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AP Biology - Energy & Enzymes Flashcards

8375151582	metabolism	The sum of the building & breaking reactions occurring in cells	0
8375151583	catabolic pathways	Series of reactions that release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds.	1
8375151584	anabolic pathways	Series of reactions that consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones.	2
8375151586	kinetic energy	Energy associated with relative motion of objects.	3
8375151587	thermal energy	Kinetic energy associated with the random movement of molecules or atoms. (heat)	4
8375151588	potential energy	Stored energy.	5
8375151589	first law of thermodynamics	Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.	6
8375151590	entropy	A measure of disorder or randomness. Tends to increase in the universe.	7
8375151591	second law of thermodynamics	Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe.	8
8375151592	free energy	Measures the portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell.	9
8375151593	endergonic reaction	Reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings.	10
8375151594	exergonic reaction	Reaction that proceeds with a net release of free energy.	11
8375151595	energy coupling	The use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one.	12
8375151596	ATP (adenosine triphosphate)	Composed of a sugar ribose, nitrogenous base adenine, and a chain of three phosphate groups bonded to it.	13
8375151597	phosphorylation	The metabolic process of introducing a phosphate group into an organic molecule.	14
8375151598	catalyst	A chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.	15
8375151599	enzyme	Protein that speeds up reactions. Typically end in "ase" (ex. Peroxidase, Lipase)	16
8375151600	activation energy	The amount of energy needed to push the reactants over an energy barrier.	17
8375151601	enzyme-substrate complex	When an enzyme binds to its substrate, it forms:	18
8375151602	active site	A pocket or groove on the surface of the enzyme where a substrate can bind.	19
8375151603	induced fit model	States that the enzyme and substrate undergo conformational changes to interact fully with one another (as opposed to "Lock & Key"	20
8375151604	cofactor	Inorganic metal ion helpers that may be bound tightly to the enzyme as a permanent resident, or may bind loosely and reversibly along with the substrate.	21
8375151605	coenzyme	Non-protein Organic helpers that may be bound tightly to the enzyme as a permanent resident, or may bind loosely and reversibly along with the substrate.	22
8375151606	competitive inhibitors	Reduce the productivity of enzymes by blocking substrates from entering active sites.	23
8375151607	noncompetitive inhibitors	Impede enzymatic reactions by binding to another part of the enzyme (other than the active site).	24
8375151608	feedback inhibition/negative feedback	A metabolic pathway is switched off by the inhibitory binding of its end product to an enzyme that acts early in the pathway.	25
8375151609	saturated enzyme	Describes an enzyme's maximum activity when every active site is being used.	26
8375151610	substrate	The reactant that an enzyme binds with to form product.	27
8375151611	Chemical Energy	Potential energy trapped in molecular bonds.	28
8375151612	Spontaneous Reaction	When a reaction doesn't require energy to proceed it is said to be this - doesn't mean it will be FAST.	29

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Osmosis - AP Biology (Quiz #1) Flashcards

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7368052939	diffusion	entering and leaving cells by a passive process (no energy) random movement of molecules but is directed from areas of high concentration towards regions of lower concentration in order to reach an equilibrium.	0
7368063874	simple passive diffusion	when small molecules pass through the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane	1
7368068772	selectively permeable	the fact that the membrane has tiny pores or holes allowing certain substances to move across it	2
7368077952	osmosis	the diffusion of water molecules across a membrane (typically a cell membrane)	3
7368091697	tonicity	the relationship between the concentrations of solutes on either side of the membrane which determines the direction and extent of diffusion based on concentration being either greater than, less than, equal to	4
7368101402	hypotonic	lower concentration of solutes	5
7368103796	isotonic	equal concentration of solutes normal	6
7368114591	hypertonic	greater concentration of solutes	7
7368135796	cytolysis	rupturing of the cell because it's so swollen	8
7368140256	turgor pressure	plant cells have a rigid cell wall so that if excess water is bathed among cells, the wall pushes back so that the cell doesn't inflate with water and burst	9
7368155338	plasmolyzed	deflated, and/or dried out	10

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Biology in Focus (AP) Chapter 19 Flashcards

Adapted from:
Urry, L., Cain, M., Wasserman, S., Minorsky, P., Jackson, R., & Reece, J. (2014). Campbell biology in focus. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. (ISBN# 0321813804)

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6318561732	Adaptation	Inherited characteristic of an organism that enhances its survival and reproduction in specific environments.	0
6318561733	Analogous	Having characteristics that are similar because of convergent evolution, not homology.	1
6318561734	Artificial selection	The selective breeding of domesticated plants and animals to encourage the occurrence of desirable traits.	2
6318561735	Biogeography	The study of the past and present distribution of species.	3
6318561736	Catastrophism	The principle that events in the past occurred suddenly and were caused by different mechanisms than those operating today. See uniformitarianism.	4
6318561738	Convergent evolution	The evolution of similar features in independent evolutionary lineages.	5
6318561739	Endemic	Referring to a species that is confined to a specific, relatively small geographic area.	6
6318561740	Evolution	Descent with modification; the idea that living species are descendants of ancestral species that were different from the present-day ones; also defined more narrowly as the change in the genetic composition of a population from generation to generation.	7
6318561741	Evolutionary tree	A branching diagram that reflects a hypothesis about evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms.	8
6318561742	Fossil	A preserved remnant or impression of an organism that lived in the past.	9
6318561743	Homologous structures	Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry.	10
6318561744	Homology	Similarity in characteristics resulting from a shared ancestry.	11
6318561745	Natural selection	A process in which organisms with certain inherited characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce than are organisms with other characteristics.	12
6318561746	Paleontology	The scientific study of fossils.	13
6318561747	Pangaea	The supercontinent that formed near the end of the Paleozoic era, when plate movements brought all the landmasses of Earth together.	14
6318561748	Stratum	A rock layer formed when new layers of sediment cover older ones and compress them.	15
6318561750	Vestigial structure	A structure of marginal, if any, importance to an organism. Vestigial structures are historical remnants of structures that had important functions in ancestors.	16
6318561751	Lamarck	theory of disuse and use; inheritance of acquired characteristics (1744-1829)	17
6318561752	Theory of use and disuse	if a body part is used, that body part becomes larger and stronger, if it is not used, it deteriorates	18
6318561753	Hutton	Gradualism: believed that major changes such as earth today were shaped by slow and continuous processes. Gave clues to scientists that earth was much older than previously thought. (1795)	19
6318561754	Lyell	believed that geologic processes were operating at the same rate as in the past	20
6318561755	Cuvier	catastrophism: believed that the extinction of species was caused by catastrophic events such as floods	21
6318561756	Aristotle	believed species were fixed and unchanging bc they were perfectly created by god. He organized them on a scale of increasing complexity "scala naturae"	22
6318561757	Linnaeus	binomial nomenclature- introduced the classification of species into increasingly general groups	23
6318561758	Scala Naturae	Scale of nature that organized living things in order of complexity by Aristotle	24
6318561759	5 observations and 3 inferences of evolution	obeservations: 1) limited resources 2) pops tend to be stable in size (only seasonal fluctuations) 3)population sizes inc exponentially if all individ bron reprod successfully 4) members of a pop vary in characterstics 5) variation is inheritable Inferences 1)overreproduction = struggle for existence = fraction of offspring exist 2) survival depends on inherited traits, adv traits = more likely to survive & reprod than other individ 3) gradual change in pop with more advanced charcteristics	25
6318561760	Thomas Malthus	a population has the potential to increase faster than its resources and food supplies	26

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Flashcards

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FHS- AP Biology Unit 2 Review Flashcards

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8267367192	DNA Replication	the process by which a DNA molecule is copied; also called DNA synthesis	0
8267367193	Double helix	two strands	1
8267367194	Antiparallel	subunits run in opposite directions (5 to 3 and 3 to 5)	2
8267367195	Nitrogenous bases of Dna	A, T, C, G	3
8267367196	Purines	A and G Nitrogenous bases with two organic rings	4
8267367197	Pyrimidines	C and T Nitrogenous base with a single organic ring	5
8267367198	Semiconservative Model	the two strands of the parental molecule separate and each functions as a template for synthesis of a new complementary strand- most common	6
8267367200	Replication Fork	a Y shaped region where the parental strands of DNA are being unwound	7
8267367201	Helicases	enzymes that untwist the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and make them available as template strands	8
8267367203	Primase	Synthesizes the primer Starts a complementary RNA chain from a single RNA nucleotide, adding more RNA nucleotides one at a time, using the parental DNA strand as a template	9
8267367204	DNA polymerases	Enzyme that catalyze the synthesis of new DNA by adding nucleotides to a preexisting chain	10
8267367205	Leading strand	Strand that continuously adds nucleotides to the new complementary strand as the fork progresses DNA pol III	11
8267367206	Lagging Strand	The strand that DNA pol III works away from the replication fork Synthesized discontinuosly as a series of segments	12
8267367207	Okazaki fragments	Series of segments that are 1000-2000 nucleotides long	13
8267367208	DNA Ligase	joins the sugar phosphate backbones of all the Okazaki fragments into a continuous DNA strand	14
8267367209	DNA polymerase III	Synthesizes new DNA strands by adding nucleotides to an RNA primer or a pre-existing DNA strand	15
8267367210	DNA polymerase I	Removes RNA nucleotides of primer from 5' end and replaces them with DNA nucleotides	16
8267367211	Nuclease	DNA cutting enzyme that cuts out the damaged parts of the strand and fills the space with nucleotides using the undamaged strand as a template	17
8267367212	Telomeres	Special nucleotide sequences at the ends of chromosomes TTAGGG is repeated between 100-1000 times Prevent the staggered ends of daughter molecule from activitating cell's system for monitoring DNA damage	18
8267367213	Histones	Proteins that are responsible for the first level of DNA packing in chromatin	19
8267367214	Chromatin	complex of DNA and protein	20
8267367215	G1,G2, and S	What are the main checkpoints a cell goes through before cell divides	21
8267367216	G1	This is the most important checkpoint in cell cycle, if cell is cleared, it will go through the rest of the cycle. Right before S phase	22
8267367217	Nutrients, size, DNA, and Molecular signals(growth factors)	What 4 factors are assessed at the G1 checkpoint?	23
8267367218	G0	Where will the cell go if it does not pass G1?	24
8267367219	G0	A nondividing state occupied by cells that have left the cell cycle, sometimes reversibly.	25
8267367220	G2	At this checkpoint, the cell makes sure each daughter cell will inherit complete and not damaged DNA. Also makes sure the cell size is ok	26
8267367222	M checkpoint	In this checkpoint, the cell will masked sure all sister chromatids are correctly attached to the kinetochore microtubules Cell will looks for stranglers in the cytoplasm	27
8267367223	Normal cell	This type of cell has anchorage dependence, pays attention to nutrients, and density dependence inhibition, and growth factors	28
8267367224	cancer cells	Complete disregard for the normal cell regulators	29
8267367226	anchorage dependence	The requirement that a cell must be attached to another cell in order to divide.	30
8267367227	density dependent inhibition	If space gets crowded, cell will stop dividing	31
8267367228	growth factor	Protein released by other cells to stimulate cell division	32
8267367229	cancer cells	Disability in which the cells lose the ability to control growth by not responding to regulations	33
8267367230	Apoptosis	Cells usually undergo..... but cancer cells do not	34
8267367232	Benign tumor	A mass of abnormal cells that remains at the site of origin	35
8267367233	malignant tumor	A cancerous tumor that is invasive enough to impair the functions of one or more organs.	36
8267367234	metastasis	Cancer cells break off from tumor and go to different parts of the body	37
8267367235	Unusual number of chromosomes	Give one other characteristic of a cancer cell	38
8267367237	Cyclins	These activate CDKS, build up when needed but then go away	39
8267367239	Phosphorylation	Adding a phosphate group to a protein to activate it	40
8267367240	Kinase	enzyme that phosphorylates another target protein	41
8267367241	cyclin dependent kinases	Needs the cyclin to be activated When cyclin binds to it, it phosphorylates a specific target protein to make something happen in the cell. Always present throughout the cell cycle, but activity rises and falls with cyclin	42
8267367242	MPF	This is an example of a cdk, it phosphorylates many target proteins to make prophase happen(nuclear envelope break down, chromosomes condense)	43
8267367246	genome	-consists of all the DNA in a cell -holds specific genetic traits	44
8267367247	chromosomes	-packages in a cell which contain DNA molecules -humans have 46 -each species has a specific number	45
8267367248	chromatin	-makes up chromosomes -complex of DNA and protein	46
8267367249	somatic cells	-have two sets of chromosomes -go through mitosis -nonreproductive	47
8267367250	gametes	-have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells -go through meiosis -reproductive cells	48
8267367251	sister chromatids	-each duplicated chromosome has two -separate during cell division	49
8267367252	centromere	-narrow waist of the duplicated chromosome -where the two chromatids are most closely attached	50
8267367253	cytokinesis	-division of the cytoplasm	51
8267367254	interphase	-where 90% of a cell's life is spent -cell growing and chromosomes coping -3 subphases: -G1 -Synthesis -G2 -cell is growing	52
8267367255	G2	In which subphase of interphase are the chromosomes duplicated?	53
8267367256	prophase	-first stage of mitosis -spindle fibers start to forms -nucleus thins -sister chromatids combine to make chromosomes	54
8267367258	metaphase	-third phase of mitosis -chromosomes line up in the center of the cell -spindle fibers attach to the kinetochores of each sister chromatid	55
8267367259	anaphase	-fourth phase of mitosis -sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite ends of the cell	56
8267367260	telophase	-fifth and final stage of mitosis -genetically identical daughter nuclei form at opposite ends of the cell -nonkinetochore microtubules from opposite poles overlap and push each other elongating the cell	57
8267367261	mitotic spindle	-apparatus of microtubules that control chromosome movement during mitosis	58
8267367262	centrosome	-microtubule organizing center -replicates, each set goes to opposite ends -spindle fibers grow out from them	59
8267367263	kinetochores	-protein complexes that assemble on sections of DNA at centromeres -where spindle fibers and microtubules attach	60
8267367264	metaphase plate	-midway point between the spindles two poles -where chromosomes line up in metaphase	61
8267367265	cleavage furrow	-formed during late telophase and cytokinesis	62
8267367266	cell plate	forms in plant cells during cytokinesis	63
8267367267	binary fission	-prokaryotic method of reproduction and cell division -chromosome replicates and the two daughter chromosomes actively more apart	64
8267367268	cell cycle control system	-directs sequential event of the cell cycle -regulated by internal and external force -receives signals from the cytoplasm	65
8267367269	checkpoints	-where the cell cycle stops until a go ahead signal is received -G1 is the most important for many cells	66
8267367270	G0	-the nondividing stage of the cell if it does not pass the G1 checkpoint	67
8267367273	cancer cells	-cells that exhibit neither density dependent inhibition nor anchorage dependence -escape the usual control system -do not need growth factors to divide	68
8267367278	46	What is the chromosome number for humans?	69
8267367279	homologous chromosomes	-2 chromosomes in each pair -same length and shape -carry genes controlling the same inherited characters	70
8267367280	diploid cell	-has two sets of chromosomes -human # is 46 -2n	71
8267367281	haploid	-gamete -contains a single set of chromosomes -n	72
8267367282	fertilization	the union of gametes (sperm and egg)	73
8267367283	zygote	-fertilized egg -one set of chromosomes from each parent -diploid cell produces somatic cells by mitosis	74
8267367284	prophase I	-occupies more than 90% of the time required for meiosis -chromosomes condense -synapse and crossing over -tetrads and chiasmata	75
8267367285	synapsis	-homologous chromosomes loosely pair up -align gene by gene -get together with homologous pair	76
8267367286	crossing over	nonsister chromatids exchange DNA segments	77
8267367287	metaphase I	homologous pairs line up in the middles of the cell and the spindle fibers attach to them	78
8267367288	anaphase I	-chromosomes move toward each pole -sister chromatids move as one unit toward the pole	79
8267367289	telophase I	-beginning: each half of the cell has a haploid set of chromosomes -each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids	80
8267367290	prophase II	spindle apparatus forms	81
8267367291	metaphase II	-because of crossing over the sister chromatids are no longer genetically identical -kinetochores of sister chromosomes attach to microtubules extending from opposite poles	82
8267367292	anaphase II	-sister chromatids of each chromosome move as two newly individual chromosomes toward opposite poles	83
8267367293	telophase II	-chromosomes arrive at opposite poles -nuclei form and the chromosomes begin decondensing	84
8267367294	independent assortment of chromosomes	-mechanism contributing to genetic variation -homologous pairs of chromosomes orient randomly -metaphase I -each pair of chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal homologs into daughter cells independently of the other pairs -the number of combinations possible when chromosomes assort independently into gametes is 2^n where n is the haploid number	85
8267367295	crossing over	-mechanism contributing to genetic variation -produces recombinant chromosomes -begins in early prophase I -homologous chromosomes pair up gene by gene -homologue portions of two nonsister chromatids trade places -combines DNA from two parents into a single chromosome	86
8267367296	random fertilization	-any sperm can fuse with any ovum -the fusion of two gametes produces a zygote with any of about 70 trillion diploid combinations -each zygote has a unique genetic identity	87
8267367297	chromosome theory of inheritance	a basic principle in biology stating that genes are located in chromosomes and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis accounts for inheritance patterns	88
8267367298	wild type	an individual with the normal phenotype	89
8267367299	sex-linked gene	a gene located on a sex chromosome	90
8267367300	linked genes	genes that are located on the same chromosome	91
8267367301	genetic recombination	the general term for the production of offspring with new combinations of traits inherited from the two parents	92
8267367302	parental types	offspring with a phenotype that matches one of the parental phenotypes	93
8267367303	recombinant	an offspring whose phenotype differs from that of the parents	94
8267367304	genetic map	an ordered list of genetic loci along a chromosome	95
8267367305	linkage map	a genetic map based on the frequencies of recombination between markers during crossing over of homologous chromosomes	96
8267367306	map units	a measurement between the distance of genes; 1 map unit is equivalent to a 1% recombination frequency	97
8267367309	hemophilia	a human genetic disease caused by a sex linked recessive allele, characterized by excesive bleeding following injury	98
8267367310	Barr body	a dense object lying around the inside of the nuclear envelope in female mammalian cells, representing an inactivated x chromosome	99
8267367311	nondisjunction	an accident of meiosis or mitosis, on which the members of a pair of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to move apart properly	100
8267367312	aneuploidy	a chromosomal aberration in which certain chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number	101
8267367313	trisomic	(type of aneuploidy) a chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has an extra copy of one chromosome, instead of the normal two	102
8267367314	monosomic	(type of aneuploidy) a chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has only one copy of a chromosome, instead of the normal two	103
8267367315	polyploidy	a chromosomal alteration in which the organism possesses more than two complete chromosomal sets (i.e tetraploidy like bananas or octoploidy like strawberries)	104
8267367316	deletion	(1) a deficiency in a chromosome resulting from the loss of a fragment through breakage (2) a mutational loss of one or more nucleotide pairs from a gene	105
8267367317	duplication	an aberration on chromosomes structure resulting from an error in meiosis or mutagens; duplication of a portion of a chromosome resulting from fusion with a fragment from a homologous chromosome	106
8267367318	inversion	an aberration in chromosome structure resulting from an error in meiosis or from mutagens; specifically reattachment of a chromosomal fragment to the chromosome from which the fragment originated, but in a reverse orientation	107
8267367319	translocation	(1) an aberration in a chromosome structure resulting from an error in meiosis or from mutagens; specifically, the attachment of a chromosomal fragment to a nonhomologous chromosome (2) during protein synthesis, the third stage in the elongation cycle when the RNA carrying the growing polypeptide moves from the A site to the P site on the ribosome (3) the transport via phloem of food in a plant	108
8267367323	Kleinfelter Syndrome	(XXY) Not inherited; occurs only as a result of a random genetic error after conception. Males may have low testosterone and reduced muscle mass, facial hair, and body hair. Most males with this condition produce little or no sperm. Treatment may include testosterone replacement and fertility treatment.	109
8267367324	Turner Syndrome	A chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromosome is deleted.	110
8267367328	character	a heritable feature that varies among individuals (what a gene actually codes for)	111
8267367329	trait	each variant of a character (allele)	112
8267367330	true-breeding	organisms that, when reproducing, create offspring of all the same variety	113
8267367331	hybridization	the crossing of two true-breeding parents	114
8267367332	P generation	the name for the true-breeding parents	115
8267367333	F1 Generation	the hybrid offspring of true-breeding parents	116
8267367334	F2 Generation	after the self-polonization of the F1 generation, this is produced.	117
8267367335	The Law of Segregation	1. alternative versions of genes account for variations in inherited characters. 2. for each character, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent. 3. two alleles for a heretable character separate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes.	118
8267367336	dominant allele	determines organisms apperence	119
8267367337	recessive allele	has no noticible affect on organisms appearence	120
8267367338	Punnett square	a diagram for predicting the allele composition of offspring from a cross between individuals of known genetic makeup	121
8267367339	homozygous	an organism having a pair of identical alleles for a character, either dominant or recessive	122
8267367340	phenotype	an organisms traits	123
8267367341	genotype	an organisms genetic makeup	124
8267367342	testcross	the result of breeding a recessive homozygote with an organism of dominant phenotype but unknown genotype	125
8267367343	monohybrids	parent heterozygous for one character	126
8267367344	dihybrids	heterozygous for two characters	127
8267367345	law of independent assortment	each pair of alleles segregates independently of other pairs of alleles during gamete formation	128
8267367346	multiplication rule	to determine the probability, we multiply the probability of one event by the probability of another	129
8267367347	addition rule	the probability that any one of two or more mutually exclusive events will occur is calculated by adding together their individual probabilities	130
8267367348	complete dominance	the situation in which the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are indistinguishable	131
8267367349	codominance	the situation in which the phenotypes of both alleles are exhibited in the heterozygote	132
8267367350	incomplete dominance	the situation in which the phenotype of heterozygotes is intermediate between the phenotypes of individuals homozygous for either allele	133
8267367355	polygenic inheritance	an additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character	134
8267367356	pedigree	the assembling of information about a particular trait into a family tree describing the interrelationships of parents and children across the generations	135
8273100034	Unlinked	Two genes have a recombination frequency of more than 50%	136
8273103166	Linked	Two genes that are said to be on the same chromosome and are inherited together	137

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AP Biology Chapter 4 and 5 Flashcards

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4887923405	Significance of carbon to life	Carbon can form complex, diverse, and large bio-molecules Its chemical structure allows it to form four bonds	0
4887923406	Molecules that make up life	Carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, nitrogen, oxygen	1
4887923407	Functional Groups	Directly affect molecular function	2
4887923408	Hydroxyl	-OH or HO- Example - Ethanol Polar	3
4887923409	Methyl	CH3 Example - 5-Methyl Cytosine Nonpolar	4
4887923410	Carbonyl	Carbon double bonded with oxygen Example - Ketone (group is in the middle of the carbon skeleton/two "R" groups) - Acetone Aldehyde (group is at the end of a carbon skeleton/one "R" group) - Propanol Polarity depends on the geometry	5
4887923411	Carboxyl	-COOH or HOOC- (Carbon single bonded with OH and double bonded with O) Example - Acetic Acid Very polar	6
4887923412	Phosphate	P04 (Phosphate single bonded to two negatively charged oxygen, double bonded to one oxygen, and single bonded to an "R" group) Example - Glycerol Phosphate Very polar	7
4887923413	Amine (Amino)	-NH2 or -NH3+ (Acts as a base) Example - Glycine Very polar	8
4887923414	Sulhydryl	-SH or HS- Example - Cysteine Nonpolar	9
4887923415	Polymerization	The process of which two or more monomers synthesize into a polymer	10
4887923416	Dehydration Synthesis	The process in which two or more monomers form a polymer and lose a water molecule Example - 10 molecules of water are released when 11 monomers are linked together (don't count the initial monomer)	11
4887923417	Hydrolysis	The process in which a polymer is decomposed into simpler monomer units with the addition of a water molecule Example - 4 water molecules are required to hydrolyze a 5-monomer unit polymer	12
4887923418	Chitin	A polysaccharide that is chemically similar to cellulose, but with the addition of nitrogen molecule(s) Makes the exoskeleton of fungi, insects or crustaceans (can be molted)	13
4887923419	Starch	A polysaccharide that consists of Alpha 1,4 links bond the glucose monomers together (can be digested by humans) Found in plants, seeds	14
4887923420	Cellulose	A polysaccharide that is chemically similar to starch, but uses Beta 1,4 links to bond glucose monomers together (cannot be digested by animals unless a specialized bacterium is present, as in cows) Found in plants, seeds, fungi	15
4887923421	Glycogen	A branched polysaccharide of many glucose monomers, found in the animals (liver and muscle cells). Used for energy storage. "Animal starch"	16
4887923422	Glycosidic Linkages	Alpha 1,4 (Oxygen bonded with hydrogens angled downwards) Beta 1,4 (Oxygen bonded with hydrogens angled upwards)	17
4887923423	Glucose	The basic monomer unit for all carbohydrates (monosaccharide) Serves as the main source of energy Has an aldehyde (carbonyl) at C1 Hexose (C6H12O6)	18
4887923424	Fructose	A monosaccharide similar to that of glucose Abundant in plants Has a ketone (carbonyl) at C2 Hexose (C6H12O6)	19
4887923425	Galactose	A monosaccharide similar to that of glucose (orientation of H and OH on C4 are interchanged)	20
4887923426	Lactose	Milk sugar, a dissacharide Composed of galactose and glucose	21
4887923427	Maltose	Brewing (beer) sugar, rarely found in nature, a dissacharide Composed of two glucose monomers	22
4887923428	Sucrose	Table sugar, a dissacharide Composed of glucose and fructose	23
4887923429	Starch	Composed of linked L (alpha)-Glucose	24
4887923430	Cellulose	Composed of linked D (beta)-Glucose monomers	25
4887923431	Molecular formula for a polymer with 4 glucose molecules	C24H42O21 Subtract 3 Oxygen and 6 Hydrogen since three H2O molecules are required to bond four glucose monomers together	26
4887923432	Carbohydrate Loading	Eating large amounts of carbohydrates in preparation for an athletic event A strategy used for endurance athletes to saturate the liver and muscles with glycogen	27
4887923433	Ring Structure of Glucose		28
4887923434	Flattened Glucose	H C=O H-C-OH HO-C-H H-C-OH H-C-OH H-C-OH H	29
4887923435	Dissaccharides	Sucrose - Fructose and Glucose Maltose - Glucose and Glucose Lactose - Glucose and Galactose	30
4887923436	Why fat is better at storing energy than carbohydrate	Fats contain more energy per unit (2x as much as carbohydrates). Fats are better at storing energy because each glycerol unit can hold three long fatty acid units. Long hydrocarbon chains and their geometry allow dense packing	31
4887923437	Saturated Fats	Fatty acids are only comprised of single bonds that allow linear hydrocarbon chains to form Dense packing for high energy concentration Typically solids at room temperature	32
4887923438	Unsaturated Fats	Fatty acids are comprised of one or more double bond that produces a "kink" or a bend in the hydrocarbon chain Prevents optimal packing, and creates spaces Typically liquids at room temperature	33
4887923439	Steriods	Example - Cholesterol, sex hormones Composed of 4 fused carbon rings Different steroids are due to different functional groups	34
4887923440	Phospholipids	Make up the plasma membrane Phosphate head (hydrophilic, polar) Fatty acid tail (hydrophobic, nonpolar) Heads attracted to H2O, which is why there is water in the intracellular and extracellular matrix Self assembles into aggregates	35
4887923441	Glycerol	A 3C (3 carbon) alcohol that forms the backbone of a lipid OH Removed when combined with fatty acid	36
4887923442	Fatty Acid	Long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at the start (an H from the OH is removed when combined with glycerol)	37
4887923443	Ester Links	O-C=O bonds Occurs between the two oxygens	38
4887923444	Parts of an amino acid	Central Carbon Amino group to the left and carboxylic group to the right Hydrogen at the top "R" group at the bottom (determines polarity)	39
4887923445	Protein functions and examples	Catalysis (enzymes - amylase) Structure (collagen) Storage (ferratin) Transport (protein pumps) Hormones (insulin) Receptor Motor (muscles and motor proteins - myosin) Defense (antibodies)	40
4887923446	Primary Structure of Proteins	Linear chain of amino acids immediately when a polypeptide is formed	41
4887923447	Secondary Structure of Proteins	Forms immediately after the primary structure Shapes due to hydrogen bonds (more bonds, more stability) and the placement of amino acids from the primary structure Alpha Helixes and Beta-Pleated sheets	42
4887923448	Tertiary Structure of Proteins	Interactions between two (or more) R-Groups or with the peptide backbone Hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, Van der Waals interactions, covalent disulfide bonds, ionic bonds Many proteins are complete in the tertiary structure	43
4887923449	Quaternary Structure of Proteins	Multiple polypeptide (Tertiary Proteins) form a functional protein Collagen, or hemoglobin	44
4887923450	Peptide Bond	A covalent bond between an amino functional group and a carboxyl functional group NH2 loses a hydrogen, and -COOH loses OH	45
4887923451	Sickle Cell Anemia	In normal hemoglobin, the 6th amino acid is Glutamic Acid (polar) Sickle Cell Anemia replaces Glutamic Acid with Valine (non-polar) Mutated hemoglobin crystallize into sickle (half moon) shaped cells Clogs small vessels and cannot carry oxygen as well	46
4887923452	Denaturing a protein	Transfer of the protein from an aqueous solution to a nonpolar solvent Chemical exposure Excessive heat Changes the primary structure of a protein by breaking the intermolecular bonds that holds its shape	47
4887923453	How proteins fold	A chaperone protein (Chaperonins) Polypeptide enters one end of the chaperonin The chaperonin closes, and the cylindrical shape of the chaperonin changes (in a hydrophilic enviornment) The chaperonin opens up and a correctly folded protein exits	48
4887923454	Isomer	Compounds with the same formula but different molecular makeup (different geometry)	49
4887923455	Enantiomer	Isomers that are mirror images of each other, and differ due to a central (asymmetrical) carbon L-isomer (left) D-isomer (right)	50
4887923456	Functional Group	Chemical groups that affect molecular function by directly being involved in a chemical reaction	51
4887923457	Monomer	Small molecules that act as repeating units for larger molecules	52
4887923458	Polymer	A large molecule made up of many monomer units	53
4887923459	Hexose	A 6-Carbon sugar (ex. Glucose, fructose)	54
4887923460	Pentose	A 5-Carbon sugar (ex. Ribose)	55
4887923461	Nucleotide	The monomer unit of a polynucleotide (nucleic acids) Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine (DNA)/Uracil (RNA)	56
4887923462	Pyrimidine	6-Member ring of carbon and nitrogen Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil	57
4887923463	Purine	A 6-member ring of carbon and nitrogen fused to a 5-member ring Larger than pyrimidines Adenine and guanine	58
4887923464	C:H:O Ratios in macromolecules	Carbohydrates - 1:2:1 Lipids - 1:2:(Barely any) Proteins and Nucleic Acids - No exact ratio	59
4887923465	Elements associated with macromolecules	Carbohydrates - Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon Lipids - Phosphorus (only in phospholipids, but NOT in fats and steriods), Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon Proteins - Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfer Nucleic Acid - Phosphorus, Nitrogen, Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen	60
4887923466	Where certain functional groups are found	-OH (Many proteins and lipids) -CH2 (Many proteins and lipids) -COOH (All proteins and many lipids) -NH2 (All proteins) -SH (Many proteins) -PO4 (Many lipids)	61
4887923467	Element unique to proteins	Sulfer	62
4887923468	RNA vs DNA	Ribose vs Deoxyribose Uracil vs Thymine Single vs Double stranded	63
4887923469	Rules to identify macromolecules	Carbohydrates - 1:2:1 ratio of ONLY Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen Lipids - Made up of a glycerol backbone and fatty acids, 1:2 Carbon to Hydrogen ratio Proteins - Contains NH2 or NH3+, contains a -COOH functional group, and peptide bonds Nucleid Acids - Nucleotides, 5 Carbon Sugar, and a phosphate group	64

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AP Biology: Chapter 18 (gene expression) Flashcards

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8525528494	Operator	-off/on "switch" that controls whole cluster of functionally related genes	0
8525528495	Operon	-operate + promoter + genes they control -entire stretch of DNA for enzyme production for tryptophan pathway	1
8525528496	Repressor	-protein that switches operon off	2
8525528497	Regulatory Gene (trpR)	-product of trp repressor	3
8525528498	Corepressor	small molecule that cooperates w/ repressor protein to switch operon off	4
8525528499	Repressible Operon	transcription usually on but can be inhibited when specific small molecule binds allosterically to regulatory protein	5
8525528500	Inducible Operon	transcription usually off but can be stimulated when specific small molecule interacts w/ regulatory protein	6
8525528501	Inducer	specific small molecule, inactivates repressor	7
8525528502	Activator	protein that binds to DNA and stimulates gene transcription (ex. CAP)	8
8525528503	Differential Gene Expression	expression of different genes by cells in the same genome	9
8525528504	Histone Acetylation	-attached to lysines in histone tails -> lysines acetylated -> positive charges neutralized -histone tails no longer bind to neighboring nucleosomes	10
8525528505	Control Elements	segments of noncoding DNA that help regulate transcription by binding certain proteins	11
8525528506	Enhancers	-distal control elements -may be thousands of nucleotides upstream/downstream of gene or in intron	12
8525528507	Alternative RNA Splicing	-different mRNA molecules produced from same primary transcript, depending on which RNA segments are treated as introns and exons -can expand repertoire of eukaryotic genome	13
8525528508	Proteasome	giant protein complex recognize ubiquitin-tagged proteins and degradation	14
8525528509	microRNAs (miRNAs)	-small, single-stranded RNA molecules capable of binding to complementary sequences in mRNA molecules	15
8525528510	RNA interference (RNAi)	injecting double-stranded RNA molecules into cell turned off expression of gene w/ same sequence as RNA	16
8525528511	Small Interfering RNAs (siRNAs)	-similar in size and function to miRNAs -formed by much longer double-stranded RnA molecules -> many siRNAs	17
8525528512	Cell Differentiation	process by which cells become specialized in structure and function	18
8525528513	Morphogenesis	physical processes that give organism its shape	19
8525528514	Cytoplasmic Determinants	maternal substances in egg that influence course of early development	20
8525528515	Induction	changes in target cells caused by signals impinging on embryonic cell from others in vicinity, including contact w/ cell surface molecules on neighboring cells and binding of growth factors secreted by neighboring cells	21
8525528516	Determination	-events that lead to observable differentiation of cell	22
8525528517	Homoeotic Genes	control pattern formation in late embryo, larva, and adult	23
8525528518	Bicoid (two-tailed)	-mutant gene causes lack of front half of body and posterior structure at both ends -essential for setting anterior end	24
8525528519	Morphagen	gradients for substances that establish embryos axis and more	25
8525528520	Oncogenes	-cancer-causing genes	26
8525528521	Proto-Oncogenes	-normal versions of cellular genes -code for proteins that stimulate normal cell growth and division	27
8525528522	Tumor-Supressor Genes	-prevent uncontrolled cell growth -repair damaged DNA -control cell anchorage (absent in cancers)	28
8525528523	Ras Protein	G protein that relays signal from growth factor on plasma membrane	29
8525528524	p53	tumor suppressor gene that codes for specific transcription factor protein that promotes synthesis of cell cycle	30
8525528525	Mutation Effects	-result in cell cycle overstimulated -not inhibited normally	31

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Biology in Focus (AP) Chapter 34 Flashcards

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9083593868	diffusion	the random thermal motion of particles of liquids, gases, or solids. In the presence of a concentration or electrochemical gradient, diffusion results in the net movement of a substance from a region where it is more concentrated to a region where it is less concentrated	0
9083593869	gastrovascular cavity	a central cavity with a single opening in the body of certain animals, including cnidarians and flatworms, that functions in both the digestion and distribution of nutrients	1
9083593870	heart	a muscular pump that uses metabolic energy to elevate the hydrostatic pressure of the circulatory fluid (blood or hemolymph). The fluid then flows down a pressure gradient through the body and eventually returns to the heart	2
9083593871	open circulatory system	a circulatory system in which fluid called hemolymph bathes the tissues and organs directly and there is no distinction between the circulating fluid and the interstitial fluid	3
9083593872	hemolymph	in invertebrates with an open circulatory system, the body fluid that bathes tissues	4
9083593873	closed circulatory system	a circulatory system in which blood is confined to vessels and is kept separate from the interstitial fluid	5
9083593874	blood	a connective tissue with a fluid matrix called plasma in which red blood cells, white blood cells, and cell fragments called platelets are suspended	6
9083593875	cardiovascular system	a closed circulatory system with a heart and branching network of arteries, capillaries, ad veins. The system is characteristic of vertebrates	7
9083593876	artery	a vessel that carries blood away from the heart to organs throughout the body	8
9083593877	capillary	a microscopic blood vessel that penetrates the tissues and consists of a single layer of endothelial cells that allows exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid	9
9083593878	capillary bed	a network of capillaries in a tissue or organ	10
9083593879	atrium (plural, atria)	a chamber of the vertebrate heart that receives blood from the veins and transfers blood to a ventricle	11
9083593880	ventricle	a heart chamber that pumps blood out of the heart	12
9083593881	single circulation	a circulatory system consisting of a single pump and circuit, in which blood passes from the sites of gas exchange to the rest of the body before returning to the heart	13
9083593882	double circulation	a circulatory system consisting of separate pulmonary and systemic circuits in which blood passes through the heart after completing each circuit	14
9083593883	gas exchange circuit	the branch of the circulatory system that supplies the organs where gases are exchanged with the environment; in many amphibians, it supplies the lungs and skin and is called a pulmocutaneous circuit, whereas in birds and mammals, it supplies only the lungs and is called a pulmonary circuit.	15
9083593884	systemic circuit	the branch of the circulatory system that supplies oxygenated blood to and carries deoxygenated blood away from organs and tissues throughout the body	16
9083593885	cardiac cycle	the alternating contractions and relaxations of the heart	17
9083593886	systole	the stage of the cardiac cycle in which a heart chamber contracts and pumps blood	18
9083593887	diastole	the state of the cardiac cycle in which a heart chamber is relaxed and fills with blood	19
9083593888	atrioventricular (AV) valve	a hart valve located between each atrium and ventricle that prevents a backflow of blood when the ventricle contracts	20
9083593889	semilunar valve	a valve located at each exit of the heart, where the aorta leaves the left ventricle and the pulmonary artery leaves the right ventricle	21
9083593890	sinoatrial (SA) node	a region in the right atrium of the heart that sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract; the pacemaker	22
9083593891	electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)	a record of the electrical impulses that travel through heart muscle during the cardiac cycle	23
9083593892	atrioventricular (AV) node	a region of specialized heart muscle tissue between the left and right atria where electrical impulses are delayed for about 0.1 second before spreading to both ventricles and causing them to contract	24
9083593893	endothelium	the simple squamous layer of cells lining the lumen of blood vessels	25
9083593894	pulse	the rhythmic bulging of the artery walls with each heartbeat	26
9083593895	vasoconstriction	a decrease in the diameter of blood vessels caused by contraction of smooth muscles in the vessel walls	27
9083593896	vasodilation	an increase in the diameter of blood vessels caused by relaxation of smooth muscles in the vessel walls	28
9083593897	lymphatic system	a system of vessels and nodes separate from the circulatory system, that returns fluid, proteins, and cells to the blood	29
9083593898	lymph	thee colorless fluid, derived from interstitial fluid, in the lymphatic system of vertebrates	30
9083593899	lymph node	a organ located along a lymph vessel. Lymph nodes filter lymph and contain cells that attack viruses and bacteria	31
9083593900	plasma	the liquid matrix of blood in which the blood cells are suspended	32
9083593901	platelet	a pinched-off cytoplasmic fragment of a specialized bone marrow cell. Platelets circulate in the blood and are important in blood clotting	33
9083593902	stem cell	any relatively unspecialized cell that can produce, during a single division, one identical daughter cell and one more specialized daughter cell that can undergo further differentiation	34
9083593903	erythrocyte	a blood ell that contains hemoglobin which transports oxygen; also called a red blood cell	35
9083593904	hemoglobin	an iron-containing protein in red blood cells that reversibly binds oxygen	36
9083593905	sickle-cell disease	a recessively inherited human blood disorder in which a single nucleotide change in the beta-globin gene causes hemoglobin to aggregate, changing red blood cell shape and causing multiple symptoms in afflicted individuals	37
9083593906	leukocyte	a blood cell that functions in fighting infections; also called a white blood cell	38
9083593907	thrombus	a fibrin-containing clot that forms in a blood vessel and blocks the flow of blood	39
9083593908	low-density lipoprotein (LDL)	a particle in the blood made up of thousands of cholesterol molecules and other lipids bound to a protein. LDL transports cholesterol from the liver for incorporation into cell membranes	40
9083593909	high-density (HDL)	a particle in the blood made up of thousands of cholesterol molecules and other lipids bound to a protein. HDL scavenges excess cholesterol	41
9083593910	atherosclerosis	a cardiovascular disease in which fatty deposits called plaques develop in the inner walls of the arteries, obstructing hte arteries and causing them to harden	42
9083593911	heart attack	the damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from prolonged blockage of one or more coronary arteries	43
9083593912	stroke	the death of nervous tissue in the brain, usually resulting from the rupture or blockage of arteries in the head	44
9083593913	hypertension	a disorder in which blood pressure remains abnormally high	45
9083593914	gas exchange	the uptake of molecular oxygen from the environment and the discharge of carbon dioxide to the environment	46
9083593915	partial pressure	the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases (for instance, the pressure exerted b oxygen in air)	47
9083593916	ventilation	the flow of air or water over a respiratory surface	48
9083593917	countercurrent exchange	the exchange of a substance or heat between two fluids flowing in opposite directions. For example, blood in a fish gill flows in the opposite direction of water passing over the gill, maximizing diffusion of oxygen into and carbon dioxide out of the blood	49
9083593918	tracheal system	in insects, a system of branched, air-filled tubes that extends throughout the body and carries oxygen directly to cells	50
9083593919	lung	an infolded respiratory surface of a terrestrial vertebrate, land snail, or spider that connects to the atmosphere by narrow tubes	51
9083593920	larynx	the portion of the respiratory tract containing the vocal cords; also called the voice box	52
9083593921	trachea	the portion of the respiratory tract that passes from the larynx to the bronchi; also called the windpipe	53
9083593922	bronchus (plural, bronchi)	one of a pair of breathing tubes that branch from the trachea into the lungs	54
9083593923	alveolus (plural, alveoli)	one of the dead-end air sacs where gas exchange occurs in a mammalian lung	55
9083593924	surfactant	a substance secreted by alveoli that decreases surface tension in the fluid that coats the alveoli	56
9083593925	breathing	ventilation of the lungs through alternating inhalation and exhalation	57
9083593926	positive pressure breathing	a breathing system in which air is forced into the lungs	58
9083593927	negative pressure breathing	a breathing system in which air is pulled into the lungs	59
9083593928	diaphragm	a sheet of muscle that forms the bottom wall of the thoracic cavity in mammals. Contraction of the diaphragm pulls air into the lungs	60
9083593929	tidal volume	the volume of air a mammal inhales and exhales with each breath	61
9083593930	vital capacity	the maximum volume of air that a mammal can inhale and exhale with each breath	62
9083593931	residual volume	the amount of air that remains in the lungs after forceful exhalation	63
9083593932	respiratory pigment	a protein that transports oxygen in blood or hemolymph	64
9083593933	myoglobin	an oxygen-storing, pigmented protein in muscle cells	65

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AP Biology - basic chemistry Review Flashcards

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4836916632	hydrogen bond	slight attraction between Hydrogen of one atom and N, F, or O on another. Represented by dotted lines	0
4836916643	matter	anything that has mass and takes up space	1
4836916644	compound	substance consisting of two or more elements	2
4836916645	element	substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions	3
4836916646	atomic nucleus	made up of protons (+) and neutrons (0);	4
4836916647	atomic number	number of protons; determines an element	5
4836916648	mass number	protons + neutrons	6
4836916649	radioactive isotope	unstable nucleus due to high number of neutrons. breaks down at a rate called a half-life	7
4836916652	valence electrons	# electrons in outer shell of atom	8
4836916653	covalent bond	share a pair of electrons to fill outer shell	9
4836916654	ionic bond	transfer of electron(s) from one molecule to another to fill outer shell	10
4836916657	electronegativity	attraction of an atom for the electrons of covalent bond	11
4836916658	polar covalent bond	electrons not shared equally between two atoms due to differences in electronegativity	12
4836916660	ion	charged atom	13
4836916661	van der Waals	weak attraction due to asymmetrical electron arrangement AKA London Dispersion Forces	14
4836916662	chemical reaction	making/breaking of chemical bonds which changes matter composition	15
4836916663	chemical equilibrium	forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate	16
4836916671	acid	substance that increases H+ concentration	17
4836916672	base	substance that reduces the H+ concentration	18
4836916673	pH scale	measure the amount of H+ concentration using a log scale	19
4836916674	buffer	substance that resists changes in pH when small amounts of acid/base are added	20
4836948918	atomic mass	average of the masses of all the isotopes of an element in nature	21
4836957893	Redox	a reaction in which electrons or H atoms are transferred between atoms (oxidation/reduction)	22

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AP Biology Chapter 48: Nervous System Flashcards

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9277087345	Nervous System	- Coordinates and controls bodily functions with nerves and electrical impulses - Composed of different types of nerve cells called neurons - Brain provides integrative power that underlies the complex behavior of vertebrates - The spinal cord integrates simple responses to certain kinds of stimuli and conveys information to and from the brain	0
9277087346	Information Processing	- Sensory input, integration, motor output	1
9277087347	Central Nervous System	- Integrates and processes information from the body	2
9277087348	Peripheral Nervous System	- Transmits information to and from the Central Nervous System - Contains sensory and motor division	3
9277087349	Sensory Nervous System	- Sends signals to the Central Nervous System from receptors	4
9277087350	Motor Nervous System	- Sends signals away from the Central Nervous System to the parts of the body - Can be separated into the Somatic Nervous system and the Autonomic Nervous System	5
9277087351	Somatic Nervous System	- Carries signals to skeletal muscles and is voluntarily controlled	6
9277087352	Autonomic Nervous System	: Involuntarily regulates the internal environment : Carries signals to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands : Divides into the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic divisions	7
9277087353	Sympathetic Division	: "Fight or flight" response : Brings the body into a state of arousal	8
9277087354	Parasympathetic Division	: Promotes a return to self-maintenance functions and resting and digesting : Brings the body from a state of arousal back to normal	9
9277087355	Sensory Neurons	: Transmit information from sensory receptors to the Central Nervous System : Detects external stimuli and internal conditions	10
9277087356	Interneurons	: Integrate the information in the Central Nervous System : This can be in the spinal cord or connect up to the brain	11
9277087357	Motor Neurons	: Transmit information away from the Central Nervous System : Neurons communicate with effector organ (muscles and glands)	12
9277087358	Reflex Arc	: Body's automatic response to a stimuli : Pathway includes-receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, effector organ : Much faster response compared to the typical stimulus-response transmission pathways ->does not involve the integration of the brain ->does not require conscious control	13
9277087396	Neuron		14
9277087359	Cell Body	: Contains the organelles	15
9277087360	Dendrites	: Highly branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons	16
9277087361	Axon	: Cytoplasmic extension that transmits signals to other cells at synapses : May be covered with Schwann cells	17
9277087362	Schwann Cells	: A fatty cell wrapped around the axon to form the myelin sheath	18
9277087363	Myelin Sheath	: A fatty covering on the axon that insulates it and speeds up the conducting process	19
9277087364	Nodes of Ranvier	: Space between the Schwann cells on the axon	20
9277087365	Axon terminals	: Contains the vesicles of neurotransmitters	21
9277087366	Glia Cells	: Essential for the structural integrity of the nervous system and for the normal funciotning of neurons	22
9277087367	Resting Membrane Potential	: The electrical potential difference that polarizes the membranes of neurons : The inside of the cell is negative (K+) relative to the outside, which is more positive (Na+) : When a neuron is not transmitting a signal : -70 mV : Depends on the ionic gradients that exist across the membrane ->Ion pumps and ion channels maintain this potential : The diffusion of potassium and sodium through these channels leads to a separation of charges across the membrane, producing the resting potential	23
9277087368	Why is the charge -70 mV?	: Because there are more potassium (K+) channels open compared to sodium (Na+) and there are negative proteins inside the cell	24
9277087369	Action Potential	: Gated ion channels open or close in response to the binding of a specific ligand or a voltage change ->Changes the membrane potential : Two different responses, both graded potentials (because the change in potential varies with the strength of the stimulus) ->Hyperpolarization ->Depolarization	25
9277087370	Hyperpolarization	: An increase in the magnitude of the membrane potential (larger negative difference from inside to outside)	26
9277087371	Depolarization	: A reduction in the magnitude of the membrane potential (move towards a positive difference from outside to inside) : A stimulus strong enough to produce a depolarization that reaches the threshold will trigger and action potential	27
9277087372	Threshold	: Membrane voltage amount needed to cause an action potential : -55 mV	28
9277087373	Action Potential Steps	: A brief all-or-none depolarization of a neuron's plasma membrane that carries information along axons : Depolarization, Action Potential, Repolarization	29
9277087374	Action Potential Steps: Depolarization	: Membrane sodium (Na+) channels open which allows sodium to diffuse into the cell : This causes the charge on the neuron membrane to change to positive inside and negative outside	30
9277087375	Action Potential Steps: Action Potential	: Propagation of the signal is continued depolarization down the axon	31
9277087376	Action Potential Steps: Repolarization	: As the action potential subsides, K+ channels open, and potassium flows out of the cell whcih changes the charge again on the membrane : Na/K pump restores the ion concentration differences with the use of ATP ->Returns to the resting membrane potential : A refractory period follows the action potential during which a second action potential cannot be initiated	32
9277087377	Conduction of Action Potentials	: An action potential can travel long distances by regenerating itself along the axon : The opening of Na+ channels triggers the opening of even more channels : The speed of an action potential increases with the diameter of an axon	33
9277087378	Saltatory Conduction	: A process when action potentials in myelinated axons jump between the nodes of Ranvier : Allows the signal to travel faster down the axon	34
9277087379	Synapse	: Electrical-electrical current flows directly from one cell to another via gap junction : Chemical-a presynaptic neuron releases chemical neurotransmitters, which are stored in the synaptic terminal ->Neurotransmitters will travel through the synaptic cleft to bind the post-synaptic neuron : Calcium forces the neurotransmitters across the gap	35
9277087380	Direct Synaptic Transmission	: Involves the binding of neurotransmitters to ligand-gated ion channels : Causes the ion channels to open, generating a postsynaptic potential (either excitatory or inhibitory) : After its release, the neurotransmitter diffuses out of the synaptic cleft (either taken backup or degraded by enzymes)	36
9277087381	Neurotransmitters	: Chemical messengers that act on cells to create a response : Can produce different effects in different types of cells : Acetylcholine, epinephrine and norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin, GABA	37
9277087382	Acetylcholine	: Stimulates muscle contractions	38
9277087383	Epinephrine and Norepinephrine	: Fight or flight response	39
9277087384	Dopamine and Serotonin	: Excitatory responses	40
9277087385	GABA	: Represses neuron activity especially during fear or anxiety when neurons are overstimulated	41
9277087386	Gray Matter	: No myelin sheath : Located outside in brain and inside in spinal cord	42
9277087387	White Matter	: Has a myelin sheath : Located on outside in spinal cord and inside in brain	43
9277087388	Brainstem	: Midbrain-contains centers for passing, ascending, and descending signals : Pons-controls breathing : Medulla oblongata-controls heart rate, breathing, swallowing, and vomiting	44
9277087389	Cerebellum	: Important for coordination and balance : Also involved in earning and rememebering motor skills	45
9277087390	Diencephalon	: Epithalamus-includes pineal gland (releases melatonin for sleep) : Thalamus-sends sensory and motor information to the cerebrum : Hypothalamus-regulates homeostasis (the four F's-feeding, fighting, fleeing, and reproducing)	46
9277087391	Cerebrum	: Centers for planning and learning : Analyzes sensory information	47
9277087392	Limbic System	- Attach emotional "feelings" to survival-related functions	48