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AP Biology || Cell Cycle Flashcards

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6004937829G0Cells like nerve and muscle cells that permanently lose the ability to divide and remains in this phase0
6004937830CyclinA kind of protein that regulates the cell cycle1
6004937831Internal RegulatorsProteins that make sure that that cell doesn't undergo mitosis until certain conditions are met2
6004937832External RegulatorsGrowth factors that have the ability to speed up, slow down, or stop the cell cycle3
6004937833G1(First Gap Phase) Cell enters this phase after completing mitosis. Cell increases in size and prepares to replicate CHECKPOINT: If the cell 1) is healthy 2) has enough resources If the DNA 1) Is undamaged Otherwise, cell dies or enters G0. Moves onto the S phase4
6004937834SDNA is synthesized thru replication5
6004937835G2(Second Gap Phase) Cell produces organelles and other stuff for the two new functioning daughter cells. CHECKPOINT: DNA fully replicated and checked for errors. Contains no damage. Cell can then enter mitosis and divide.6
6004937836InterphaseContains G1, S, and G2 Cell mostly spends time in this phase. Chromosomes replicate in preparation for cell division.7
6004937837MitosisContains PMAT Is the actual division of the nucleus Used for cell growth and repair in animals. Plants use it for growth or repair. 1n -> 1n or 2n -> 2n8
6004937838ProphaseChromosomes condense and become visible Nucleoli disappears Spindle fibers form Centrioles begin to migrate towards poles Nucleus membrane begins to disintegrate9
6004937839MetaphaseChromosomes line up, single file Centrosomes are at opposite poles Spindle fibers run from centrosomes to centromeres10
6004937840AnaphaseCentromeres of each chromosome separates and spindle fibers begin to pull the sister chromosomes apart Is the shortest phase of mitosis11
6004937841TelophaseChromosomes cluster at opposite ends of the cell Nuclear membrane re-forms Chromosomes unravel12
6004937842CytokinesisDivision of the cytoplasm13
6004937843Why do cells divide?As cells increase in volume, surface area decreases and the demand for material resources, limiting cell size14
6004937844Are larger cells or smaller cells more favorable?Smaller cells have a more favorable surface area-to-volume ratio, which is better for exchange of mater15
6004937845The cell cycle......switches between interphase and cell division16
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Biology in Focus (AP) Chapter 30 Flashcards

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8777644932fertilizationthe union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote0
8777644933carpelthe ovule-producing reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of the stigma, style, and ovary1
8777644934stamenthe pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of an anther and a filament2
8777644935petala modified leaf of a flowering plant. Petals are the often colorful parts of a flower that advertise it to insects and other pollinators3
8777644936sepala modified leaf in angiosperms that helps enclose and protect a flower bud before it opens4
8777644937receptaclethe base of a flower; the part of the stem that is the site of attachment of the floral organs5
8777644938ovaryIn flowers, the portion of a carpel in which the egg-containing ovules develop6
8777644939stylethe stalk of a flower's carpel, with the ovary at the base and the stigma at the top7
8777644940stigma (plural, stigmata)the sticky part of a flower's carpel, which receives pollen grains8
8777644941ovulea structure that develops within the ovary of a seed plant and contains the female gametophyte9
8777644942pistila single carpel or a group of fused carpels10
8777644943antherIn an angiosperm, the terminal pollen sac of a stamen, where pollen grains containing sperm-producing male gametophytes form11
8777644944complete flowera flower that has all four basic floral organs: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels12
8777644945incomplete flowera flower in which one or more of the four basic floral organs (sepals, petals, stamens, or carpels) are either absent or nonfunctional13
8777644946inflorescencea group of flowers tightly clustered together14
8777644947ABC hypothesisa model of flower formation identifying three classes of organ identity genes that direct formation of the four types of floral organs15
8777644948embryo sacthe female gametophyte of angiosperms, formed from the growth and division of the megaspore into a multicellular structure that typically has eight haploid nulei16
8777644949megasporea spore from a heterosporous plant species that develops into a female gametophyte17
8777644950microsporea spore from a heterosporous plant species that develops into a male gametophyte18
8777644951pollen grainin seed plants, a structure consisting of the male gametophyte enclosed within a pollen wall19
8777644952pollen tubea tube that forms after germination of the pollen grain and that functions in the delivery of sperm to the ovule20
8777644953pollinationthe transfer of pollen to the part of a seed plant containing the ovules, a process required for fertilization21
8777644954endospermin angiosperms, a nutrient-rich tissue formed by the union of a sperm with tow polar nuclei during double fertilization. The endosperm provides nourishment to the developing embryo in angiosperm seeds22
8777644955double fertilizationa mechanism of fertilization in angiosperms in which two sperm cells unite with two cells in the female gametophyte (embryo sac) to form the zygote an endosperm23
8777644956dormancya condition typified by extremely low metabolic rate and a suspension of growth and development24
8777644957seed coata tough outer covering of a seed, formed from the outer coat of an ovule. In a flowering plant, the seed coat encloses and protects the embryo and endosperm25
8777644958hypocotylin an angiosperm embryo, the embryonic axis below the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s) and above the radicle26
8777644959radiclean embryonic root of a plant27
8777644960epicotylin an angiosperm embryo, the embryonic axis above the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s) and below the first pair of miniature leaves28
8777644961coleoptilethe covering of the young shoot of the embryo of a grass seed29
8777644962coleorhizathe covering of the young root of the embryo of a grass seed30
8777644963imbibitionthe physical adsorption of water onto the internal surfaces of structures31
8777644964fruita mature ovary of a flower. The fruit protects dormant seeds and often aids in their dispersal32
8777644965simple fruita fruit derived from a single carpel or several fused carpels33
8777644966aggregate fruita fruit derived from a single flower that has more than one carpel34
8777644967multiple fruita fruit derived from an entire inflorescence35
8777644968accessory fruita fruit, or assemblage of fruits, in which the fleshy parts are derived largely or entirely from tissues other than the ovary36
8777644969asexual reproductionthe generation of offspring from a single parent that occurs without the fusion of gametes (by budding, division of a single cell, or division of the entire organism into two or more parts). In most cases, the offspring are genetically identical to the parent37
8777644970fragmentationa means of asexual reproduction whereby a single parent breaks into parts that regenerate into whole new individuals38
8777644971apomixisthe ability of some plant species to reproduce asexually through seeds without fertilization by a male gamete39
8777644972vegetative reproductioncloning of plants in nature40
8777644973dioeciousin plant biology, having the male and female reproductive parts on different individuals of the same species41
8777644974self-incompatibilitythe ability of a seed plant to reject its own pollen and sometimes the pollen of closely related individuals42
8777644975totipotentdescribing a cell that can give rise to all parts of the embryo and adult, as well as extraembryonic membranes in species that have them43
8777644976vegetative propagationcloning of plants by humans44
8777644977callusa mass of dividing, undifferentiated cells growing in culture45
8777644978stockthe plat that provides the root system when making a graft46
8777644979scionthe twig grafted onto the stock when making a graft47
8777644980transgenicpertaining to an organism whose genome contains a gene introduced from another organism of the same or a different species48
8777644981biofuela fuel produced from biomass49
8777644982biomassthe total mass of organic matter comprising a group of organisms in a particular habitat50
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AP Biology: Protein structure and Enzymes Flashcards

THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MACROMOLECULES

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8393884890enzymeA macromolecule serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that changes the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.0
8393884891polypeptideA polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.1
8393884892proteinA functional biological molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three-dimensional structure.2
8393884893amino acidAn organic molecule possessing both carboxyl and amino groups. Amino acids serve as the monomers of polypeptides.3
8393884894peptide bondThe covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction.4
8393884895primary structureThe level of protein structure referring to the specific sequence of amino acids.5
8393884896secondary structureThe localized, repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bond formation between constituents of the backbone.6
8393884897Alpha helixA spiral shape constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific pattern of hydrogen bonding.7
8393884898Beta pleated sheetOne form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain folds back and forth. Two regions of the chain lie parallel to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds.8
8393884899tertiary structureIrregular contortions of a protein molecule due to interactions of side chains involved in hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges.9
8393884900disulfide bridgesA strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer.10
8393884901quaternary structureThe particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide.11
8393884902denaturationIn proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native shape, thereby becoming biologically inactive; in DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix. Denaturation occurs under extreme (noncellular) conditions of pH, salt concentration, and temperature.12
8393884903chaperoninA protein molecule that assists in the proper folding of other proteins.13
8393884909active siteThe specific portion of an enzyme that attaches to the substrate by means of weak chemical bonds.14
8393884910enzyme substrateThe reactant that an enzyme acts on15
8393884911catalyst(chemistry) a substance that initiates or accelerates a chemical reaction without itself being affected16
8393884912induced-fit modelTheory that suggests that when an enzyme and a substrate bind together, the enzyme is induced to alter its shape for a tighter active-site/substrate attachment, which places the substrate in a favorable position to react more quickly.17
8393884913CofactorsMinerals that assist in the normal functioning of enzymes18
8393884914coenzymesvitamins that assist in the normal functioning of enzymes19
8393884915allosteric enzymesThe modification of enzyme activity through interactions of molecules with specific sites on the enzyme other than the active site (called allosteric sites)20
8393884916feedback inhibitionA method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway.21
8393884917competitive inhibitionInhibition of an enzyme's ability to catalyze a chemical reaction via a non-reactant molecule that competes with the substrate(s) for access to the active site.22
8393884918noncompetitive inhibitionA substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site, changing its conformation so that it no longer binds to the substrate.23
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AP Biology: Big Idea 3 Flashcards

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7913431517Hershey-Chase ExperimentExperiment that showed that only the DNA enters a bacterial cell during infection, not protein by using radioactive S and P.0
7913431518Frederick GriffithThis person discovered transformation during an experiment that involved injecting mice with smooth S cells, rough R cells, heat-killed S cells, and heat-killed S cells with living R cells.1
7913431519Erwin ChargaffDiscovered that DNA composition varies, but the amount of adenine is always the same as thymine and the amount of cytosine is always the same as guanine.2
7913431520Avery, MacLeod, McCartyDetermined that DNA was Griffith's "Transforming Factor."3
7913431521Rosalind FranklinUsed X-ray diffraction to discover the double-helical structure of DNA.4
7913431522Watson and CrickDeveloped the double helix model of DNA.5
7913431523nucleic acidAn organic compound, either RNA or DNA, whose molecules are made up of one or two chains of nucleotides and carry genetic information.6
7913431524nucleotideMonomer of nucleic acids made up of a sugar, phosphate, base7
7913431525purinesNitrogenous bases that have a double ring structure (AG)8
7913431526pyrimidinesNitrogenous bases that have a single ring structure (CT)9
7913431527antiparallelThe opposite arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix.10
7913431528phosphodiester bondStrong covalent bond linking the sugar in one nucleotide to the phosphate of another. (BACKBONE SEALER!)11
7913431529DNA replicationThe process whereby DNA makes a copy of itself prior to cell division.12
7913431530semiconservative modelType of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand.13
7913431531DNA polymeraseDNA replication enzyme that adds nucleotides in the 5 to 3 (as it reads in the 3 to 5)14
7913431532transcriptionSynthesis of an RNA molecule from a DNA template.15
7913431533lagging strandA discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments, each synthesized in a 5' to 3' direction away from the replication fork.16
7913431534leading strandThe new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5' to 3' direction.17
7913431535primaseAn enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template.18
7913431536messenger RNA (mRNA)Carries genetic message from the DNA to he protein-synthesizing machinery of the cell.19
7913431537Okazaki fragmentsSmall fragments of DNA produced on the lagging strand during DNA replication, joined later by DNA ligase to form a complete strand.20
7913431538DNA helicaseAn enzyme that untwists the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and making them available as template strands.21
7913431539translationThe synthesis of a polypeptide, which occurs under the direction of mRNA.22
7913431540RNA editingThe modification of mRNA before it leaves the nucleus that is unique to eukaryotes.23
7913431541codonsmRNA base triplets.24
7913431542RNA polymeraseEnzyme that links together the growing chain of ribonucleotides during transcription.25
7913431543promoterA specific nucleotide sequence in DNA that binds RNA polymerase and indicates where to start transcribing mRNA.26
7913431544TATA boxCrucial promoter DNA sequence.27
7913431545RNA splicingProcess by which the introns are removed from RNA transcripts and the remaining exons are joined together.28
7913431546intronsNoncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding sequences.29
7913431547exonsCoding segments of eukaryotic DNA.30
7913431548transfer RNA (tRNA)Interpreter of a series of codons along a mRNA molecule.31
7913431549ribosomal RNA (rRNA)RNA molecules that construct ribosomal subunits.32
7913431550ribosomal P siteSite that holds tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain. (PEPTIDE)33
7913431551ribosomal A siteSite that holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the chain. (ADD)34
7913431552ribosomal E siteSite where discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome. (EXIT)35
7913431553transformationA change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell.36
7913431554gene expressionConversion of the information encoded in a gene first into messenger RNA and then to a protein.37
7913431555recombinant DNAA DNA molecule made in vitro with segments from different sources.38
7913431556restriction enzymeA degradative enzyme that recognizes and cuts up DNA (including that of certain phages) that is foreign to a bacterium.39
7913431557DNA ligaseA linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.40
7913431558denaturationIn proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive. In DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix.41
7913431559polymerase chain reaction (PCR)A technique for amplifying DNA in vitro by incubating with special primers, DNA polymerase molecules, and nucleotides.42
7913431560gel electrophoresisThe separation of nucleic acids or proteins, on the basis of their size and electrical charge, by measuring their rate of movement through an electrical field in a gel.43
7913431561plasmidSmall extra-chromosomal, double-stranded circular DNA molecules.44
7913431562RNA primerShort segment of RNA used to initiate synthesis of a new strand of DNA during replication.45
7913431563reverse transcriptaseA polymerase that catalyzes the formation of DNA using RNA as a template.46
7913431564somatic cellAny of the cells of a plant or animal except the reproductive cells.47
7913431565centromereThe region of the chromosome that holds the two sister chromatids together during mitosis.48
7913431566mitosisCell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes.49
7913431567interphasePeriod of the cell cycle between cell divisions.50
7913431568S phaseThe synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.51
7913431569cancerDisease that results from disruptions of cell cycle control.52
7913431570kinetochore microtubulesConnects the centrosome with the kinetochore in the centromere region of the chromosome.53
7913431571growth factorsRegulatory proteins that ensure that the events of cell division occur in the proper sequence and at the correct rate.54
7913431572alleleOne of the alternative forms of a gene that governs a characteristic, such as hair color.55
7913431573crossing overNonsister chromatids exchanging DNA segments.56
7913431574diploid cellHas two sets of chromosomes.57
7913431575fertilizationUnion of gametes.58
7913431576gametesA haploid cell such as an egg or sperm that unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.59
7913431577genesUnits of heredity made up of DNA.60
7913431578haploidOne set of chromosomes.61
7913431579homologous chromosomesPair of chromosomes that are the same size, same appearance and same genes.62
7913431580zygoteFertilized egg; carries one set of chromosomes from each parent.63
7913431581law of independent assortmentThe random distribution of the pairs of genes on different chromosomes to the gametes.64
7913431582law of segregationAllele pairs separate or segregate during gamete formation, and randomly unite at fertilization. Due to separation of homologous chromosomes in Meiosis I.65
7913431583true-breedingOrganisms that, when reproducing, create offspring of all the same variety.66
7913431584hybridizationThe crossing of two different true-breeding parents.67
7913431585dominant alleleAn allele whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present.68
7913431586recessive alleleAn allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present69
7913431587homozygousAn organism having a pair of identical alleles for a character, either dominant or recessive.70
7913431588phenotypeAn organism's traits.71
7913431589genotypeAn organism's genetic makeup.72
7913431590codominanceWhen which the phenotypes of both alleles are exhibited in the heterozygote.73
7913431591incomplete dominanceCreates a blended phenotype; one allele is not completely dominant over the other.74
7913431592nondisjunctionA failure of paired homologous chromosomes to separate during meiosis which results in an abnormal chromosome number.75
7913431593linked genesGenes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together in genetic crosses.76
7913431594sex linked genesGenes located on the sex chromosomes.77
7913431595operonA unit of genetic function common in bacteria and phages, consisting of coordinately regulated clusters of genes with related functions.78
7913431596operatorRegion of DNA that controls RNA polymerase's access to a set of genes with related functions.79
7913431597repressorA protein that suppresses the transcription of a gene.80
7913431598Trp operonAn example of a repressible operon.81
7913431599Lac operonAn example of an inducible operon.82
7913431600transcription factorsProteins that bind to specific DNA sequences or other regulatory proteins that promote or block RNA polymerase.83
7913431601hormonesCirculating chemical signals that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and act on specific target cells.84
7913431602ligandA molecule that specifically binds to another molecule, often a larger one.85
7913431603protein kinaseThe enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to protein.86
7913431604receptionThe target cell's detection of a signal molecule coming from outside the cell.87
7913431605transductionThe binding of the signal molecule changes the receptor protein in some way.88
7913431606responseThe transduced signal finally triggers a specific cellular response.89
7913431607endocrine signalingType of cell signalling where signals released by one cell type can travel long distances to target cells of another cell type.90
7913431608cell body (soma)Contains most of a neuron's organelles and its nucleus.91
7913431609dendriteshighly branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons92
7913431610axonLong nerve fiber that conducts away from the cell body of the neuron.93
7913431611synapseThe junction between two neurons or between a neuron and a muscle.94
7913431612neurotransmittersChemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.95
7913431613membrane potentialThe voltage across a cell's plasma membrane.96
7913431614resting potentialThe membrane potential of a neuron that is at rest.97
7913431615depolarizationThe process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.98
7913431616voltage-gated ion channelsChannels that open or close in response to a change in the membrane potential.99
7913431617action potentialA neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.100
7913431618repolarizationReturn of the cell to resting state, caused by reentry of potassium into the cell while sodium exits the cell.101
7913431619thresholdThe minimum membrane potential that must be reached in order for an action potential to be generated.102
7913431620myelin sheathA layer of electrical insulation that surrounds the axon.103
7913431621sodium-potassium pumpa carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell.104
7913431622point mutationA mutation that affects a single nucleotide, usually by substituting one nucleotide for another.105
7913431623frameshift mutationMutation that shifts the "reading frame" of the genetic message by the insertion or deletion of a nucleotide.106
7913431624bacteriophageA virus that infects and replicates within bacteria.107
7913431625lytic cycleViral life cycle in which the viral DNA exists as a separate molecule within the bacterial cell. Results in the destruction of the infected cell.108
7913431626lysogenic cycleViral life cycle characterized by integration of the viral nucleic acid into the host bacterium's genome. The viral genetic material can be transmitted to daughter cells.109
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AP Biology Functional Groups Flashcards

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7333450869CarbonylC=O0
7333450870KetoneAn organic molecule with a carbonyl group located inbetween other carbon atoms of the carbon backbone.1
7333452651AldehydeAn organic molecule with a carbonyl group located at the end of the carbon skeleton.2
7333452652CarboxylCOOH3
7333452653Hydroxyl-OH4
7333486183SulfhydrylThiols5
7333486184MethylCH36
7333487860PhosphatePO47
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GWHS AP Biology - Community Ecology Flashcards

Use the terms in this quizlet to help answer the questions in the community ecology packet.

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6505749848CommunityA group of interdependent organisms inhabiting the same region and interacting with each other0
6505749849Interspecific Interactionsinteractions between 2 or more different types of species (includes competition, predation, herbivory, and symbiosis1
6505749850Symbiosisthe relation between two different species of organisms that are interdependent2
6505749851Competitionthe struggle between organisms to survive in a habitat with limited resources3
6505749852Mutualismsymbiotic relationship in which both species benefit from the relationship. +/+4
6505749853Commensalismthe relation between two different kinds of organisms when one receives benefits from the other without damaging it. +/05
6505749854Parasitisma relationship between two species in which one species benefits and from the other species, which is harmed, involves a host6
6505749855Hostan animal or plant that nourishes and supports a parasite7
6505749856Parasitean organism that lives in or on another organism; one who lives off another person8
6505749857Predationan interaction in which one organism captures and feeds on another organism. +/-9
6505749858Interspecific Competitionin a community competition for limited resources between members of different species10
6505749859Competitive ExclusionThe concept that when populations of two similar species compete for the same limited resources, one population will use the resources more efficiently and have a reproductive advantage that will eventually lead to the elimination of the other population, This principle can be used to predict fundamental ecological niches11
6505749860Carrying Capacitylargest number of individuals of a population that a given environment can support12
6505749861Ecological Nichethe sum of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources in its environment. Like a "profession".13
6505749862Fundamental NicheThe full potential range of the physical, chemical, and biological factors a species can use if there is no competition from other species.14
6505749863Realized Nichethe range of resources and conditions a species actually uses or can tolerate at optimal efficiency; smaller than fundamental niche15
6505749864Resource PartitioningThe division of environmental resources by coexisting species such that the niche of each species differs by one or more significant factors from the niches of all coexisting species16
6505749866Cryptic Colorationcamouflage, , , makes potential prey difficult to spot against its background is a defensive mechanism.17
6505749867Aposematic ColorationThe bright coloration of animals with effective physical or chemical defenses that acts as a warning to predators (Posion Frogs)18
6505749868Batesian MimicryA type of mimicry in which a harmless species looks like a species that is poisonous or otherwise harmful to predators19
6505749869Mullerian Mimicryevolution of two species both of which are unpalatable and have poisonous stingers or some other defense mechanism to resemble each other, leads into the gain of successive advantage .20
6505749871Endoparasitesparasites that live within the body of their host like roundworms21
6505749872EctoparasitesOrganisms, such as fleas, that live in the exterior of another organism (the host) and obtain food from it.22
6505749874Coevolutionthe process in which species exert selective pressure on each other and gradually evolve new features or behaviors as a result of those pressures23
6505749875Keystone Speciesa species that is critical to the functioning of the ecosystem in which it lives because it affects the survival and abundance of many other species in its community24
6505749876Invasive Speciesplants and animals that have migrated to areas where they did not originate; often displace native species by outcompeting them for resources (exotic species)25
6505749877Ecological Successionseries of changes in the species in a community, often following a disturbance26
6505749878Primary Successionan ecological succession that begins in a an area where no biotic community previously existed27
6505749879Secondary Successionsuccession following a disturbance that destroys a community without destroying the soil. Yellowstone Fire in 1988 for example.28
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AP BIOLOGY - Chapter 10 (photosynthesis) Flashcards

Photosynthesis

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8273814269photosynthesis (definition)process of harnessing light energy to build carbohydrates in autotrophs (ex. plants, cyanobacteria)0
8273814270photosynthesis (equation)6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6 O21
8273814271autotrophorganism that CAN capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use it to produce its own food (producer)2
8273814272heterotrophorganism that CANNOT produce its own food and therefore obtains it by consuming other living things (consumer)3
8273814273anabolicWhat kind of a process is photosynthesis?4
8273814274catabolicWhat kind of a process is cellular respiration?5
8273814275light-dependent reactions1st step of photosynthesis during which light energy is captured and used to synthesize ATP and NADPH6
8273814276light-independent reactions2nd step of photosynthesis during which CO2 is incorporated into a sugar molecule using ATP and NADPH produced during the first step7
8273814277thylakoid membranes of chloroplastslocation of light-dependent reactions8
8273814278stroma of chloroplastslocation of light-independent reactions9
8273814279G3Pcarbon product of the light-independent reactions10
8273814280photon(1) quantum (discrete quantity) of electromagnetic radiation (light energy) with both wave and particle properties11
8273814281inverseWhat is the relationship between wavelength and energy?12
8273814282reflected, transmitted, or absorbedWhen a photon strikes a substance it can be _____________________13
8273814283pigmentssubstances that can absorb, reflect, or transmit light14
8273814284absorption spectrumgraph of a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light15
8273814285action spectrumgraph of a plant's photosynthesis rate at different wavelengths of light16
8273814286violet, blue and redWhich wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls ABSORB?17
8273814287green and yellowWhich wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls REFLECT?18
8273814288carotenoidsaccessory pigments in chloroplasts that broaden the spectrum of colors used in photosynthesis (absorb green/blue but reflect red/yellow/orange)19
8273814289mesophyll(C) ground tissue of a leaf, sandwiched between upper and lower epidermis that specializes in photosynthesis20
8273814290chlorophyll bpigment, green/olive, in chloroplast21
8273814291chlorophyll apigment, blue/green, in chloroplast22
8273814292excited state(7) when absorbed photon energy causes electron to move away from nucleus23
8273814293photosystems(6) photosynthetic pigments embedded with protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane24
8273814294parts of photosystems(3+4) reaction-center complex and light harvesting complex25
8273814295reaction-center complex(4) centrally located proteins associated with a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor26
8273814296light harvesting complex(3) proteins associated with pigment molecules that capture light energy and transfers it to center of a photosystem27
8273814297photosystem II (PS II)1st of two light harvesting units in thylakoid membrane that passes excited electrons to reaction-center chlorophyll28
8273814298primary electron acceptor(2) electrons from the reaction-center in thylakoid membranes are transferred to this molecule29
8273814299watersplitting this molecule replaces electrons which are excited and passed to primary electron acceptor in PSII30
8273814300O2released as a byproduct of splitting water31
8273814301photosystem I (PS I)2nd of two light-capturing units in thylakoid membranes that replaces its electrons by those from the 1st complex and results in production of NADPH32
8273814302proton-motive forcecreated by pumping hydrogen ions from stroma to thylakoid space during electron transport chain between PS II and PS I33
8273814303ATP synthaseenzyme that synthesies ATP by utilizing a proton-motive force34
8273814304Calvin cycle, dark reactions, and carbon fixationother names for light independent reactions35
82738143053 steps of light independent reaction1. carbon fixation 2. reduction 3. regeneration of RuBP36
8273814306reductionstep in Calvin cycle that produces sugar G3P37
8273814307carbon dioxidemolecule reduced in Calvin cycle to produce sugar38
8273814308thylakoids(C) flattened membranous sacs inside chloroplasts that contain systems which convert light energy to chemical energy39
8273814309absorbedenergy is ____________ in photosynthesis40
8273814310releasedenergy is _____________ in cellular respiration41
8273814311glucose and oxygenreactants of cellular respiration42
8273814312carbon dioxide and waterreactants of photosynthesis43
8273814313glucosesource of electrons used in ETC of cellular respiration44
8273814314intermembrane spacesite of proton gradient built up in cellular respiration45
8273814315thylakoid spacesite of proton gradient built up in photosynthesis46
8273814316NAD+ and FADhigh energy electron carrier(s) before reduction in cellular respiration (after they drop off electrons at ETC)47
8273814317NADH and FADH2high energy electron carrier(s) after reduction in cellular respiration (after they pick up electrons from Kreb's cycle)48
8273814318NADP+high energy electron carrier(s ) before reduction in photosynthesis (after they drop off electrons for Calvin cycle)49
8273814319NADPHhigh energy electron carrier(s ) after reduction in photosynthesis (after they pick up electrons from ETC)50
8273814320ATPenergy product(s) from ETC in cellular respiration51
8273814321ATP and NADPHenergy product(s) from ETC in photosynthesis52
8273814322glucose, NADH and FADH2reactant(s) oxidized in cellular respiration53
8273814323H2Oreactant(s) oxidized in photosynthesis (source of electrons)54
8273814324cyclic electron flowlight dependent reactions using only photosystem I to pump protons and generate excess ATP (not NADPH)55
8273814325linear electron flowlight dependent reactions involving both photosystems; electrons from H2O are used to reduce NADP to NADPH56
8273814326rubiscoenzyme with affinity for both CO2 and O2 that catalyzes first step of Calvin cycle by adding CO2 to ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)57
8273814327PEP carboxylaseenzyme with great affinity for CO2 (gas) adds it to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to form oxaloacetate (4-carbon solid) prior to photosynthesis58
8273814328stomatapore-like openings on underside of leaves that allow gases (CO2 and O2) and water to diffuse in and out59
8273814329bundle-sheath cellstightly packed around the veins of a leaf (site of Calvin cycle in C4 plants)60
8273814330photorespirationoccurs on hot, dry days when stomata close, O2 accumulates and Rubisco fixes O2 rather than CO2, using up ATP, O2 and sugars61
8273814331C3 plantsdo not separately fix CO2 and use Rubisco in Calvin Cycle62
8273814332C4 plantsspatially separate carbon fixation (mesophyll cells) from Calvin Cycle (bundle-sheath cells); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO263
8273814333CAM plantstemporally separate carbon fixation (day) and Calvin Cycle (night); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO264
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Biology in Focus (AP) Chapter 37 Flashcards

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9448054827neuronA nerve cell; the fundamental unit of the nervous system, having structure and properties that allow it to conduct signals by taking advantage of the electrical charge across its plasma membrane.0
9448054828brainOrgan of the central nervous system where information is processed and integrated.1
9448054829ganglionA cluster (functional group) of nerve cell bodies in a centralized nervous system.2
9448054830cell bodyThe part of a neuron that houses the nucleus and most other organelles.3
9448054831dendriteOne of usually numerous, short, highly branched extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.4
9448054832axonA typically long extension, or process, of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body toward target cells.5
9448054833axon hillockThe cone-shaped base of an axon, where signals that travel down the axon are generated.6
9448054834synapseThe junction where a neuron communicates with another cell across a narrow gap via a neurotransmitter or an electrical coupling.7
9448054835synaptic terminalThe part of each axon branch that forms a synapse.8
9448054836neurotransmitterA molecule that is released from the synaptic terminal of a neuron at a chemical synapse, diffuses across the synaptic cleft, and binds to the postsynaptic cell, triggering a response.9
9448054837presynaptic neuronThe neuron that transmits a signal to another cell.10
9448054838postsynaptic cellThe neuron, muscle, or gland cell that receives a signal from a neuron.11
9448054839gliaCells of the nervous system that support, regulate, and augment the functions of neurons.12
9448054840sensory neuronA nerve cell that receives information from the internal or external environment and transmits signals to the central nervous system.13
9448054841interneuronAn association neuron; a nerve cell within the central nervous system that forms synapses with sensory and/or motor neurons and integrates sensory input and motor output.14
9448054842motor neuronA nerve cell that transmits signals from the brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands.15
9448054843central nervous systemThe portion of the nervous system where signal integration occurs, in vertebrate animals, the brain and spinal cord.16
9448054844peripheral nervous systemThe sensory and motor neurons that connect to the central nervous system.17
9448054845nerveA fiber composed primarily of the bundled axons of neurons.18
9448054846membrane potentialThe difference in electrical charge (voltage) across a cell's plasma membrane due to the differential distribution of ions.19
9448054847resting potentialThe membrane potential characteristic of a nonconducting excitable cell, with the inside of the cell more negative than the outside.20
9448054848sodium-potassium pumpA transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that actively transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell.21
9448054849ion channelA transmembrane protein channel that allows a specific ion to diffuse across the membrane down its concentration or electrochemical gradient.22
9448054850selective permeabilityProperty of ion channels that allows only certain ions to pass through to the other side of the membrane.23
9448054851equilibrium potentialThe magnitude of a cell's membrane voltage at equilibrium, calculated using the Nernst equation.24
9448054852gated ion channelA gated channel for a specific ion. The opening or closing of such channels may alter a cell's membrane potential.25
9448054853hyperpolarizationA change in a cell's membrane potential such that the inside of the membrane becomes more negative relative to the outside. Reduces the chance that a neuron will transmit a nerve impulse.26
9448054854depolarizationA change in a cell's membrane potential such that the inside of the membrane is made less negative relative to the outside.27
9448054855graded potentialIn a neuron, a shift in the membrane potential that has an amplitude proportional to signal strength and that decays as it spreads.28
9448054856action potentialAn electrical signal that propagates (travels) along the membrane of a neuron or other excitable cell as a nongraded (all-or-none) depolarization.29
9448054857voltage-gated ion channelA specialized ion channel that opens or closes in response to changes in membrane potential.30
9448054858thresholdThe potential that an excitable cell membrane must reach for an action potential to be initiated.31
9448054859refractory periodThe short time immediately after an action potential in which the neuron cannot respond to another stimulus, owing to the inactivation of voltage-gated sodium channels.32
9448054860myelin sheathWrapped around the axon of a neuron, an insulating coat of cell membranes from Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes. It is interrupted by nodes of Ranvier, where action potentials are generated.33
9448054861oligodendrocyteA type of glial cell that forms insulating myelin sheaths around the axons of neurons in the central nervous system.34
9448054862Schwann cellA type of glial cell that forms insulating myelin sheaths around the axons of neurons in the peripheral nervous system.35
9448054863node of RanvierGap in the myelin sheath of certain axons where an action potential may be generated.36
9448054864saltatory conductionRapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane.37
9448054865synaptic vesicleMembrane-enclosed compartment at the terminal of a presynaptic neuron that contains neurotransmitter.38
9448054866synaptic cleftThe gap that separates the presynaptic neuron from the postsynaptic cell.39
9448054867ligand-gated ion channelA transmembrane protein containing a pore that opens or closes as it changes shape in response to a signaling molecule (ligand), allowing or blocking the flow of specific ions.40
9448054868ionotropic receptorA ligand-gated ion channel..41
9448054869postsynaptic potentialA graded potential in a postsynaptic cell.42
9448054870excitatory postsynaptic potentialAn electrical change (depolarization) in the membrane of a postsynaptic cell caused by the binding of an excitatory neurotransmitter from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic receptor; makes it more likely for a postsynaptic cell to generate an action potential.43
9448054871inhibitory postsynaptic potentialAn electrical change (usually hyperpolarization) in the membrane of a postsynaptic neuron caused by the binding of an inhibitory neurotransmitter from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic receptor; makes it more difficult for a postsynaptic neuron to generate an action potential.44
9448054872temporal summationA phenomenon of neural integration in which the membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell in a chemical synapse is determined by the combined effect of EPSPs or IPSPs produced in rapid succession.45
9448054873spatial summationA phenomenon of neural integration in which the membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell is determined by the combined effect of EPSPs or IPSPs produced nearly simultaneously by different synapses.46
9448054874metabotropic receptorBinds a neurotransmitter and activates a signal transduction pathway that opens or closes an ion channel after one or more metabolic steps.47
9448054875acetylcholineOne of the most common neurotransmitters; functions by binding to receptors and altering the permeability of the postsynaptic membrane to specific ions, either depolarizing or hyperpolarizing the membrane.48
9448054876neuromuscular junctionThe site where a motor neuron forms a synapse with a skeletal muscle cell.49
9448054877glutamateAn amino acid that functions as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system and has a role in long term memory.50
9448054878GABAAn amino acid that functions as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system of vertebrates where it is found at most inhibitory synapses in the brain.51
9448054879biogenic aminesA neurotransmitter derived from an amino acid.52
9448054880norepinephrineA catecholamine that is chemically and functionally similar to epinephrine and that acts as a hormone or neurotransmitter; also known as noradrenaline.53
9448054881dopamineA neurotransmitter that is a catecholamine, like epinephrine and norepinephrine.54
9448054882serotoninA neurotransmitter, synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan, that functions in the central nervous system.55
9448054883neuropeptideA relatively short chain of amino acids that serves as a neurotransmitter.56
9448054884endorphinAny of several hormones produced in the brain and anterior pituitary that inhibit pain perception.57
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AP Biology: Chapter 19 (viruses) Flashcards

Viruses

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8525533366Virus-smaller and simpler than eukaryotes -technically nonliving b/c cannot reproduce/carry out metabolic activity outside host cell0
8525533367Capsid-protein shell enclosing viral genome -built from capsomere protein subunits -usually have few types of proteins making up capsid1
8525533368Viral Envelopes-membranous envelope surrounding capsids of many animal viruses -derived from membranes of host cells -contain host cell phospholipids and membrane proteins -contain viral proteins and glycoproteins2
8525533369Bacteriophage (Phage)-viruses that infect bacteria -capsids w/ elongated icosahedral heads w/ DNA -protein tail piece w/ fibers by which phages attach to bacterium attached to head3
8525533370Host Rangelimited variety of host cells each type of virus can affect4
8525533371Viral Reproduction1. virus binds to host cell and enters uncoated, releasing viral DNA and capsid proteins 2. viral genome encodes proteins to have host reprogram cell to copy viral nucleic acid and replicate viral genome 3. meanwhile, host enzymes transcribe viral genome into viral mRNA, which host ribosomes use to make more capsid proteins 4. viral genomes and capsid proteins self-assemble into new virus particles, which exit cell to infect other cells and spread viral infection5
8525533372Lytic Cycle-phage reproductive cycle that culminates in death of host cell 1. Attachment: page uses tail fibers to bind to specific receptor sites on surface bacteria 2. Entry of phage DNA and degradation of host DNA: sheath of tail contracts, injecting the phage DNA into cell and leaving empty capsid outside -> cells DNA hydrolyzed 3. Synthesis of viral genomes and proteins: phage DNA directs production of phage proteins and copies of phage genome w/ host enzymes 4. Assembly: 3 separate sets of proteins self-assemble to form phage heads, tails, and tail fibers; genome packaged in capsid as head forms 5. Release: phage directs production of enzyme that damages bacterial cell wall -> fluid enters -> cell swells and bursts, releasing 100-200 phage particles6
8525533373Virulent Phagephage that reproduces only by lytic cycle7
8525533374Lysogenic Cyclephage reproductive cycle w/ replication of phage genome w/o destroying host 1. phage DNA incorporated on site of bacterial chromosome -> prophage 2. bacterium reproduces normally, copying prophage and transmitting it to daughter cells 3. many cell divisions -> large population of infected bacteria8
8525533375Temperate Phagephage capable of using both modes of reproduction in bacteria9
8525533376Prophagephage DNA incorporated w/ bacterial DNA10
8525533377Reproductive Cycle of Lipid Enveloped RNA Virus1. glycoproteins on viral envelope bind to specific receptor molecules on host cell, promoting viral entry into cell 2. capsid and viral genome enter cell-digestion of capsid by cellular enzymes releases viral genome 3. viral genome functions as template for synthesis of complementary RNA strands by viral envelope 4. new copies of viral genome RNA made using complementary RNA strands as templates 5. complementary RNA strands also function as mRNA, translated into capsid proteins (in cytosol) and glycoproteins for viral envelope (ER, Golgi) 6. vesicles transport envelope glycoproteins to plasma membrane 7. capsid assembles around each viral genome molecule 8. each new virus buds from cell, envelope studded w/ viral glycoproteins embedded in membrane derived from host cell11
8525533378Retrovirus (Class VI)-RNA animal virus w/ most complex reproductive cycles -have reverse transcriptase enzyme12
8525533379Reverse Transcriptaseenzyme that transcribes RNA template to DNA13
8525533380HIV-Human Immunodeficiency Virus -retrovirus causing AIDS14
8525533381AIDSAcquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome15
8525533382HIV Reproductive Cycle1. envelope glycoproteins enable virus to bind to specific receptors on certain white blood cells 2. virus fuses w/ cell's plasma membrane-capsid proteins removed, releasing viral proteins and RNA 3. reverse transcriptase catalyzes synthesis of DNA strand complementary to viral RNA 4. reverse transcriptase catalyzes synthesis of second DNA strand complementary to first 5. double stranded DNA incorporated as provirus -> permanent resident of cell 6. proviral genes transcribed into RNA molecules-serves as genomes for next viral generation and as mRNAs for translation into viral protein 7. viral proteins include capsid proteins, reverse transcriptase, and envelope glycoproteins 8. vesicles transport glycoproteins to cell's plasma membrane 9. capsids assemble around viral genomes and reverse transcriptase molecules 10. new viruses bud off host cells16
8525533383Vaccineharmless variant of pathogen that stimulates immune system to mount defenses against harmful purposes17
8525533384Emerging Virusesviruses that are new to medical scientists/suddenly appear b/c: 1. mutation of existing viruses -> new strains of disease -> epidemics 2. dissemination of viral disease from small, isolated human population-can be due to technological and social factors (radiation, travel, blood transfusion, sexual promiscuity, drugs, etc...) 3. spread of existing virus from other animals18
8525533385Epidemichuge outbreak of disease19
8525533386Pandemicglobal epidemic20
8525533387Viroid-circular RNA molecules that infect plants -replicate in host plant cells using host enzymes instead of encoding proteins -cause errors in regulatory system that control plant growth -> stunted growth, abnormal development21
8525533388Prion-infection proteins that cause many degenerative brain diseases of many animals -mostly transmitted w/ food-incubation 10+ years -virtually indestructible propagate by: -misfolded versions of normal brain proteins -contact w/ normal folded protein -> normal gets abnormal shape -chain rxn of misfolding -> cellular malfunction, brain degeneration22
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Photosynthesis (Chapter 10) AP Biology Flashcards

Photosynthesis

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7806303364photosynthesis (definition)process of harnessing light energy to build carbohydrates in autotrophs (ex. plants, cyanobacteria)0
7806303365photosynthesis (equation)6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6 O21
7806303366autotrophorganism that CAN capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use it to produce its own food (producer)2
7806303367heterotrophorganism that CANNOT produce its own food and therefore obtains it by consuming other living things (consumer)3
7806303368anabolicWhat kind of a process is photosynthesis?4
7806303369catabolicWhat kind of a process is cellular respiration?5
7806303370light-dependent reactions1st step of photosynthesis during which light energy is captured and used to synthesize ATP and NADPH6
7806303371light-independent reactions2nd step of photosynthesis during which CO2 is incorporated into a sugar molecule using ATP and NADPH produced during the first step7
7806303372thylakoid membranes of chloroplastslocation of light-dependent reactions8
7806303373stroma of chloroplastslocation of light-independent reactions9
7806303374G3Pcarbon product of the light-independent reactions10
7806303375photon(1) quantum (discrete quantity) of electromagnetic radiation (light energy) with both wave and particle properties11
7806303376inverseWhat is the relationship between wavelength and energy?12
7806303377pigmentssubstances that can absorb, reflect, or transmit light13
7806303378absorption spectrumgraph of a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light14
7806303379violet, blue and redWhich wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls ABSORB?15
7806303380green and yellowWhich wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls REFLECT?16
7806303381carotenoidsaccessory pigments in chloroplasts that broaden the spectrum of colors used in photosynthesis (absorb green/blue but reflect red/yellow/orange)17
7806303382mesophyll(C) ground tissue of a leaf, sandwiched between upper and lower epidermis that specializes in photosynthesis18
7806303383chlorophyll bpigment, green/olive, in chloroplast19
7806303384chlorophyll apigment, blue/green, in chloroplast20
7806303385excited state(7) when absorbed photon energy causes electron to move away from nucleus21
7806303386photosystems(6) photosynthetic pigments embedded with protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane22
7806303387watersplitting this molecule replaces electrons which are excited and passed to primary electron acceptor in PSII23
7806303388O2released as a byproduct of splitting water24
7806303389proton-motive forcecreated by pumping hydrogen ions from stroma to thylakoid space during electron transport chain between PS II and PS I25
7806303390ATP synthaseenzyme that synthesies ATP by utilizing a proton-motive force26
7806303391Calvin cycle, dark reactions, and carbon fixationother names for light independent reactions27
78063033923 steps of light independent reaction1. carbon fixation 2. reduction 3. regeneration of RuBP28
7806303393reductionstep in Calvin cycle that produces sugar G3P29
7806303394carbon dioxidemolecule reduced in Calvin cycle to produce sugar30
7806303395thylakoids(C) flattened membranous sacs inside chloroplasts that contain systems which convert light energy to chemical energy31
7806303396absorbedenergy is ____________ in photosynthesis32
7806303397releasedenergy is _____________ in cellular respiration33
7806303398glucose and oxygenreactants of cellular respiration34
7806303399carbon dioxide and waterreactants of photosynthesis35
7806303400glucosesource of electrons used in ETC of cellular respiration36
7806303401intermembrane spacesite of proton gradient built up in cellular respiration37
7806303402thylakoid spacesite of proton gradient built up in photosynthesis38
7806303403NAD+ and FADhigh energy electron carrier(s) before reduction in cellular respiration (after they drop off electrons at ETC)39
7806303404NADH and FADH2high energy electron carrier(s) after reduction in cellular respiration (after they pick up electrons from Kreb's cycle)40
7806303405NADP+high energy electron carrier(s ) before reduction in photosynthesis (after they drop off electrons for Calvin cycle)41
7806303406NADPHhigh energy electron carrier(s ) after reduction in photosynthesis (after they pick up electrons from ETC)42
7806303407ATPenergy product(s) from ETC in cellular respiration43
7806303408ATP and NADPHenergy product(s) from ETC in photosynthesis44
7806303409glucose, NADH and FADH2reactant(s) oxidized in cellular respiration45
7806303410H2Oreactant(s) oxidized in photosynthesis (source of electrons)46
7806303411cyclic electron flowlight dependent reactions using only photosystem I to pump protons and generate excess ATP (not NADPH)47
7806303412linear electron flowlight dependent reactions involving both photosystems; electrons from H2O are used to reduce NADP to NADPH48
7806303413rubiscoenzyme with affinity for both CO2 and O2 that catalyzes first step of Calvin cycle by adding CO2 to ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)49
7806303414stomatapore-like openings on underside of leaves that allow gases (CO2 and O2) and water to diffuse in and out50
7806303415bundle-sheath cellstightly packed around the veins of a leaf (site of Calvin cycle in C4 plants)51
7806303416photorespirationoccurs on hot, dry days when stomata close, O2 accumulates and Rubisco fixes O2 rather than CO2, using up ATP, O2 and sugars52
7806303417C3 plantsdo not separately fix CO2 and use Rubisco in Calvin Cycle53
7806303418C4 plantsspatially separate carbon fixation (mesophyll cells) from Calvin Cycle (bundle-sheath cells); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO254
7806303419CAM plantstemporally separate carbon fixation (day) and Calvin Cycle (night); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO255
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