| CourseNotes

AP Biology, Campbell, Ch. 11 Flashcards

Key Concepts:

• External signals are converted to responses within the cell.
• Reception: A signaling molecule binds to a receptor protein, causing it to change shape.
• Transduction: Cascades of molecular interactions relay signals from receptors to target molecules in the cell.
• Response: Cells signaling leads to regulation of transportation or cytoplasmic activities.
• Apoptosis integrates multiple cell-signaling pathways.

Terms : Hide Images

8090404568	Adenylyl Cyclase	an enzyme that converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to an extracellular signal	0
8090404569	Apoptosis	a type of programmed cell death, which is brought about by activation of enzymes that break down many chemical components in the cell	1
8090404570	Aster	a radial array of short microtubules that extends from each centrosome toward the plasma membrane in an animal cell undergoing mitosis	2
8090404571	Autosome	a chromosome that is not directly involved in determining sex; not a sex chromosome	3
8090404572	Cyclic AMP (cAMP)	cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a ring-shaped molecule made from ATP that is a common intracellular signaling molecule (second messenger) in eukaryotic cells; it is also a regulator of some bacterial operons	4
8090404573	Diacylglycerol (DAG)	second messenger produced by the cleavage of the phospholipid PIP2 in the plasma membrane	5
8090404574	Diploid Cell	a cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n), one set inherited from each parent	6
8090404575	G Protein	a GTP-binding protein that relays signals from a plasma membrane signal receptor, known as a G protein-coupled receptor, to other signal transduction proteins inside the cell	7
8090404576	G Protein-Coupled Receptor (GPCR)	a signal receptor protein in the plasma membrane that responds to the binding of a signaling molecule by activating a G protein; also called a G protein-linked receptor	8
8090404577	Hormone	in multicellular organisms, one of many types of secreted chemicals that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and act on specific target cells in other parts of the organism, changing the target cells' functioning	9
8090404578	Inositol Trisphosphate (IP3)	a second messenger that functions as an intermediate between certain signaling molecules and a subsequent second messenger, Ca2+, by causing a rise in cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration	10
8090404579	Ligand	a molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, usually a larger one	11
8090404580	Ligand-Gated Ion Channel	a transmembrane protein containing a pore that opens or closes as it changes shape in response to a signaling molecule (ligand), allowing or blocking the flow of specific ions; also called an ionotropic receptor	12
8090404581	Protein Kinase	an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein, thus phosphorylating the protein	13
8090404582	Protein Phosphatase	an enzyme that removes phosphate groups from (dephosphorylates) proteins, often functioning to reverse the effect of a protein kinase	14
8090404583	Reception	in cellular communication, the first step of a signaling pathway in which a signaling molecule is detected by a receptor molecule on or in the cell	15
8090404584	Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK)	a receptor protein spanning the plasma membrane, the cytoplasmic (intracellular) part of which can catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a tyrosine on another protein; receptor tyrosine kinases often respond to the binding of a signaling molecule by dimerizing and then phosphorylating a tyrosine on the cytoplasmic portion of the other receptor in the dimer	16
8090404585	Response	(1) in cellular communication, the change in a specific cellular activity brought about by a transduced signal from outside the cell; (2) in feedback regulation, a physiological activity triggered by a change in a variable	17
8090404586	Scaffolding Protein	a type of large relay protein to which several other relay proteins are simultaneously attached, increasing the efficiency of signal transduction	18
8090404587	Second Messenger	a small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecule or ion, such as a calcium ion (Ca2+) or cyclic AMP, that relays a signal to a cell's interior in response to a signaling molecule bound by a signal receptor protein	19
8090404588	Signal Transduction Pathway	a series of steps linking a mechanical, chemical, or electrical stimulus to a specific cellular response	20

Powered by Quizlet.com

AP Biology: Big Idea 3 Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

6716250187	Hershey-Chase Experiment	Experiment that showed that only the DNA enters a bacterial cell during infection, not protein by using radioactive S and P.	0
6716250188	Frederick Griffith	This person discovered transformation during an experiment that involved injecting mice with smooth S cells, rough R cells, heat-killed S cells, and heat-killed S cells with living R cells.	1
6716250189	Erwin Chargaff	Discovered that DNA composition varies, but the amount of adenine is always the same as thymine and the amount of cytosine is always the same as guanine.	2
6716250190	Avery, MacLeod, McCarty	Determined that DNA was Griffith's "Transforming Factor."	3
6716250191	Rosalind Franklin	Used X-ray diffraction to discover the double-helical structure of DNA.	4
6716250192	Watson and Crick	Developed the double helix model of DNA.	5
6716250193	nucleic acid	An organic compound, either RNA or DNA, whose molecules are made up of one or two chains of nucleotides and carry genetic information.	6
6716250194	nucleotide	Monomer of nucleic acids made up of a sugar, phosphate, base	7
6716250195	purines	Nitrogenous bases that have a double ring structure (AG)	8
6716250196	pyrimidines	Nitrogenous bases that have a single ring structure (CT)	9
6716250197	antiparallel	The opposite arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix.	10
6716250198	phosphodiester bond	Strong covalent bond linking the sugar in one nucleotide to the phosphate of another. (BACKBONE SEALER!)	11
6716250199	DNA replication	The process whereby DNA makes a copy of itself prior to cell division.	12
6716250200	semiconservative model	Type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand.	13
6716250201	DNA polymerase	DNA replication enzyme that adds nucleotides in the 5 to 3 (as it reads in the 3 to 5)	14
6716250202	transcription	Synthesis of an RNA molecule from a DNA template.	15
6716250203	lagging strand	A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments, each synthesized in a 5' to 3' direction away from the replication fork.	16
6716250204	leading strand	The new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5' to 3' direction.	17
6716250205	primase	An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template.	18
6716250206	messenger RNA (mRNA)	Carries genetic message from the DNA to he protein-synthesizing machinery of the cell.	19
6716250207	Okazaki fragments	Small fragments of DNA produced on the lagging strand during DNA replication, joined later by DNA ligase to form a complete strand.	20
6716250208	DNA helicase	An enzyme that untwists the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and making them available as template strands.	21
6716250209	translation	The synthesis of a polypeptide, which occurs under the direction of mRNA.	22
6716250210	RNA editing	The modification of mRNA before it leaves the nucleus that is unique to eukaryotes.	23
6716250211	codons	mRNA base triplets.	24
6716250212	RNA polymerase	Enzyme that links together the growing chain of ribonucleotides during transcription.	25
6716250213	promoter	A specific nucleotide sequence in DNA that binds RNA polymerase and indicates where to start transcribing mRNA.	26
6716250214	TATA box	Crucial promoter DNA sequence.	27
6716250215	RNA splicing	Process by which the introns are removed from RNA transcripts and the remaining exons are joined together.	28
6716250216	introns	Noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding sequences.	29
6716250217	exons	Coding segments of eukaryotic DNA.	30
6716250218	transfer RNA (tRNA)	Interpreter of a series of codons along a mRNA molecule.	31
6716250219	ribosomal RNA (rRNA)	RNA molecules that construct ribosomal subunits.	32
6716250220	ribosomal P site	Site that holds tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain. (PEPTIDE)	33
6716250221	ribosomal A site	Site that holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the chain. (ADD)	34
6716250222	ribosomal E site	Site where discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome. (EXIT)	35
6716250223	transformation	A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell.	36
6716250224	gene expression	Conversion of the information encoded in a gene first into messenger RNA and then to a protein.	37
6716250225	recombinant DNA	A DNA molecule made in vitro with segments from different sources.	38
6716250226	restriction enzyme	A degradative enzyme that recognizes and cuts up DNA (including that of certain phages) that is foreign to a bacterium.	39
6716250227	DNA ligase	A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.	40
6716250228	denaturation	In proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive. In DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix.	41
6716250229	polymerase chain reaction (PCR)	A technique for amplifying DNA in vitro by incubating with special primers, DNA polymerase molecules, and nucleotides.	42
6716250230	gel electrophoresis	The separation of nucleic acids or proteins, on the basis of their size and electrical charge, by measuring their rate of movement through an electrical field in a gel.	43
6716250231	plasmid	Small extra-chromosomal, double-stranded circular DNA molecules.	44
6716250232	RNA primer	Short segment of RNA used to initiate synthesis of a new strand of DNA during replication.	45
6716250233	reverse transcriptase	A polymerase that catalyzes the formation of DNA using RNA as a template.	46
6716250234	somatic cell	Any of the cells of a plant or animal except the reproductive cells.	47
6716250235	centromere	The region of the chromosome that holds the two sister chromatids together during mitosis.	48
6716250236	mitosis	Cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes.	49
6716250237	interphase	Period of the cell cycle between cell divisions.	50
6716250238	S phase	The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.	51
6716250239	cancer	Disease that results from disruptions of cell cycle control.	52
6716250240	kinetochore microtubules	Connects the centrosome with the kinetochore in the centromere region of the chromosome.	53
6716250241	growth factors	Regulatory proteins that ensure that the events of cell division occur in the proper sequence and at the correct rate.	54
6716250242	allele	One of the alternative forms of a gene that governs a characteristic, such as hair color.	55
6716250243	crossing over	Nonsister chromatids exchanging DNA segments.	56
6716250244	diploid cell	Has two sets of chromosomes.	57
6716250245	fertilization	Union of gametes.	58
6716250246	gametes	A haploid cell such as an egg or sperm that unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.	59
6716250247	genes	Units of heredity made up of DNA.	60
6716250248	haploid	One set of chromosomes.	61
6716250249	homologous chromosomes	Pair of chromosomes that are the same size, same appearance and same genes.	62
6716250250	zygote	Fertilized egg; carries one set of chromosomes from each parent.	63
6716250251	law of independent assortment	The random distribution of the pairs of genes on different chromosomes to the gametes.	64
6716250252	law of segregation	Allele pairs separate or segregate during gamete formation, and randomly unite at fertilization. Due to separation of homologous chromosomes in Meiosis I.	65
6716250253	true-breeding	Organisms that, when reproducing, create offspring of all the same variety.	66
6716250254	hybridization	The crossing of two different true-breeding parents.	67
6716250255	dominant allele	An allele whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present.	68
6716250256	recessive allele	An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present	69
6716250257	homozygous	An organism having a pair of identical alleles for a character, either dominant or recessive.	70
6716250258	phenotype	An organism's traits.	71
6716250259	genotype	An organism's genetic makeup.	72
6716250260	codominance	When which the phenotypes of both alleles are exhibited in the heterozygote.	73
6716250261	incomplete dominance	Creates a blended phenotype; one allele is not completely dominant over the other.	74
6716250262	nondisjunction	A failure of paired homologous chromosomes to separate during meiosis which results in an abnormal chromosome number.	75
6716250263	linked genes	Genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together in genetic crosses.	76
6716250264	sex linked genes	Genes located on the sex chromosomes.	77
6716250265	operon	A unit of genetic function common in bacteria and phages, consisting of coordinately regulated clusters of genes with related functions.	78
6716250266	operator	Region of DNA that controls RNA polymerase's access to a set of genes with related functions.	79
6716250267	repressor	A protein that suppresses the transcription of a gene.	80
6716250268	Trp operon	An example of a repressible operon.	81
6716250269	Lac operon	An example of an inducible operon.	82
6716250270	transcription factors	Proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences or other regulatory proteins that promote or block RNA polymerase.	83
6716250271	hormones	Circulating chemical signals that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and act on specific target cells.	84
6716250272	ligand	A molecule that specifically binds to another molecule, often a larger one.	85
6716250273	protein kinase	The enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to protein.	86
6716250274	reception	The target cell's detection of a signal molecule coming from outside the cell.	87
6716250275	transduction	The binding of the signal molecule changes the receptor protein in some way.	88
6716250276	response	The transduced signal finally triggers a specific cellular response.	89
6716250277	endocrine signaling	Type of cell signalling where signals released by one cell type can travel long distances to target cells of another cell type.	90
6716250278	cell body (soma)	Contains most of a neuron's organelles and its nucleus.	91
6716250279	dendrites	highly branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons	92
6716250280	axon	Long nerve fiber that conducts away from the cell body of the neuron.	93
6716250281	synapse	The junction between two neurons or between a neuron and a muscle.	94
6716250282	neurotransmitters	Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.	95
6716250283	membrane potential	The voltage across a cell's plasma membrane.	96
6716250284	resting potential	The membrane potential of a neuron that is at rest.	97
6716250285	depolarization	The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.	98
6716250286	voltage-gated ion channels	Channels that open or close in response to a change in the membrane potential.	99
6716250287	action potential	A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.	100
6716250288	repolarization	Return of the cell to resting state, caused by reentry of potassium into the cell while sodium exits the cell.	101
6716250289	threshold	The minimum membrane potential that must be reached in order for an action potential to be generated.	102
6716250290	myelin sheath	A layer of electrical insulation that surrounds the axon.	103
6716250291	sodium-potassium pump	a carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell.	104
6716250292	point mutation	A mutation that affects a single nucleotide, usually by substituting one nucleotide for another.	105
6716250293	frameshift mutation	Mutation that shifts the "reading frame" of the genetic message by the insertion or deletion of a nucleotide.	106
6716250294	bacteriophage	A virus that infects and replicates within bacteria.	107
6716250295	lytic cycle	Viral life cycle in which the viral DNA exists as a separate molecule within the bacterial cell. Results in the destruction of the infected cell.	108
6716250296	lysogenic cycle	Viral life cycle characterized by integration of the viral nucleic acid into the host bacterium's genome. The viral genetic material can be transmitted to daughter cells.	109

Powered by Quizlet.com

Biology in Focus (AP) Chapter 37 Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

9752175177	neuron	A nerve cell; the fundamental unit of the nervous system, having structure and properties that allow it to conduct signals by taking advantage of the electrical charge across its plasma membrane.	0
9752175178	brain	Organ of the central nervous system where information is processed and integrated.	1
9752175179	ganglion	A cluster (functional group) of nerve cell bodies in a centralized nervous system.	2
9752175180	cell body	The part of a neuron that houses the nucleus and most other organelles.	3
9752175181	dendrite	One of usually numerous, short, highly branched extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.	4
9752175182	axon	A typically long extension, or process, of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body toward target cells.	5
9752175183	axon hillock	The cone-shaped base of an axon, where signals that travel down the axon are generated.	6
9752175184	synapse	The junction where a neuron communicates with another cell across a narrow gap via a neurotransmitter or an electrical coupling.	7
9752175185	synaptic terminal	The part of each axon branch that forms a synapse.	8
9752175186	neurotransmitter	A molecule that is released from the synaptic terminal of a neuron at a chemical synapse, diffuses across the synaptic cleft, and binds to the postsynaptic cell, triggering a response.	9
9752175187	presynaptic neuron	The neuron that transmits a signal to another cell.	10
9752175188	postsynaptic cell	The neuron, muscle, or gland cell that receives a signal from a neuron.	11
9752175189	glia	Cells of the nervous system that support, regulate, and augment the functions of neurons.	12
9752175190	sensory neuron	A nerve cell that receives information from the internal or external environment and transmits signals to the central nervous system.	13
9752175191	interneuron	An association neuron; a nerve cell within the central nervous system that forms synapses with sensory and/or motor neurons and integrates sensory input and motor output.	14
9752175192	motor neuron	A nerve cell that transmits signals from the brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands.	15
9752175193	central nervous system	The portion of the nervous system where signal integration occurs, in vertebrate animals, the brain and spinal cord.	16
9752175194	peripheral nervous system	The sensory and motor neurons that connect to the central nervous system.	17
9752175195	nerve	A fiber composed primarily of the bundled axons of neurons.	18
9752175196	membrane potential	The difference in electrical charge (voltage) across a cell's plasma membrane due to the differential distribution of ions.	19
9752175197	resting potential	The membrane potential characteristic of a nonconducting excitable cell, with the inside of the cell more negative than the outside.	20
9752175198	sodium-potassium pump	A transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that actively transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell.	21
9752175199	ion channel	A transmembrane protein channel that allows a specific ion to diffuse across the membrane down its concentration or electrochemical gradient.	22
9752175200	selective permeability	Property of ion channels that allows only certain ions to pass through to the other side of the membrane.	23
9752175201	equilibrium potential	The magnitude of a cell's membrane voltage at equilibrium, calculated using the Nernst equation.	24
9752175202	gated ion channel	A gated channel for a specific ion. The opening or closing of such channels may alter a cell's membrane potential.	25
9752175203	hyperpolarization	A change in a cell's membrane potential such that the inside of the membrane becomes more negative relative to the outside. Reduces the chance that a neuron will transmit a nerve impulse.	26
9752175204	depolarization	A change in a cell's membrane potential such that the inside of the membrane is made less negative relative to the outside.	27
9752175205	graded potential	In a neuron, a shift in the membrane potential that has an amplitude proportional to signal strength and that decays as it spreads.	28
9752175206	action potential	An electrical signal that propagates (travels) along the membrane of a neuron or other excitable cell as a nongraded (all-or-none) depolarization.	29
9752175207	voltage-gated ion channel	A specialized ion channel that opens or closes in response to changes in membrane potential.	30
9752175208	threshold	The potential that an excitable cell membrane must reach for an action potential to be initiated.	31
9752175209	refractory period	The short time immediately after an action potential in which the neuron cannot respond to another stimulus, owing to the inactivation of voltage-gated sodium channels.	32
9752175210	myelin sheath	Wrapped around the axon of a neuron, an insulating coat of cell membranes from Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes. It is interrupted by nodes of Ranvier, where action potentials are generated.	33
9752175211	oligodendrocyte	A type of glial cell that forms insulating myelin sheaths around the axons of neurons in the central nervous system.	34
9752175212	Schwann cell	A type of glial cell that forms insulating myelin sheaths around the axons of neurons in the peripheral nervous system.	35
9752175213	node of Ranvier	Gap in the myelin sheath of certain axons where an action potential may be generated.	36
9752175214	saltatory conduction	Rapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane.	37
9752175215	synaptic vesicle	Membrane-enclosed compartment at the terminal of a presynaptic neuron that contains neurotransmitter.	38
9752175216	synaptic cleft	The gap that separates the presynaptic neuron from the postsynaptic cell.	39
9752175217	ligand-gated ion channel	A transmembrane protein containing a pore that opens or closes as it changes shape in response to a signaling molecule (ligand), allowing or blocking the flow of specific ions.	40
9752175218	ionotropic receptor	A ligand-gated ion channel..	41
9752175219	postsynaptic potential	A graded potential in a postsynaptic cell.	42
9752175220	excitatory postsynaptic potential	An electrical change (depolarization) in the membrane of a postsynaptic cell caused by the binding of an excitatory neurotransmitter from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic receptor; makes it more likely for a postsynaptic cell to generate an action potential.	43
9752175221	inhibitory postsynaptic potential	An electrical change (usually hyperpolarization) in the membrane of a postsynaptic neuron caused by the binding of an inhibitory neurotransmitter from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic receptor; makes it more difficult for a postsynaptic neuron to generate an action potential.	44
9752175222	temporal summation	A phenomenon of neural integration in which the membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell in a chemical synapse is determined by the combined effect of EPSPs or IPSPs produced in rapid succession.	45
9752175223	spatial summation	A phenomenon of neural integration in which the membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell is determined by the combined effect of EPSPs or IPSPs produced nearly simultaneously by different synapses.	46
9752175224	metabotropic receptor	Binds a neurotransmitter and activates a signal transduction pathway that opens or closes an ion channel after one or more metabolic steps.	47
9752175225	acetylcholine	One of the most common neurotransmitters; functions by binding to receptors and altering the permeability of the postsynaptic membrane to specific ions, either depolarizing or hyperpolarizing the membrane.	48
9752175226	neuromuscular junction	The site where a motor neuron forms a synapse with a skeletal muscle cell.	49
9752175227	glutamate	An amino acid that functions as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system and has a role in long term memory.	50
9752175228	GABA	An amino acid that functions as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system of vertebrates where it is found at most inhibitory synapses in the brain.	51
9752175229	biogenic amines	A neurotransmitter derived from an amino acid.	52
9752175230	norepinephrine	A catecholamine that is chemically and functionally similar to epinephrine and that acts as a hormone or neurotransmitter; also known as noradrenaline.	53
9752175231	dopamine	A neurotransmitter that is a catecholamine, like epinephrine and norepinephrine.	54
9752175232	serotonin	A neurotransmitter, synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan, that functions in the central nervous system.	55
9752175233	neuropeptide	A relatively short chain of amino acids that serves as a neurotransmitter.	56
9752175234	endorphin	Any of several hormones produced in the brain and anterior pituitary that inhibit pain perception.	57

Powered by Quizlet.com

Biology in Focus (AP) Chapter 19 Flashcards

Adapted from:
Urry, L., Cain, M., Wasserman, S., Minorsky, P., Jackson, R., & Reece, J. (2014). Campbell biology in focus. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. (ISBN# 0321813804)

Terms : Hide Images

7931942477	Adaptation	Inherited characteristic of an organism that enhances its survival and reproduction in specific environments.	0
7931942478	Analogous	Having characteristics that are similar because of convergent evolution, not homology.	1
7931942479	Artificial selection	The selective breeding of domesticated plants and animals to encourage the occurrence of desirable traits.	2
7931942480	Biogeography	The study of the past and present distribution of species.	3
7931942481	Catastrophism	The principle that events in the past occurred suddenly and were caused by different mechanisms than those operating today. See uniformitarianism.	4
7931942482	Convergent evolution	The evolution of similar features in independent evolutionary lineages.	5
7931942483	Endemic	Referring to a species that is confined to a specific, relatively small geographic area.	6
7931942484	Evolution	Descent with modification; the idea that living species are descendants of ancestral species that were different from the present-day ones; also defined more narrowly as the change in the genetic composition of a population from generation to generation.	7
7931942485	Evolutionary tree	A branching diagram that reflects a hypothesis about evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms.	8
7931942486	Fossil	A preserved remnant or impression of an organism that lived in the past.	9
7931942487	Homologous structures	Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry.	10
7931942488	Homology	Similarity in characteristics resulting from a shared ancestry.	11
7931942489	Natural selection	A process in which organisms with certain inherited characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce than are organisms with other characteristics.	12
7931942490	Paleontology	The scientific study of fossils.	13
7931942491	Pangaea	The supercontinent that formed near the end of the Paleozoic era, when plate movements brought all the landmasses of Earth together.	14
7931942492	Stratum	A rock layer formed when new layers of sediment cover older ones and compress them.	15
7931942493	Vestigial structure	A structure of marginal, if any, importance to an organism. Vestigial structures are historical remnants of structures that had important functions in ancestors.	16
7931942494	Lamarck	theory of disuse and use; inheritance of acquired characteristics (1744-1829)	17
7931942495	Theory of use and disuse	if a body part is used, that body part becomes larger and stronger, if it is not used, it deteriorates	18
7931942496	Hutton	Gradualism: believed that major changes such as earth today were shaped by slow and continuous processes. Gave clues to scientists that earth was much older than previously thought. (1795)	19
7931942497	Lyell	believed that geologic processes were operating at the same rate as in the past	20
7931942498	Cuvier	catastrophism: believed that the extinction of species was caused by catastrophic events such as floods	21
7931942499	Aristotle	believed species were fixed and unchanging bc they were perfectly created by god. He organized them on a scale of increasing complexity "scala naturae"	22
7931942500	Linnaeus	binomial nomenclature- introduced the classification of species into increasingly general groups	23
7931942501	Scala Naturae	Scale of nature that organized living things in order of complexity by Aristotle	24
7931942502	5 observations and 3 inferences of evolution	obeservations: 1) limited resources 2) pops tend to be stable in size (only seasonal fluctuations) 3)population sizes inc exponentially if all individ bron reprod successfully 4) members of a pop vary in characterstics 5) variation is inheritable Inferences 1)overreproduction = struggle for existence = fraction of offspring exist 2) survival depends on inherited traits, adv traits = more likely to survive & reprod than other individ 3) gradual change in pop with more advanced charcteristics	25
7931942503	Thomas Malthus	a population has the potential to increase faster than its resources and food supplies	26

Powered by Quizlet.com

AP Biology Unit 4.6 - Meiosis Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

9450659531	Haploid	a cell that has only a single copy of each chromosome (n)	0
9450659532	Diploid	a cell that contains two copies of each chromosome (2n)	1
9450659533	Somatic Cells	Any cells in the body other than reproductive cells; body cells	2
9450659534	Gametes	sex (= germ) cells (sperm and egg)	3
9450659535	Homologous Chromosomes	pairs of chromosomes that have the same size and same sets of genes; one of each pair comes from each parent	4
9450659536	Fertilization	Fusion of an egg and sperm cell to form a zygote.	5
9450659537	Zygote	Diploid cell formed when a sperm fertilizes an egg.	6
9450659538	Mitosis	A process in which cells are divided to produce two identical diploid cells	7
9450659539	Meiosis	A reduction-division process in which a single diploid cell produces four haploid gametes	8
9450659540	Meiosis I	Stage of meiosis in which homologous chromosomes separate	9
9450659541	Meiosis II	Stage of meiosis in which sister chromatids separate; results in formation of 4 haploid sex cells.	10
9450659542	Gametogenesis	The production of gametes; forms 4 sperm in males, 1 egg and 3 polar bodies in females.	11
9450659543	Sperm	Haploid male gamete	12
9450659544	Egg	Haploid female gamete.	13
9450659545	Polar Bodies	3 cells produced during female gametogenesis that have little more than DNA that are eventually broken down; do not become eggs.	14
9450659546	Crossing Over	Exchange/swapping of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis I	15
9450670068	Tetrad	Each pair of homologous chromosomes that come together during Prophase I of Meiosis	16
9450672253	Synapsis	The side by side pairing of homologous maternal and paternal chromosomes at the start of meiosis; forming of tetrads.	17
9450675329	Chiasmata	Points where chromatids cross-over during meiosis	18
9450677494	Independent Assortment	The law stating that pairs of genes separate independently of one another in meiosis.	19

Powered by Quizlet.com

AP Biology--CHAPTER 5 Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

7300452328	Macromolecules	Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids	0
7300452333	Hydrolysis	Pocess that is the reverse of dehydration synthesis. In __________, or water breakage, the bond between monomers is broken by the addition of a water molecule.	1
7300452334	Dehydration synthesis	Reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded, with the loss of a water molecule	2
7300452336	Polymers	Long molecules consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds.	3
7300452337	Glycosidic linkage	In carbohydrates, monosaccharides are joined together in a covalent bond called __________ _______.	4
7300452338	Monosaccharides	Carbohydrates polysaccharides are made up of _______________.	5
7300452339	Monosaccharide	EX: monomer Glucose	6
7300452340	Disaccharide	Two monosaccharides covalently bonded form a ____________. EX: Sucrose	7
7300452341	Polysaccharide	Three or more monosaccharides linked together form a ______________.	8
7300452343	Cellulose	example of a structural carbohydrates	9
7300452345	Glycogen	Stored carbohydrate/polysaccharide in animals	10
7300452346	starch	stored carbohydrate/polysaccharide in plants	11
7300452348	Lipids	Cushioning of organs, insulation, and energy storage are three functions of ___________.	12
7300452350	Unsaturated fats	Fats with one or more double covalent bonds, which is less likely to solidify and more flexible.	13
7300452351	Phospholipid	Basic structural component of cell membranes, with a polar/hydrophilic head region and a nonpolar/hydrophobic tail region, giving membranes their selective permeability.	14
7300452352	Steroid	Lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of hydrogen-fused rings.	15
7300452353	HDL	Good cholesterol is called ___ ____________. HINT: Keep your ____ HIGH :-)	16
7300452354	LDL	The bad cholesterol, which can harden in arteries. HINT: Keep your ____ LOW :-)	17
7300452356	Amino acid	The monomer in a protein is a(n) _____ ____.	18
7300452357	Amino; carboxyl; R	Amino acids are formed of a(n) _____ group with a(n) ________ group and a(n) _ group side chain.	19
7300452358	20	# different amino acids which can assemble according to genetic code to make different proteins.	20
7300452360	Polypeptide	The polymer in a protein is a(n) ___________.	21
7300452361	3D structure	The amino acid sequence ultimately determine the __ _________ of proteins.	22
7300452362	Structure	A protein's _________ determines its function.	23
7300452363	Primary	At the _______ level of protein structure, a linear sequence of amino acids is joined by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide.	24
7300452364	Secondary	At the _________ level of protein structure, hydrogen bonds form between the partial positive hydrogen atom of amine groups and the partial negative oxygen atom of carboxyl groups.	25
7300452365	β Pleated Sheet	__ ___________ ______________ are a secondary structure found in proteins.	26
7300452366	α Helix	___ ___________ are a secondary structure found in proteins.	27
7300452367	Tertiary	At the ________ level of protein structure, various chemical associations in precise regions of a polypeptide cause it to fold into a 3D shape that will determine its function.	28
7300452368	Quaternary	At the __________ level of protein structure, 2 to 4 completely formed polypeptides combine.	29
7300452369	Sickle cell anemia	In this disease, one amino acid at the primary level (valine) replaces glutamic acid and the result is a distorted shape at the subsequent levels.	30
7300452371	Receptor	________ proteins are embedded in all membranes and allow cells to interact with molecules and other cells.	31
7300452375	Denaturation	Excessive heat can cause ____________, in which a protein unravels and loses its native shape.	32
7300452376	Chaperonins	Assist in the proper folding of the protein by keeping the polypeptide segregated from disruptive chemical conditions in the cytoplasmic and create a hydrophilic environment for folding polypeptides	33
7300452377	Nucleotides	Nucleic acids are composed of ___________.	34
7300452378	Polynucleotide	The polymer in a nucleic acid is a(n) ______________.	35

Powered by Quizlet.com

AP Biology (Campbell) Chapter 6 Flashcards

Vocabulary words from the AP Edition of Campbell Biology, Chapter 6.

Terms : Hide Images

5463452260	organelles	membrane-enclosed structures within a eukaryotic cell	0
5463452261	cytosol	a jellylike substance where organelles and other components are found	1
5463452262	eukaryotic cell	Cell with a nucleus and membrane bound organelles	2
5463452263	prokaryotic cell	Cell with no nucleus nor membrane bound organelles	3
5463452264	nucleoid region	a non-membrane-enclosed region of the cell where prokaryotic DNA is found	4
5463452265	cytoplasm	the region in a cell between the cell membrane and nucleus; it contains the cell structures and oganelles	5
5463452266	plasma membrane	The selective barrier that surrounds a cell; it controls what enters and leaves the cell	6
5463452267	nucleus	chromosome-containing part of a eukaryotic cell	7
5463452268	nuclear envelope	encloses the nucleus to separate its contents from the cytoplasm	8
5463452270	chromosomes	tightly coiled structures that carry the genetic information (can be seen during nuclear division)	9
5463452271	chromatin	loosly coiled genetic material that makes up chromosomes, a complex of proteins and DNA	10
5463452272	nucleolus	located in the nucleus, makes, synthesizes, and partially assembles ribosomes	11
5463452273	ribosomes	made of ribosomal RNA and protein, synthesize proteins	12
5463452274	endomembrane system	membranes that divide the cell into organelles such as the nuclear membrane, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, and the cell membrane.	13
5463452275	endoplasmic reticulum (ER)	accounts for more than half of total membrane in many eukaryotic cells, continuous with the nuclear envelope	14
5463452276	smooth ER	portion of the endoplasmic reticulum free of ribosomes, synthesize lipids, detoxifies the cell, and regulates calcium levels	15
5463452277	rough ER	portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes, produce and transport membrane and secretory proteins	16
5463452279	transport vesicles	vesicles in transit from one part of the cell to another	17
5463452280	Golgi apparatus	stack of membranes that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum	18
5463452281	lysosome	membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes, which the cell uses to digest unwanted materials	19
5463452282	phagocytosis	the process by which a cell engulfs a solid particle	20
5463452285	contractile vacuoles	pump excess water out of the cell to maintain a suitable concentration of ions and molecules in the cell	21
5463452286	central vacuole	the largest organelle in a plant cell. It is surrounded by the tonoplast and functions to hold materials and wastes. It also functions to maintain the proper pressure within plant cells	22
5463452287	mitochondria	chemically convert chemical (food) energy into usable ATP energy through cellular respiration	23
5463452288	chloroplasts	contain chlorophyll which help absorb solar energy in order to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars during photosynthesis	24
5463452291	plastids	manufacture and store important chemical compounds used by the cell such as pigments, oils, and starches	25
5463452295	cytoskeleton	a network of fibers bracing the cytoplasm	26
5463452296	microtubules	hollow rods of protein, support the cell and moves organelles within the cell	27
5463452297	centrosome	a region located near the nucleus where micro-tubules grow from; important in cell division	28
5463452298	centrioles	cylindrical organelle near the nucleus in animal cells, occurring in pairs and involved in the development of spindle fibers in cell division	29
5463452299	flagella	a long tail-like structure that aids in cell movement	30
5463452300	cilia	a short hair-like structures that enable movement of cells or movement of materials outside a cell, utilizes a back-and-forth motion	31
5463452301	microfilaments	the thinnest part of the cytoskeleton, are used to give shape to the cell and support all of its internal parts	32
5463452303	pseudopodia	cellular extensions that enable a cell to crawl along a surface	33
5463452304	cytoplasmic streaming	the circular flow of cytoplasm within cells	34
5463452305	intermediate filaments	diverse class of cytoskeletal elements that bear tension like microfilaments	35
5463452306	cell wall	extracellular structure specific to plant cells, protects the cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive water uptake	36
5463452310	extracellular matrix	where animal tissue cells are embedded, consists of protein and polysaccharides	37
5463452311	collagen	most common glycoprotein in the ECM, forms strong fibers outside the cells	38
5463452312	plasmodesmata	channels that perforate cell walls, allow for connections between cells in plants	39
5463452313	tight junctions	intercellular junction in animal tissues where plasma membranes of neighboring cells are very tightly pressed against each other, bound by specific proteins	40
5463452314	desmosomes	intercellular junction in animal tissues that function like rivets, fastening cells together into strong sheets	41
5463452315	gap junctions	intercellular junction in animal tissues that provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to an adjacent cell, similar to plasmodesmata in plants	42

Powered by Quizlet.com

AP Biology Unit 1: Endocrine system Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

7523137776	Hormones	Chemical messengers that have a regulatory effect on certain cells and organs. They send important information from one set of cells to another. Hormones are very specific and will only affect cells that are programmed to receive that specific hormone.	0
7523137777	Endocrine	Secrete hormones directly into bloodstream. Ductless.	1
7523137778	Exocrine	Secrete substance through a duct Sweat, salivary, lacrimal, mammary, ceruminous .	2
7523137779	Both exocrine and endocrine	Pancreas Exocrine - pancreatic juice — into the gastrointestinal tract through a series of ducts Endocrine - secrete insulin or glucagon directly into the bloodstream	3
7523137780	NEUROENDOCRINE EFFECT	The endocrine system operates in conjunction with the nervous system to maintain homeostasis and ensure that bodily functions are carried out efficiently.	4
7523137781	Nervous System vs. Endocrine System		5
7523137782	Target cells	Hormones can be transported in the circulatory system to the target cells.These cells respond to specific hormone messages.	6
7523137783	Functions	1.The endocrine system is in charge of processes that happen slowly, such as the growth of cells. 2. Influence almost every cell and organ in the body. 3.Homeostasis -- a stable internal environment (nutrition, metabolism, excretion, water and salt balances).	7
7523137785	Hypothalamus	Part of the brain, attached to the posterior pituitary gland. Function - 1.Synchronize the information from the brain and the secretions of hormones. 2.Neuronal to POSTERIOR PITUITARY Endocrine to ANTERIOR PITUITARY	8
7523137786	Neurosecretory cells	Specialized neurons that synthesize & secrete hormones	9
7523137787	Positive feedback	enhance response away from normal conditions	10
7523137788	Glands	Groups of cells that produce chemical products for our body to use.	11
7523137789	Glands of endocrine system		12
7523137790	Pituitary	Located at the base of the brain and is no larger than the size of a pea. Considered the most important part of the endocrine system and is often called the "master gland". Divided into anterior and posterior sections	13
7523137791	Functions Of Pituitary Gland	1.Controls many other endocrine system glands 2.Control body and tissue growth. 3.Also secretes endorphin's, chemicals that reduce sensitivity to pain.	14
7523137792	Anterior Pituitary	The " master gland" because its secretions regulate many other glands.	15
7523137793	Hormones of Anterior Pituitary		16
7523137794	1. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)	Stimulates release of chemicals from the adrenal cortex	17
7523137795	2. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)	Stimulates the thyroid to release thyroxin	18
7523137796	3. Growth hormone (GH)	Stimulate cell growth	19
7523137797	4. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH)	Regulate production of estrogen and progesterone.	20
7523137798	5. Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)	Increases production of the skin pigment melanin	21
7523137799	6. Prolactin	Stimulates production of milk in nursing mothers	22
7523137800	Posterior Pituitary	Secretes two hormones Oxytocin Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)	23
7523137801	Oxytocin	1. Stimulates contractions of the uterus during childbirth 2. Allows the milk to be released from the breast tissue	24
7523137802	Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)	Stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb more water from the collecting ducts in the kidneys so there is more water in the blood	25
7523137803	Pineal	1. Secretes melatonin, which regulates our internal clocks and any rhythmic activities 2. It plays a large role in our sleep and wake cycles	26
7523137804	Thyroid	1. Wraps around the trachea at the base of the neck. 2. Secretes a hormone called thyroxine. 3. Thyroxine regulates the metabolic rates of almost all the cells in the body 4. As the thyroxine levels in the blood increase so does the rate of cellular respiration 5. The thyroid gland needs iodine to create thyroxine, that is why salt is iodized now	27
7523137805	Parathyroid	These four little glands are embedded in the thyroid gland They secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) which regulates the amount of calcium in the blood and its absorption by bones	28
7523137806	Thymus	Located below the thyroid between the right and left lung. Secretes thymosin which stimulates T cell (that is a type of white blood cell) production in children. This gland shrinks with age as we are exposed to more germs and build up our stores of antibodies	29
7523137807	Adrenal	1.There are two located on top of the kidneys 2.Medulla secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and nor epinephrine which regulate our fight or flight response at times of extreme stress 3.Cortex secretes aldosterone which regulates reabsorption of nutrients from the kidney 4.It also secretes cortisol which controls the rate of metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins	30
7523137808	Ovaries	Secrete estrogen and progesterone which regulate the female menstrual cycle	31
7523137809	Testicles	1. Secretes male steroid hormones such as testosterone 2. Testosterone controls development of male characteristics such as formation of male sex organs in the womb, sperm development, and secondary sex characteristics at puberty (deep voice, facial hair, chest and armpit hair, etc)	32
7523137810	Pancreas	Located behind the right side of the stomach Secretes insulin which tells the liver and muscles to remove sugar from the blood and store it as fat Also secretes glucagon which tells the liver to break down fat stores and release sugar back into the blood	33
7523137811	ENDOCRINE SYSTEM DISORDERS	Hyper = secretion of too much hormone Hypo = secretion of insufficient hormone Target cell insensitivity produces symptoms similar to hyposecretion.	34
7523293780	autocrine	secretion acts in the cell it was produced in	35
7523299094	paracrine	secretion acts on neighboring cells	36
7523324483	hormone/endocrine	secretion acts on distant cells	37

Powered by Quizlet.com

Biology in Focus (AP) Chapter 4 Flashcards

Adapted from:
Urry, L., Cain, M., Wasserman, S., Minorsky, P., Jackson, R., & Reece, J. (2014). Campbell biology in focus. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. (ISBN# 0321813804)

Terms : Hide Images

4929162440	Central vacuole	A membranous sac in a mature plant cell with diverse roles in reproduction, growth, and development	0
4929162441	Centrosome	Structure present in the cytoplasm of animal cells, important during cell division; functions as a microtubule-organizing center; has two centrioles.	1
4929162442	Chloroplast	An organelle found in plants and photosynthetic protists that absorbs sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water.	2
4929162443	Chromatin	The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome.	3
4929162444	Chromosome	A cellular structure carrying genetic material, found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.	4
4929162445	Contractile vacuole	A membranous sac that helps move excess water out of certain freshwater protists.	5
4929162446	Cytoplasm	The contents of the cell, exclusive of the nucleus and bounded by the plasma membrane.	6
4929162447	Cytoskeleton	A network of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments that branch throughout the cytoplasm and serve a variety of mechanical, transport, and signaling functions.	7
4929162448	Endomembrane system	The collection of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles; includes the smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles.	8
4929162449	Endoplasmic reticulum	An extensive membranous network in eukaryotic cells, continuous with the outer nuclear membrane and composed of ribosome-studded (rough) and ribosome-free (smooth) regions.	9
4929162450	Flagellum	A long cellular appendage specialized for locomotion.	10
4929162451	Golgi apparatus	An organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of stacks of flat membranous sacs that modify, store, and route products of the endoplasmic reticulum and synthesize some products, notably noncellulose carbohydrates.	11
4929162452	Lysosome	A membrane-enclosed sac of hydrolytic enzymes found in the cytoplasm of animal cells and some protists.	12
4929162453	Microfilament	A cable composed of actin proteins in the cytoplasm of almost every eukaryotic cell, making up part of the cytoskeleton and acting alone or with myosin to cause cell contraction; also known as an actin filament.	13
4929162454	Microtubule	A hollow rod composed of tubulin proteins that makes up part of the cytoskeleton in all eukaryotic cells and is found in cilia and flagella.	14
4929162455	Mitochondrion	An organelle in eukaryotic cells that serves as the site of cellular respiration; uses oxygen to break down organic molecules and synthesize ATP.	15
4929162456	Nuclear envelope	The double membrane in a eukaryotic cell that encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm.	16
4929162457	Nucleoid	A non-membrane-bounded region in a prokaryotic cell where the DNA is concentrated.	17
4929162458	Nucleolus	A specialized structure in the nucleus, consisting of chromatin regions containing ribosomal RNA genes along with ribosomal proteins imported from the cytoplasmic site of rRNA synthesis and ribosomal subunit assembly. See also ribosome.	18
4929162459	Nucleus	The chromosome-containing organelle of a eukaryotic cell.	19
4929162460	Peroxisome	An organelle containing enzymes that transfer hydrogen (H2) from various substrates to oxygen (O2), producing and then degrading hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).	20
4929162461	Plasma membrane	The membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, regulating the cell's chemical composition.	21
4929162462	Ribosome	A complex of rRNA and protein molecules that functions as a site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.	22
4929162463	Rough ER	That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes. A network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins.	23
4929162464	Smooth ER	That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes. Detoxifies and builds lipids. Is ER that does not have ribosomes attached. It is a major site of lipid synthesis.	24
4929162465	Transport vesicle	A tiny membranous sac in a cell's cytoplasm carrying molecules produced by the cell.	25
4929162466	cell wall	a rigid layer of polysaccharides lying outside the plasma membrane of the cells of plants, fungi, and bacteria. In the algae and higher plants, it consists mainly of cellulose.	26
4929162467	cilia	Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion	27
4929162468	flagella	A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility. Many bacteria are flagellated, and sperm are flagellated.	28

Powered by Quizlet.com

AP Biology Unit 3.4 - Cell Communication Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

8737922898	Cell Communication	Process through which cells can detect and respond to signals in their environment.	0
8737922899	Juxtacrine Interaction	Type of cell signaling in which cells are in direct contact with one another.	1
8737922900	Gap Junctions	Type of juxtacrine interaction in animals where membrane channels of adjacent plasma membranes adhere to each other and allow materials to pass directly from cell to cell.	2
8737922901	Intercalated Discs	Specialized connections between cardiac muscle cells that contain gap junctions; allow ions to pass directly from cell to cell to synchronize contraction.	3
8737922902	Plasmodesmata	Channels through cell walls that connect the cytoplasms of adjacent plant cells; type of juxtacrine interaction.	4
8737922903	Paracrine Interaction	Cellular signaling in which secreted signaling molecules act on other nearby cells.	5
8737922904	Paracrine Factor	Signaling molecule (= chemical messenger) secreted by one cell that travels short distances to other cells.	6
8737922905	Neuromuscular Junction	Point of contact between a motor neuron and a skeletal muscle cell.	7
8737922906	Neurotransmitter	Chemical messengers that cross the synapse between neurons and target cells; examples include acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine.	8
8737922907	Acetylcholine	A neurotransmitter that triggers skeletal muscle contraction	9
8737922908	Axon Terminal	The terminal end of a neuron where neurotransmitters are stored and released into a synapse.	10
8737922909	Voltage Gated Channel	Cell membrane ion channels opened or closed by changes in electrical charge across a membrane.	11
8737922910	Ligand Gated Channel	Membrane ion channels operated by the binding of specific molecules to channel proteins.	12
8737922911	Acetylcholinesterase	An enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.	13
8737922912	Botulinum Toxin	Toxin that paralyzes muscles by inhibiting ACh release from axon terminals; derived from a bacterium that causes food poisoning.	14
8737922913	Latrotoxin	Black widow spider venom; initially enhances release of ACh from nerve terminals causing sustained muscle contractions.	15
8737922914	Cobra Venom	Toxin that blocks acetylcholine receptors on muscle fiber membrane; thus paralyzing muscles.	16
8737922915	Sarin	Organophosphate nerve gas that inhibits acetylcholinesterase; causes sustained, tetanic contractions of muscles by preventing removal of ACh from the synapse.	17
8737922916	Endocrine Interaction	Type of cell signaling in which hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream; can signal over long distances.	18
8737922917	Endocrine Factor	Another name for hormones; signaling molecule in endocrine interactions.	19
8737922918	Hormone	Chemicals produced by your glands that regulate the activities of different body cells.	20
8737922919	Adrenalin/Epinephrine	A hormone released by the body in times of stress (Fight or flight); causes increased heart rate, increased breathing rate, breakdown of glycogen into glucose, etc.	21
8737922920	Inducer	Cell that produces an inductive signal that causes a response in another cell.	22
8737922921	Responder	Cell that is induced to respond to a particular signal.	23
8737922922	Induction	Process in which one cell induces a specific response from another cell.	24
8737922923	Competence	The ability of a cell to respond to an inductive signal from another cell.	25
8737922924	Transcription Factor	A regulatory protein that binds to DNA and affects transcription of specific genes.	26
8737922925	Signal Transduction	Process in which a signal on a cell's surface is converted to a specific cellular response in a series of steps.	27
8737922926	Ligand	A molecule that binds specifically to a receptor protein on another cell's membrane.	28
8737922927	Reception	The target cell's detection of a signal molecule coming from outside the cell; typically involves binding of a ligand to a receptor protein.	29
8737922928	Transduction	Series of steps by which reception of a signal from another cell is converted into a response in a target cell.	30
8737922929	Protein Kinase	An enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein, thus phosphorylating the protein; typically activates inactive proteins.	31
8737922930	Phosphorylation	The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule	32
8737922931	Phosphatase	An enzyme that catalyzes the removal of a phosphate group from a protein.	33
8737922932	Secondary Messenger	Non-protein messenger that may be present in a signal transduction cascade; examples include cAMP and calcium ions.	34
8737922933	Cyclic AMP (cAMP)	Along with calcium ions, this is one of the most widely used second messengers in transduction cascades.	35
8737922934	Transcription	Process whereby the DNA sequence in a gene is copied into mRNA.	36
8737922935	G-Protein Linked Receptor	Membrane receptor that can add GTP to G-Proteins, thereby activating them.	37
8737922936	G-Protein	An intracellular protein that binds GTP and GDP and participates in intracellular signaling pathways.	38
8737922937	Sonic Hedgehog	Signaling molecule that inhibits Pax 6 in the center of the developing face, thereby causing two eyes to form; inactivation causes cyclopia.	39
8737922938	Pax6	Signaling molecule that is involved in initiating eye development; inhibited by sonic hedgehog in the center of the developing face; mutations can cause aniridia.	40
8737922939	Apoptosis	Process of programmed cell death.	41