tubules | | 77 |
| 6451773965 | renal medullla | The inner section of the kidney. The portion of nephron present contains the loop of Henle and the distal convoluted tubules | | 78 |
| 6451773966 | renal arteries (afferent) | A blood vessel called the renal artery leads to the kidney and branches into arterioles, then tiny capillaries | | 79 |
| 6451773967 | glomerulus | A ball of capillaries that sits on the bowmans capsule | | 80 |
| 6451773968 | urine | Filtrate is modified as it goes through the nephron to form urine | | 81 |
| 6451773969 | ureters | Concentrated urine moves form the collecting ducts into the ureters | | 82 |
| 6451773970 | bladder | From the ureters, urine moves into the bladder | | 83 |
| 6451773971 | urethra | From the bladder, urine is released out of the urethra | | 84 |
| 6451773972 | reabsoprtion | Second phase of how urine is made. As filtrate moves through the proximal convoluted tubule, some materials are reabsorbed by a network of peritubular capillaries. The material remaining in the tubule is urine. 1) Water is reabsorbed in the Loop of Henle
2) Proximal convoluted tube (glucose, vitamins, amino acids) | | 85 |
| 6451773973 | secretion | Third (and last) phase of how urine is made. As the filtrate moves through the convoluted tubules, some substances such as H+, potassium, and ammonium ions are secreted from the surrounding capillaries into the tubule. Distal convoluted tube (hormone regulation, sodium/potassium/hydrogen control) | | 86 |
| 6451773974 | peritubular capillaries | In the reapsorption phase of making urine, small solutes such as water nutrients and salts leave the proximal convoluted tubules and are reabsorbed by the peritubular capillaries | | 87 |
| 6451773975 | vasopressin (antidiuretic hormones) | allows water to be reabsorbed from the collecting duct | | 88 |
| 6451773976 | aldosterone | Responsible for regulating sodium reabsorption at the distal convoluted tubule | | 89 |
| 6451773977 | skin | an excretory organ that gets rid of excess water and salts from the body, primary function is to regulate body temperature. Has three layers: the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue | | 90 |
| 6451773978 | epidermis | first layer of the skin | | 91 |
| 6451773979 | dermis | second layer of the skin | | 92 |
| 6451773980 | subcutaneous tissue | Third layer of the skin | | 93 |
| 6451773981 | stratum corneum | The epidermis is covered by a layer of dead cells called the stratum corneum | | 94 |
| 6451773982 | Freshwater fish | 1) Urinates dilute urine
2) Never drinks water
3) Gills use ATP to pump solutes back into the body
4) It is hypertonic, but it lives in a hypotonic environment. It thus constantly removes excess water that is entering the body. | | 95 |
| 6451773983 | Marine fish | 1) Constantly drink
2) Urine is concentrated
3) Gills use ATP to pump solutes out of the body
4) It is hypotonic, but it lives in a hypertonic environment. It thus tries to reduce water loss to the environment. | | 96 |
| 6451773984 | Contractile Vacoule | Used by freshwater single-celled organisms | | 97 |
| 6451773985 | Describe Freshwater Flatworms (Protonephridia) | 1) Tubes with flame cels (cilia)
2) Cilia propels fluid through tubules
3) Cells lining tubules reabsorb salts
4) Dilute waste is excreted through nephridiopores | | 98 |
| 6451773986 | Describe Metanephridia (Annelids) | 1) Nephrostome absorbs fluid from coelom
2) Fluid moves through a tubule
3) Collecting tubules reabsorbs beneficial solutes
4) Wastes -> Bladder -> Nephridiopore | | 99 |
| 6451773987 | Functions of Kidneys | 1) Maintain proper volume of extracellular fluid (blood and interstitial fluid)
2) Maintain ionic balance in extracellular fluid
3) Maintain pH and osmotic concentration of the extracellular fluid
4) Excrete toxic metabolic by-products such as urea, ammonia, and uric acid | | 100 |
| 6451773988 | Filtration | Involves glomerulus (passive process) | | 101 |
| 6451773989 | 1 | 1) Water is reabsorbed in the Loop of Henle
2) Proximal convoluted tube (glucose, vitamins, amino acids) | | 102 |
| 6451773990 | 1 | Distal convoluted tube (hormone regulation, sodium/potassium/hydrogen control | | 103 |
| 6451773991 | Diabetes Insipidus | Inability of kidney tubules to reabsorb water. The urine is very dilute and nearly colorless.
Copious amounts of dilute urine | | 104 |
| 6451773992 | Diabetes Mellitus | Insulin deficiency; sweet urine. Glucose cannot enter cells of the body and thus are excreted through urine. | | 105 |
| 6451773993 | Hepatitis | Jaundice.
Damage to liver. | | 106 |
| 6451773994 | Glomerulnephritis | Inflammation of the Glomerulus causes large solutes to get through. Can be caused by strep bacteria.
Disease that allows large solutees (cells and proteins) into the urine. | | 107 |
| 6451773995 | Hemolytic Anemia | Hemoglobin is not reabsorbed so it stays in the urine. Urine may be a red-brown or smoky color.
Hemoglobin in urine | | 108 |
| 6451773996 | descending colon | third portion of colon from transverse to sigmoid colon |  | 109 |
