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AP Biology Cell Structure Flashcards

This basic review covers bacteria, viruses, eukaryotic cells, cell theory, organelles, cell membrane structure, and passive and active transport.

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6983803278	Prokaryotic cell	Simple, no nucleus, many have cell wall with peptidoglycan, bacteria	0
6983803279	Eukaryotic cell	Complex cell with a nucleus and many membrane-bound organelles	1
6983803280	Organelle	"little organ" - compartmentalized structures that perform specific functions	2
6983803281	Cell	Basic functional unit of all living things	3
6983803282	Cell membrane	Separates internal metabolic events from the external environment, controls movement of materials into and out of the cell	4
6983803283	Nucleus	Contains DNA and acts as the control center of the cell	5
6983803284	Nuclear envelope	Two phospholipid bilayers that surround the nucleus; contain nuclear pores to allow RNA and ribosomes to exit; attaches to rough ER	6
6983803285	Nucleolus	Found within nucleus; makes ribosomes	7
6983803286	Ribosomes	Make proteins; consist of small and large subunit; composed of rRNA and proteins	8
6983803287	Free ribosomes	Float in the cytosol; produce proteins used within the cell	9
6983803288	Bound ribosomes	Attached to rough ER; make proteins for export from the cell	10
6983803289	Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)	Ribosomes present; creates glycoproteins, packages proteins for secretion, sends transport vesicles to Golgi, makes replacement membranes	11
6983803290	Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER)	No ribosomes; makes lipids and steroid hormones, metabolizes carbs, stores calcium and helps regulate muscle contraction, breakdown of toxins, drugs, and toxic by-products	12
6983803291	Golgi apparatus/body/complex	Collect and modify proteins and lipids made in other areas of the cell and package them into vesicles; as proteins exit, they are packaged in a vesicle that goes through exocytosis	13
6983803292	Lysosomes	Contain hydrolytic enzymes that break down food, cellular debris, and foreign invaders like bacteria	14
6983803293	Peroxisomes	Break down various toxic substances like hydrogen peroxide, fatty acids, and amino acids	15
6983803294	Mitochondria	Perform cellular respiration to convert glucose into ATP	16
6983803295	Chloroplasts	Perform chloroplasts to convert sunlight into glucose	17
6983803296	Cytoskeleton	Network of protein fibers extending from the nucleus to the membrane - structural support, motility, and regulation	18
6983803297	Microtubules	Tubulin; provides support and motility for cellular activities; found in spindle fibers, flagella, and cilia	19
6983803298	Intermediate filaments	Keratin; provide support for maintaining cell shape	20
6983803299	Microfilaments (actin filaments)	Actin; involved in cell motility, found in muscle cells and amoeba; in plants, they promote cytoplasmic streaming	21
6983803300	Centrioles	Microtubule organizing center; located in centrosome; make up and organize spindle fibers during cell division	22
6983803301	Cilia	Extension of the cytoskeleton that allow the cell to move; oar-like movement that moves the cell perpendicular to the cilium; many and short	23
6983803302	Flagella	Extension of the cytoskeleton that allow the cell to move; whip-like movement; cell moves in same direction as flagellum; few and long	24
6983803303	Transport vesicle	Move materials through the cell	25
6983803304	Food vacuole	Temporary receptacle of nutrients, often merge with lysosomes for digestion	26
6983803305	Contractile vacuoles	Collect and pump excess water out of the cell	27
6983803306	Central vacuoles	Large bodies occupying most of the interior of many plant cells; maintain rigidity of cell wall, stores things, allows cell to "grow"	28
6983803307	Cell wall	Provide support for the cell on the outside of the plasma membrane; found in plants, fungi, and many protists	29
6983803308	Organelles only in plants	Cell wall, chloroplast, central vacuole	30
6983803309	Organelles only in animals	Centrioles, lysosomes, cholesterol in the plasma membrane	31
6983803310	Endosymbiotic theory	Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from ancient prokaryotes that invaded other prokaryotic cells, and formed a symbiotic relationship	32
6983803311	Evidence for endosymbiotic theory	Mitochondria and chloroplasts possess their own DNA similar to prokaryotes; ribosomes resemble that of prokaryotes; they reproduce independently of the cell; two membranes may have resulted from vesicular endocytosis.	33

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AP Biology Biochemistry Review - Landry Flashcards

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7848963532	Carbohydrate Examples	glucose, fructose, sucrose, starch, glycogen, cellulose, monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides	0
7848963533	Disaccharide		1
7848963534	Monosaccharide		2
7848963535	Polysaccharide		3
7848963536	Glycosidic Linkage		4
7848963537	Starch		5
7848963538	Cellulose		6
7848963539	Lipid Examples	fatty acids, fats, saturated fats, unsaturated fats, steroids, phospholipids, cholesterol, triglycerides	7
7848963540	Ester Linkage		8
7848963541	Unsaturated Fat		9
7848963542	Saturated Fat		10
7848963543	Steroid		11
7848963544	Phospholipid		12
7848963545	Nucleotide		13
7848963546	Nucleic Acid Examples	DNA, RNA, (ATP and ADP are modified nucleic acids)	14
7848963547	DNA		15
7848963548	RNA		16
7848963549	Protein Examples	amino acids, primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary structures, collagen, hemoglobin, enzymes	17
7848963550	Triglyceride		18
7848963551	Amino Acid Examples	glutamine, proline, cysteine, lycine, ...	19
7848963552	Amino Acid		20
7848963553	Primary Structure of a Protein		21
7848963554	Secondary Structure of a Protein		22
7848963555	alpha helix (secondary)		23
7848963556	beta-pleated sheet (secondary)		24
7848963557	Tertiary Structure of a Protein		25
7848963558	Quaternary Structure of a Protein		26
7848963559	Disulfide Bridge		27
7848963560	Hydrogen Bonds		28
7848963561	Hydrophobic Interaction		29
7848963563	*nucleic acid	*kind of macromolecule that stores, transfers, and expresses genetic information	30
7848963564	Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Nitrogen (CHOPN)	elements that make up a nucleic acid	31
7848963565	*the hydrogen bonds between the purines and pyrimidines	*why is DNA more stable than RNA?	32
7848963566	*nucleotide	*the monomer of a nucleic acid	33
7848963567	*a phosphate group, a five-carbon sugar, and a nitrogen base	*structure of a nucleotide	34
7848963568	*dehydration synthesis between nucleotides	*a kind of condensation reaction in which water is removed in order to join together nucleotides	35
7848963569	phosphodiester bond	linkage that results from dehydration synthesis of the phosphate group of the first nucleotide to 3' carbon of the five-carbon sugar of the next nucleotide	36
7848963574	*DNA	*deoxyribonucleic acid; a polymer of nucleotides that stores and transmits genetic information in the order of its nitrogen bases	37
7848963575	double helix	term used to describe the arrangement of a DNA strand	38
7848963576	*RNA	*ribonucleic acid; a polymer of nucleotides that transfers genetic information	39
7848963577	*how RNA differs from DNA	*the sugar in RNA is ribose; Uracil bonds with Adenine; RNA is single-stranded	40
7848963578	*how DNA differs from RNA	*the sugar in DNA is deoxyribose; Thymine bonds with Adenine; DNA is double-stranded	41
7848963580	anti-parallel	term meaning that the two strands of a DNA molecule run in opposite direction of each other; one is upside-down to the other	42
7848963581	*hydrogen bond in nucleic acids	*a weak bond that holds the nitrogen bases to each other	43
7848963585	James Watson and Francis Crick	scientists who discovered the structure DNA	44
7848963586	DNA replication	process used to make a copy of a DNA strand	45
7848963590	*proteins	*a macromolecule made chains of amino acids	46
7848963591	*Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen (CHON)	*elements that make up a protein	47
7848963593	*enzymes	*proteins that speed up chemical reactions (reduce the activation energy required)	48
7848963594	*amino acid	*building block (monomer) of proteins, composed of an amino group and a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and an R-group	49
7848963595	*a carboxyl group, an amino group, a central Carbon, a Hydrogen, and an R-group	*structure of an amino acid	50
7848963596	*20	*the number of different amino acids that occur extensively in all living organisms	51
7848963597	disulfide bridge	covalent bond formed between two cysteine amino acids when their SH groups become oxidized; this helps determine how a protein folds	52
7848963598	*dehydration synthesis between amino acids	*process that bond an amino acid to another amino acids (forms peptide bond)	53
7848963599	*peptide bond	*covalent bond formed between amino acids	54
7848963600	*from amino group to carboxyl group (N-C-C+N-C-C)	*order that the amino acids join together	55
7848963601	*polypeptide chain	*a long line of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds	56
7848963602	*R-group	*stands for the rest of the compound, different for each kind of amino acid, giving the amino acid its properties	57
7848963603	*properties the R-group may give the amino acid	*hydrophilic or hydrophobic, polar or nonpolar, acidic or basic	58
7848963604	side chain	another name for the R-group	59
7848963605	four levels of a proteins structure	primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, quaternary structure	60
7848963606	*primary structure	*the order of amino acids in a peptide chain that makes up a protein	61
7848963607	*secondary structure	*three-dimensional shape that occurs from the hydrogen bonding between the amino and carboxyl groups (the backbone) of nearby amino acids; may be shaped as an alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet	62
7848963609	*tertiary structure	*additional three dimensional shaping to a secondary structure due to interactions of the R-groups	63
7848963610	*quaternary structure	*a protein that is assembled from two or more peptide chains; hemoglobin consists of four peptide chains that are held together by hydrogen bonding and interactions among R-groups	64
7848963612	*denatured	*a change in the shape of a protein due to chemical treatments, temperature, change of pH, or high concentrations of polar or nonpolar substances; may or may not be irreversible	65
7848963613	*hydrogen bonds in proteins	*bond that occurs between R-groups that stabilize folds in proteins	66
7848963614	*hydrophobic R-groups	*move together to the interior of a protein, away from water	67
7848963618	*lipids	*macromolecule made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (CHO) that is mostly nonpolar not soluble in water;	68
7848963619	Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen (CHO)	*elements that makeup both Carbohydrates and Lipids	69
7848963620	fats, oils, steroids, phospholipids	the most important lipids	70
7848963622	*fatty acid	*monomer of a lipid made of a hydrocarbon chain and a carboxyl group	71
7848963624	lots of energy	how much energy a hydrocarbon chain stores	72
7848963625	*dehydration synthesis in lipids	*the removal of a water molecule to join fatty acids to other molecules (like glycerol)	73
7848963626	*triglyceride	*lipid made of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol	74
7848963627	glycerol	a carbon alcohol that is hydrophilic	75
7848963628	*functions of lipids	*long-term energy storage, insulation, part of the cell membrane, chemical messenger, waterproofing	76
7848963629	*saturated fatty acid	*fatty acid that consists of all single-covalent bonds between each pair of carbon atoms; each carbon has two hydrogens bonded to it (saturated with hydrogens);	77
7848963631	unsaturated fatty acids	fatty acid that has one or more double covalent bonds between each pair of carbon atoms;	78
7848963632	food made of unsaturated fatty acids	plant & fish fats, vegetable oils; good fats	79
7848963635	*phospholipid	*amphipathic lipid made of two hydrocarbon chains, glycerol, and a phosphate group	80
7848963636	hydrophobic tail	another name for the hydrocarbon chain in a phospholipid	81
7848963637	hydrophobic head	another name for the phosphate group in a phospholipid	82
7848963638	*the reason a phospholipid is amphipathic	*the hydrocarbon chains (tails) are nonpolar, while the glycerol and phosphate group (head) is polar	83
7848963642	*steroid	*lipid made of four linked carbon rings attached to different functional groups (look like chicken wire fencing)	84
7848963643	examples of steroids	cholesterol, sex hormones	85
7848963645	cholesterol	the most common steroid; is a component of the cell membrane as well as the precursor to all other steroids	86
7848963647	many biologically important molecules are NOT soluble in a lipid, so cell membranes can be selectively permeable	why are lipids good barriers in living organisms?	87
7848963649	carbohydrate	macromolecule made of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen that is soluble in water due to the hydroxyl groups	88
7848963650	*monosaccharide	*the simplest kind of carbohydrate	89
7848963651	*simple sugar	*another name for a monosaccharide	90
7848963652	-ose	suffix carbohydrates usually end in (gluc-ose, fruct-ose)	91
7848963653	*examples of monossaccharides	*glucose, fructose, galactose	92
7848963654	formula for sugar molecules	(CH₂O)n where n is any number from 3 to 8	93
7848963655	*1:2:1	*the ration of Carbon to Hydrogen to Oxygen in a carbohydrate	94
7848963665	*disaccharide	*two monosaccharides joined together by a glycosidic linkage	95
7848963666	*dehydration synthesis between monosaccharides	*process used to combine monosaccarides into disaccharides and polysaccharides	96
7848963667	*glycosidic linkage	*covalent bond that forms between a monosaccharide and another molecule (like another monosaccharide)	97
7848963668	*the reason why the formula of a disaccharide of glucose is C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ and not C₁₂H₂₄O₁₂	*one water molecule is lost when the condensation reaction joins together the two monosaccharides	98
7848963671	*polysaccharide	*three or more monosaccharides	99
7848963672	starch	a polymer of α-glucose molecules that store energy in a plant cell	100
7848963673	glycogen	a polymer of α-glucose molecules that stores energy in animal cells; stored in the liver and muscles	101
7848963674	the reason why starch and glycogen have a large amount of branching	plants and animals can quickly add to their energy supply when energy is plentiful, or break it down the storage molecules when energy is in short supply	102
7848963675	cellulose	a very stable polymer of β-glucose molecules that serves as a structural molecule in the walls of plant cells; major component of wood; the most abundant biological molecule on earth. Humans cannot digest it.	103
7848963677	organic molecules	molecules that contain carbon	104
7848963678	macromolecules	large organic molecules	105
7848963680	organic chemistry	the study of carbon compounds	106
7848963681	the reason carbon is important to life	carbon can form four strong covalent bonds with different elements; carbon is the main component of organic molecules; all organic molecules contain carbon (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids)	107
7848963683	hydrocarbons	carbon and hydrogen atoms that are covalently bonded that make them stable and nonpolar	108
7848963684	nonpolar	not soluable in water	109
7848963685	polar	soluable in water	110
7848963687	polymer	molecules that consist of many repeated monomers	111
7848963688	monomer	molecules that consist of a single unit	112
7848963689	condensation reaction	the process of removing a small molecule to join together monomers to make a polymer	113
7848963690	dehydration synthesis	a kind of condensation reaction	114
7848963691	hydrolysis	the process of adding a water molecule to break a polymer into monomers	115
7848963692	functional groups	parts of organic molecules that are involved in chemical reactions	116
7848963694	charge of the oxygen atom in a water molecule	slightly negative	117
7848963695	charge of the hydrogen atoms in a water molecule	slightly positive	118
7848963696	hydrogen bond in water	weak bond formed between water molecules	119
7848963698	hydrophillic	Term for substances that dissolve in water.	120
7848963699	hydrophobic	Term for substances that do not dissolve in water.	121
7848963704	high specific heat	property of water in which water changes temperature very slowly with changes in heat due to hydrogen bonding	122
7848963705	evaporative cooling	water carries the heat it absorbs away in sweat due to its high specific heat	123
7848963706	heat of fusion	the energy required to change water from a solid to a liquid	124
7848963707	heat of vaporization	the energy required to change water from a liquid to a gas	125
7848963708	the reason why water has a high specific heat	it takes a large amount of energy to break the hydrogen bonds that hold water molecules together	126
7848963710	the reason ice floats in liquid water	less dense as a solid; hydrogen bonds form crystalline structure that keeps the water molecules separate	127
7848963711	reasons why ice floating is important to life	floating ice keeps the water below it from freezing; if ice would sink, it would remain frozen eventually freezing the entire body of water	128
7848963712	cohesion	the attraction of like substances; water molecules are attracted to other water molecules; this is due to the hydrogen bonding between water molecules	129
7848963713	the reason insects can walk on the surface of water	surface tension caused by the cohesion of water molecules	130
7848963714	adhesion	the attraction of unlike molecules; water molecules are attracted to other polar surfaces	131
7848963730	*functional group	*groups of atoms that are responsible for the chemical properties of organic compounds	132
7848963733	*ionic bond	*Bond that forms when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another.	133
7848963734	*covalent bond	*Bond that forms when electrons between atoms are shared.	134
7848963740	*hydrogen bond	*A weak bond formed between molecules.	135
7848963746	CHO	elements that make up carbohydrate - Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen	136
7848963747	CHO	elements that make up lipids, Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen	137
7848963748	CHON	elements that make up proteins, Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen	138
7848963749	CHOPN	elements that make up nucleic acids, Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus	139
7848963750	HONC	Hydrogen makes 1 covalent bond, Oxygen makes 2 covalent bonds, Nitrogen makes 3 covalent bonds, Carbon makes 4 covalent bonds	140

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AP Biology: Cell Structures Flashcards

Vocabulary words from the AP Edition of Campbell Biology, Chapter 6.

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7336083287	organelles	membrane-enclosed structures within a eukaryotic cell	0
7336083288	cytosol	a jellylike substance where organelles and other components are found	1
7336083289	eukaryotic cell	Cell with a nucleus and membrane bound organelles	2
7336083290	prokaryotic cell	Cell with no nucleus nor membrane bound organelles	3
7336083291	nucleoid region	a non-membrane-enclosed region of the cell where prokaryotic DNA is found	4
7336083292	cytoplasm	the region in a cell between the cell membrane and nucleus; it contains the cell structures and oganelles	5
7336083293	plasma membrane	The selective barrier that surrounds a cell; it controls what enters and leaves the cell	6
7336083294	nucleus	chromosome-containing part of a eukaryotic cell	7
7336083295	nuclear envelope	encloses the nucleus to separate its contents from the cytoplasm	8
7336083297	chromosomes	tightly coiled structures that carry the genetic information (can be seen during nuclear division)	9
7336083298	chromatin	loosly coiled genetic material that makes up chromosomes, a complex of proteins and DNA	10
7336083299	nucleolus	located in the nucleus, makes, synthesizes, and partially assembles ribosomes	11
7336083300	ribosomes	made of ribosomal RNA and protein, synthesize proteins	12
7336083301	endomembrane system	membranes that divide the cell into organelles such as the nuclear membrane, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, and the cell membrane.	13
7336083302	endoplasmic reticulum (ER)	accounts for more than half of total membrane in many eukaryotic cells, continuous with the nuclear envelope	14
7336083303	smooth ER	portion of the endoplasmic reticulum free of ribosomes, synthesize lipids, detoxifies the cell, and regulates calcium levels	15
7336083304	rough ER	portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes, produce and transport membrane and secretory proteins	16
7336083305	glycoproteins	proteins with covalently-bonded carbohydrates that play a role in cell to cell interaction	17
7336083306	transport vesicles	vesicles in transit from one part of the cell to another	18
7336083307	Golgi apparatus	stack of membranes that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum	19
7336083308	lysosome	membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes, which the cell uses to digest unwanted materials	20
7336083309	phagocytosis	the process by which a cell engulfs a solid particle	21
7336083310	autophagy	lysosomes break down damaged organelles	22
7336083311	food vacuoles	formed by phagocytosis, pinches off from plasma membrane and encloses a food particle	23
7336083312	contractile vacuoles	pump excess water out of the cell to maintain a suitable concentration of ions and molecules in the cell	24
7336083313	central vacuole	the largest organelle in a plant cell. It is surrounded by the tonoplast and functions to hold materials and wastes. It also functions to maintain the proper pressure within plant cells	25
7336083314	mitochondria	chemically convert chemical (food) energy into usable ATP energy through cellular respiration	26
7336083315	chloroplasts	contain chlorophyll which help absorb solar energy in order to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars during photosynthesis	27
7336083316	cristae	infoldings in the inner membrane of the mitochondria	28
7336083317	mitochondrial matrix	compartment of the mitochondrion, enclosed by the inner membrane, contains enzymes and substrates for the citric acid cycle	29
7336083318	plastids	manufacture and store important chemical compounds used by the cell such as pigments, oils, and starches	30
7336083319	thylakoids	flattened and interconnected sacs found in chloroplasts. The light dependent stage of photosynthesis occurs on the membranes of these sacs	31
7336083320	granum	stacks of thylakoids	32
7336083321	stroma	fluid outside the thylakoids, contains chloroplast DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes. The light independent stage of photosynthesis occurs in this area	33
7336083322	cytoskeleton	a network of fibers bracing the cytoplasm	34
7336083323	microtubules	hollow rods of protein, support the cell and moves organelles within the cell	35
7336083324	centrosome	a region located near the nucleus where micro-tubules grow from; important in cell division	36
7336083325	centrioles	cylindrical organelle near the nucleus in animal cells, occurring in pairs and involved in the development of spindle fibers in cell division	37
7336083326	flagella	a long tail-like structure that aids in cell movement	38
7336083327	cilia	a short hair-like structures that enable movement of cells or movement of materials outside a cell, utilizes a back-and-forth motion	39
7336083328	microfilaments	the thinnest part of the cytoskeleton, are used to give shape to the cell and support all of its internal parts	40
7336083333	cell wall	extracellular structure specific to plant cells, protects the cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive water uptake	41
7336083337	extracellular matrix	where animal tissue cells are embedded, consists of protein and polysaccharides	42

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AP Biology Cell Membrane Flashcards

Cell membrane structure and functions

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5812510858	Selective Permeability	Allows some substances to cross more easily than others	0
5812510859	phospholipid bilayer	a double layer of phospholipids that makes up plasma membranes	1
5812510860	Integral Proteins	Proteins that extend through the phospholipid bilayer.	2
5812510861	Peripheral Proteins	A protein loosely attached to the surface of a membrane	3
5812510862	Glycoproteins	proteins that have carbohydrates covalently bonded to them	4
5812510863	cholesterol	steroid present in the plasma membranes of animal cells. A large amount of this in a phospholipid bilayer at High Temperatures reduces membrane fluidity, but at Lower Temperature prevents the membrane from solidifying.	5
5812510864	Concentration Gradient	a difference in the concentration of a substance across a space	6
5812510865	Diffusion	the movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, so that they spread out evenly reaching equilibrium	7
5812510866	Osmosis	The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane	8
5812510867	Transport Proteins	proteins that help to transport substances across cell membranes	9
5812510868	Aquaporins	Channel proteins that help massive amount of water pass through the membrane; a lot in our kidneys	10
5812510869	Passive Transport	movement of materials through a cell membrane without using energy	11
5812510870	Isotonic	a solution whose solute concentration equals that inside a cell; the cell will not change	12
5812510871	Hypertonic	the solution with the greater concentration of solutes than that inside the cell; the cell will lose water to its environment--> Cell will shrivel up	13
5812510872	Hypotonic	the solution with the lower concentration of solutes than that inside the cell; water will enter the cell -> Cell will swell and burst	14
5812510873	Osmoregulation	The control of water balance	15
5812510874	Turgid	Very firm (healthy state), especially for plant cells	16
5812510875	Plasmolysis	As a plant cell shrivels its plasma membrane pulls away from the wall	17
5812510876	Facilitated Diffusion	passive transport of ions or polar molecules across a plasma membrane by transport proteins	18
5812510877	Active Transport	transport of a substance through a cell membrane against the concentration gradient; requires energy	19
5812510878	Sodium-Potassium Pump	a carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell	20
5812510879	Exocytosis	process by which a cell releases large amounts of material by vesicles	21
5812510880	Endocytosis	the movement of a substance into a cell by a vesicle	22
5812510881	Phagocytosis	a type of endocytosis in which microbes are taken in by immune cells of animals (mainly by macrophages)	23
5812510882	Pinocytosis	cellular drinking	24
5812510883	Receptor-mediated endocytosis	Taking in large amount of specific substances by binding to receptors, which form vesicles and are then taken in by the cell	25
5812510884	osmotic pressure	The force required to resist the movement of water by osmosis. Osmotic pressure is a measure of the concentration of a solution. A solution that is highly concentrated has a strong tendency to draw water into itself, so the pressure required to resist that movement would be high. Thus, highly concentrated solutions are said to have high osmotic pressures.	26

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AP Biology: Chapter 13 (meiosis) Flashcards

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8525503399	meiosis	Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms - the number of chromosomes and genetic content will be reduced in half (reduction division process) - in mammals, meiosis occurs in the gonads (ovaries or testes) in response to estrogen or testosterone 2n -> n	0
8525503400	fertilization	the joining of a sperm cell and an egg cell n+n= 2n - random event with many possible outcomes	1
8525503401	autosomes	Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome - human gamete has 22 of these	2
8525503402	sex chromosome	one of two chromosomes that determines an individual's sex	3
8525503403	X chromosome	the sex chromosome that is present in both sexes: singly in males and doubly in females	4
8525503404	Y chromosome	sex chromosome found only in males	5
8525503405	Sperm	haploid male sex cells produced by meiosis - determines the sex of the zygote	6
8525503406	Meiosis 1	- preceded by replication of homologous chromosomes 2n -> n + n	7
8525503407	What does each daughter cell have?	half the # of chromosomes and half the # of the genetic content of the diploid parent cell	8
8525503408	Meiosis is responsible for	genetic variations that exists in sexually reproducing species, between the parents and offspring, and even between two offspring from the same parents	9
8525503409	Homologous Chromosomes	chromosomes having the same or allelic genes with genetic loci (positions) usually arranged in the same order - one chromosome inherited from the father, paternal and one from the mother, maternal - each gene in the pair of chromosomes codes for the same trait, but each chromosome may code for a different version of that trait, so homologous chromosomes are NOT identical to each other	10
8525503410	Alleles	different versions of a gene	11
8525503411	Homologue	each of two chromosomes with identical structures	12
8525503412	Prophase 1	- nuclear envelope breaks down - spindle apparatus begins to develop - replicated maternal and paternal homologous chromosome form maternal and paternal sister chromatids - synapsis occurs - crossing over takes place	13
8525503413	Synapsis	the union of the sister chromatids to form a tetrad of homologous chromosomes	14
8525503414	tetrad	the combination of maternal and paternal sister chromatids	15
8525503415	crossing over	- two non-sister chromatids in the tetrad cross over each other and exchange segments of DNA - this exchange produces recombinant chromatids - this event is the major source of genetic variations in gametes - chiasma ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - helps to preserve genetic variability within a species by allowing for virtually limitless combinations of genes in the transmission from parent to offspring - is estimated to occur approximately fifty-five times in male meiosis, and about seventy-five times in female meiosis	16
8525503416	recombinant chromatids	two chromatids with new combinations of genes and inherited traits	17
8525503417	chiasma	the X-shaped region where the exchange of genetic material occurs	18
8525503418	Metaphase 1	- tetrads line up at the metaphase plate - maternal and paternal sister chromatids in the tetrad are facing opposite poles (orientation to opposite poles is random) - kinetochores of all sister chromatids are attached to the spindle microtubules	19
8525503419	Anaphase 1	- the tetrads separate and sister chromatids move to opposite poles	20
8525503420	independent assortment	the separation of the maternal and paternal sister chromatids randomly to opposite poles - maternal and paternal sister chromatids of the tetrad orient toward opposite poles randomly during metaphase 1 - the number of possible combinations due to independent assortment is 2^n , where n is the haploid number of species - for humans n=23 , so there are 2^23 possible combinations of chromosomes each time a cell undergoes meiosis - 2^23 = 8.4 million possible combinations	21
8525503421	Telophase 1	- a nuclear membrane encloses each set of homologous chromosomes - each nuclei now has a haploid (n) set of chromosomes due to independent assortment and there is a loss of genetic content in each cell - the genetic content has been reduced in half (n) because only some of the maternal and paternal chromosomes exist in each nucleus	22
8525503422	Cytokinesis 1	- division of the cytoplasm forms two haploid daughter cells	23
8525503423	Meiosis 2	- both daughter cells from Meiosis 1 now undergo Meiosis 2 - no chromosome replication occurs n -> n	24
8525503424	Prophase 2	- sister chromatids move toward the metaphase plate	25
8525503425	Metaphase 2	- sister chromatids are at the metaphase plate - two sister chromatids are no longer genetically identical to each other because of CROSSING OVER - kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to the microtubules	26
8525503426	Anaphase 2	- the sister chromatids separate (just like in mitosis) and move as two individual chromosomes toward opposite poles	27
8525503427	Telophase 2	- the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles - nuclei form around each set and the chromosomes unwind	28
8525503428	Cytokinesis 2	- division of the cytoplasm that results in four haploid daughter cells (the amount of DNA is reduced in half) and are genetically different from each other	29
8525503429	Animal Male Gametogenesis	spermatogenesis	30
8525503430	Spermatogenesis	- occurs in the testes due to testosterone - one diploid germ cell, spermatogonium, will produce 4 viable haploid sperm	31
8525503431	Animal Female Gametogenesis	öogenesis - in humans, one or two months before a girl is born her öogonia (diploid germ cells) undergo replication, become primary öocytes and begin Meiosis 1 - primary öocytes "press the pause button" on their development in prophase 1 - the primary öocytes stay at this stage of development for over a decade until the onset of puberty and menstrual cycle - for the next 45 years or so, on a monthly basis, one primary oocyte resumes meiosis and completes meiosis 1 and meiosis 2	32
8525503432	Öogenesis	- occurs in the ovary due to estrogen - the polar bodies are smaller than the ovum due to unequal division of the cytoplasm and cannot be fertilized by sperm - the egg gets most of the cytoplasm to ensure that the egg has a larger store of food to nourish the developing embryo after fertilization - plant polar bodies are fertilized by a sperm cell - the fertilized polar bodies will develop and give rise to the endosperm - the fertilized ovum will become the plant embryo (2n)	33
8525503433	primary öocyte	produces one haploid egg (ovum) and three haploid polar bodies	34
8525503434	endosperm	surrounds the embryo and provides nutrition during development	35
8525503435	the three mechanisms that are responsible for most of the variation that arise in each generation are	- independent assortment - crossing over - random fertilization	36
8525503436	random fertilization	- to determine the probability that any one sperm will fertilized any particular egg, you multiply the probability of the separate independent assortment events together 2^23 x 2^23 = (2^n)^2 - the fusions of two human gametes from the same parents, (2^23)^2, produces 70.56 trillion possible combinations of chromosomes that could end up in a zygote - each zygote has a unique genetic identity	37
8525503437	gametes	sex cells	38
8525503438	gonads	reproductive glands-male, testes; female, ovaries	39
8525503439	testosterone	male sex hormone	40
8525503440	estrogen	female sex hormone	41
8525503441	haploid	half the normal number of chromosomes	42
8525503442	Variety of Sexual Life Styles	- the alternation of meiosis and fertilization is a common to all organisms that reproduce sexually; however, the timing of these two events in the life cycle can vary depending on the species	43
8525503443	Meiosis and Fertilization occur in animals	every generation - there are haploid gametes and a diploid multicellular organism in one generation	44
8525503444	Plants and some Algae exhibit a second type of life cycle	alternation of generations	45
8525503445	Alternation of Generates	this type includes both diploid and haploid stages that are multicellular	46
8525503446	First Generation: Meiosis	- the diploid multicellular sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis - each spore grows by mitosis into a haploid multicellular gametophyte sporophyte (2n) -meiosis> spores (n) -mitosis> gametophyte (n)	47
8525503447	Second Generation : Fertilization	- a haploid gametophyte gives rise to haploid gametes by mitosis - fertilization of two haploid gametes results in a diploid zygote, which develops into the next sporophyte generation gametophyte (n) -mitosis> gametes (n) -fertilization> zygote (2n)	48
8525503448	Sporophyte	spore-producing plant; the multicellular diploid phase of a plant life cycle	49
8525503449	Spores	single-celled reproductive bodies highly resistant to cold and heat damage; capable of new organisms	50
8525503450	Gametophyte	gamete-producing plant; multicellular haploid phase of a plant life cycle	51

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AP Biology - Chapter 20: Biotechnology Flashcards

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8583265620	recombinant DNA	A DNA molecule made in vitro with segments from different sources.	0
8583265621	genetic engineering	The direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes.	1
8583265622	biotechnology	The manipulation of living organisms or their components to produce useful products.	2
8583265623	plasmid	A small ring of DNA that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome; also found in some eukaryotes, such as yeast.	3
8583265624	gene cloning	The production of multiple copies of a gene.	4
8583265625	restriction enzymes	A degradative enzyme that recognizes and cuts up DNA (including that of certain phages) that is foreign to a bacterium; an important tool in biotechnology	5
8583265626	restriction sites	A specific sequence on a DNA strand that is recognized as a cut site by a restriction enzyme.	6
8583265627	sticky end	A single-stranded end of a double-stranded DNA restriction fragment.	7
8583265628	DNA ligase	A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain; useful in forming recombinant DNA	8
8583265629	cloning vector	An agent used to transfer DNA in genetic engineering. A plasmid that moves recombinant DNA from a test tube back into a cell is an example of a cloning vector, as is a virus that transfers recombinant DNA by infection.	9
8583265630	complementary DNA	A DNA molecule made in vitro using mRNA as a template and the enzyme reverse transcriptase. this DNA molecule therefore corresponds to a gene, but lacks the introns present in the DNA of the genome.	10
8583265631	nucleic acid probe	In DNA technology, a labeled single-stranded nucleic acid molecule used to tag a specific nucleotide sequence in a nucleic acid sample. Molecules of the probe hydrogen-bond to the complementary sequence wherever it occurs; radioactive or other labeling of the probe allows its location to be detected.	11
8583265632	nucleic acid hybridization	Base pairing between a gene and a complementary sequence on another nucleic acid molecule.	12
8583265633	electroporation	A technique to introduce recombinant DNA into cells by applying a brief electrical pulse to a solution containing cells. The electricity creates temporary holes in the cells' plasma membranes, through which DNA can enter.	13
8583265634	polymerase chain reaction (PCR)	A technique for amplifying DNA in vitro by incubating with special primers, taq polymerase molecules, and nucleotides.	14
8583265635	gel electrophoresis	The separation of nucleic acids on the basis of their size and electrical charge, due to their different rate of movement through an electrical field in a gel.	15
8583265636	restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)	Differences in DNA sequence on homologous chromosomes that result in different patterns of restriction fragment lengths (DNA segments resulting from treatment with restriction enzymes); .	16
8583265637	Southern Blotting	A hybridization technique that enables researchers to determine the presence of certain nucleotide sequences in a sample of DNA.	17
8583265638	dideoxy chain termination method	a DNA sequencing method in which target DNA is denatured and annealed to an oligonucleotide primer, which is then extended by DNA polymerase using a mixture of deoxynucleotide triphosphates (normal dNTPs) and chain-terminating dideoxynucleotide triphosphates (ddNTPs)	18
8583265639	reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)	a variant of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), is a technique commonly used in molecular biology to detect mRNA expression; useful for studying gene expression during development	19
8583265640	northern blotting	an adaptation of the Southern blot procedure used to detect specific sequences of RNA by hybridization with complementary DNA.	20
8583265641	DNA microarray assay	A method to detect and measure the expression of thousands of genes at one time. Tiny amounts of a large number of single-stranded DNA fragments representing different genes are fixed to a glass slide. These fragments, ideally representing all the genes of an organism, are tested for hybridization with various samples of cDNA molecules.	21
8583265642	in vitro mutagenesis	The creation of mutations in genes; used to knock out genes and then determine their function	22
8583265643	RNA interference	A technique to silence the expression of selected genes in nonmammalian organisms. The method uses synthetic double-stranded RNA molecules matching the sequence of a particular gene to trigger the breakdown of the gene's messenger RNA or block its translation;useful for determining gene function	23
8583265644	single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)	One base-pair variation in the genome sequence; useful as markers for diseases in the human population	24
8583265645	reverse transcriptase	An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.	25
8583265646	CRISPR-cas 9	a system used by bacteria to defend against bacteriophage infections; used in genetic engineering to target and disable genes and thereby determine their function	26
8583265647	totipotent	a cell that can give rise to all specialized cell types; in animals that includes the placenta	27
8583265648	pluripotent	embryonic stem cells from the blastocyst that can give rise to all specialized cell types but not the placenta	28
8583265649	induced pluripotent cells	iPS differentiated cells that are reprogrammed to become pluripotent that can be used to study and treat disease	29
8583265650	somatic cell nuclear transfer	used in organismal cloning; nucleus of a somatic cell replaces the nucleus of an enucleated egg	30
8583265651	epigenetic changes	methylation of DNA and histones and other types of chromatin modification that need to be reversed in reprogramming of a differentiated cell for organismal cloning to be successful	31

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AP Biology - Chapter 20: Biotechnology Flashcards

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8743896265	recombinant DNA	A DNA molecule made in vitro with segments from different sources, example pGlo plasmid	0
8743896266	transgenic organism	AKA GMO, or genetically modified organism, its genome has been altered	1
8743896268	plasmid	A small ring of DNA that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome; also found in some eukaryotes, such as yeast.	2
8743896269	gene cloning	The production of multiple copies of a gene, such as insulin or GFP	3
8743896270	restriction enzymes	A degradative enzyme that recognizes and cuts up DNA (including that of certain phages) that is foreign to a bacterium; an important tool in biotechnology	4
8743896271	restriction sites	A specific sequence on a DNA strand that is recognized as a cut site by a restriction enzyme.	5
8743896272	sticky end	A single-stranded end of a double-stranded DNA restriction fragment.	6
8743896273	DNA ligase	A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain; useful in forming recombinant DNA	7
8743896274	cloning vector	An agent used to transfer DNA in genetic engineering. A plasmid that moves recombinant DNA from a test tube back into a cell is an example of a cloning vector, as is a virus that transfers recombinant DNA by infection.	8
8743896275	complementary DNA	A DNA molecule made in vitro using mRNA as a template and the enzyme reverse transcriptase. this DNA molecule therefore corresponds to a gene, but lacks the introns present in the DNA of the genome.	9
8743896278	heat shock and calcium chloride	Two techniques used to encourage bacteria to take in recombinant DNA (plasmids).	10
8743896279	polymerase chain reaction (PCR)	A technique for amplifying DNA in vitro by incubating with special primers, taq polymerase molecules, and nucleotides, goes through heating and cooling each round; can be used for paternity, minute soft tissue samples in fossils, genotype identification, crime scence etc	11
8743896280	gel electrophoresis	The separation of nucleic acids on the basis of their size and electrical charge, due to their different rate of movement through an electrical field in a gel.	12
8743896281	restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)	Differences in DNA sequence on homologous chromosomes that result in different patterns of restriction fragment lengths (DNA segments resulting from treatment with restriction enzymes); could also distinguish between normal and sickle form of hemoglobin and get genotype of individual	13
8743896289	single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)	One base-pair variation in the genome sequence; useful as markers for diseases in the human population, ex for sickle form of hemoglobin	14
8743896290	reverse transcriptase	An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.	15
8743896291	CRISPR-cas 9	a system used by bacteria to defend against bacteriophage infections; used in genetic engineering to target and disable genes and thereby determine their function	16
8743896295	somatic cell nuclear transfer	used in organismal cloning; nucleus of a somatic cell replaces the nucleus of an enucleated egg	17
8743896296	epigenetic changes	methylation of DNA and histones and other types of chromatin modification that need to be reversed in reprogramming of a differentiated cell for organismal cloning to be successful	18
9103024761	primers	find specific sequences and anneal during PCR	19

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AP Biology - Chapter 14 - Biotech Flashcards

Mader Biology 11 ed Chapter 14

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5781405953	Cloning	The production of genetically identical copies of DNA, cells, or organisms through some asexual means.	0
5781405954	Transgenic Organisms	An organisms whose genome has been altered by the insertion of genes from another species.	1
5781405955	rDNA	Recombinant DNA - DNA that contains genes from more than one source.	2
5781405956	Vector	In genetic engineering, a means to transfer foreign material into a cell. (ex. a plasmid)	3
5781405957	Plasmids	Extrachromosomal ring of accessory DNA in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes.	4
5781405958	Restriction Enzyme	Bacterial enzyme that stops viral reproduction by cleaving viral DNA; used to cut DNA at specific points during production of recombinant DNA.	5
5781405959	DNA Ligase	Enzyme that links DNA fragments.	6
5781405960	PCR	Polymerase Chain Reaction - Technique that uses the enzyme DNA polymerase to produce millions of copies of a particular piece of DNA.	7
5781405961	STRs	Short tandem repeat sequences - Procedure of analyzing DNA in which PCR and gel electrophoresis are used to create a banding pattern; these are usually unique for each individual.	8
5781405962	Genetically modified organisms	Organism whose genetic material has been altered or enhanced using DNA technology.	9
5781405963	Gene pharming	Production of pharmaceuticals using transgenic organisms, usually agricultural animals.	10
5781405964	Ex vivo gene therapy	Gene therapy in which cells are removed from an organism, and DNA is injected to correct a genetic defect. The cells are returned to the organism to treat a disease or disorder.	11
5781405965	In vivo gene therapy	Gene therapy in which a gene is delivered directly into the body.	12
5781405966	Genomics	Area of study that examines the genome of a species or group of species.	13
5781405967	Human Genome Project	Initiative to determine the complete sequence of the human genome and to analyze this information.	14
5781405968	Tandem Repeat	Repetitive DNA sequence in which the repeats occur one after another in the same region of a chromosome.	15
5781405969	Transposons	DNA sequence capable of randomly moving from one site to another in the genome.	16
5781405970	DNA microarrays	Glass or plastic slide containing thousands of single-stranded DNA fragments aranged in an array (grid); used to detect and measure gene expression.	17
5781405971	Proteomics	Study of the complete collection of proteins that a cell or organism expresses.	18
5781405972	Bioinformatics	Area of scientific study that utilizes computer technologies to analyze large sets of data, typically in the study of genomics and proteomics.	19
5781405974	biotechnology products	Commercial or agricultural products that are made with or derived from transgenic organisms.	20
5781405977	functional genomics	Area of genomics that studies the functions or roles of genetic information contained within genomes.	21
5781405978	gene cloning	production of multiple copies of a single gene	22
5781405979	gene therapy	The insertion of working copies of a gene into the cells of a person with a genetic disorder in an attempt to correct the disorder	23
5781405981	intergenic sequence	Region of DNA that lies between genes on a chromosome.	24
5781405983	repepititve DNA element	a sequence of two or more nucleotides that are repeated many times on a length ofDNA	25
5781405984	structural genomics	Area of genomics that studies the organization and sequence of information contained within genomes; sometimes used by protein chemists to refer to the determination of the three-dimensional structure of proteins	26
5781405985	xenotransplantation	The transplantation of living cells, tissues or organs from one species to another, such as from pigs to humans.	27

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AP Biology: Evolution New Vocab Flashcards

Evolution Terms

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7333482559	evolutionary adaptation	An accumulation of inherited characteristics that enhance organisms' ability to survive and reproduce in specific environments.	0
7333482560	artificial selection	The process by which humans selectively breed organisms with desired traits and speed up divergent evolution.	1
7333482561	descent with modification	The notion that a species makes discrete changes in the collection of traits over time, which accumulates in speciation.	2
7333482563	fitness	The contribution that an individual makes to the gene pool of the subsequent generation. A reflection of how well an organism survives and reproduces in a given environment due to its specific collection of genetic traits.	3
7333482564	homology	Similarity resulting from common ancestry.	4
7333482572	population genetics	Study of allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of evolutionary processes.	5
7333482575	Hardy-Weinberg Theorem	The notion that a large, randomly mating population that is experiencing no mutation, gene flow, or selection is not evolving. Frequencies of alleles and genotypes remain constant from generation to generation.	6
7333482577	sexual recombination	Crossing over and shuffling of genes during meiosis.	7
7333482580	founder effect	When a small number of individuals colonize a new area; the new gene pool is not reflective of original population.	8
7333482583	discrete characteristic	Characteristic classified on an either-or basis, determined by a single gene locus.	9
7333482584	quantitative characteristic	Characteristic that varies along a continuum, usually due to influence of two or more genes.	10
7333482585	geographic variation	Observable differences in the gene pools of separate populations or in discrete subpopulations.	11
7333482586	cline	The gradual change in phenotype frequencies over a geographical range that mirrors the gradual change in environmental influences.	12
7333482587	relative fitness	Fitness of a particular genotype.	13
7333482588	directional selection	Natural selection that favors individuals in a population with more extreme versions of a phenotype.	14
7333482589	disruptive selection	Natural selection that favors individuals with either one extreme of a phenotype or the other; the intermediate phenotype is selected against.	15
7333482590	stabilizing selection	Natural selection that favors the intermediate phenotype and selects against the extreme phenotypes.	16
7333482591	heterozygote advantage	Observed when natural selection favors the heterozygote condition (through greater reproductive success) over either homozygote condition. Maintains variation in a gene pool. ex: Sickle Cell Anemia	17
7333482592	sexual selection	The type of natural selection that directly or indirectly favors reproductively advantageous traits. Intrasexual selection refers to direct competition between members of the same sex for access to members of the opposite sex for mating purposes. Intersexual selection refers to the effects of females choosing select males for mating based on their possession of certain desired traits.	18
7333482593	sexual dimorphism	The characteristic observed among many species where males and females possess noticeably different physical characteristics. The male can be more phenotypically ornate than the female due to intersexual selection The typical body size of a male and a female can be very different	19
7333482595	biological species concept	The definition of a species based on the ability of groups of populations of like organisms to reproduce viable offspring and the inability to do the same with members from other populations.	20
7333482596	reproductive isolation	A condition prohibiting members of one species from reproducing with members of another species. Acts to maintain the genetic integrity of a species.	21
7333482597	prezygotic isolation	Prevents a hybrid zygote from ever forming between members of different species and preserves the integrity of each species.	22
7333482598	habitat isolation	two species do not interbreed because they encounter each other only rarely.	23
7333482599	temporal isolation	two species do not interbreed because they breed at different times of day, season, or years.	24
7333482600	behavioral isolation	two species do not interbreed because they have incompatible courtship rituals, pheromones, or bird songs.	25
7333482601	mechanical isolation	two species do not interbreed because morphological differences prevent fertilization.	26
7333482602	gametic isolation	two species do not interbreed because sperm can't fertilize the eggs.	27
7333482603	postzygotic barriers	Barriers that prevent the hybrid zygote from becoming a fertile adult.	28
7333482604	reduced hybrid viability	hybrid offspring are weak and often don't survive to maturity	29
7333482605	reduced hybrid fertility	production of viable but sterile hybrid offspring	30
7333482606	hybrid breakdown	Hybrid is fertile, but when they breed the next generation is sterile.	31
7333482607	allopatric speciation	speciation that occurs because members of the same ancestral population have become isolated and exposed to different environmental conditions over time.	32
7333482608	sympatric speciation	Speciation that occurs in spite of a lack of a geographically isolating mechanism. Common among plants due to polyploidy.	33
7333482609	polyploidy	A chromosomal change in which an organism possesses more than two sets of chromosomes.	34
7333482610	autopolyploidy	An individual from one species produces polyploid gametes and self-fertilizes.	35
7333482611	allopolyploidy	Two different species interbreed and combine their chromosomes.	36
7333482612	adaptive radiation	Evolution of many new species from a common ancestor as a result of introduction to new environments.	37
7333482620	systematics	The study of the biodiversity and relatedness among organisms, both extinct and extant.	38
7333482621	analogy	Anatomical similarity due to convergent evolution; creates analogous structures	39
7333482622	homoplasy	When a trait has been gained or lost independently in separate lineages during evolution; convergent evolution	40
7333482628	clade	A taxonomic grouping that includes only a single ancestor and all of its descendants.	41
7333482629	cladistics	A phylogenetic classification system that uses shared derived characters and ancestry as the sole criterion for grouping taxa.	42
7333482630	monophyletic group	A taxonomic grouping that includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants.	43
7333482631	paraphyletic group	Groups of species that include the common ancestor and some, but not all, of the descendant species.	44
7333482632	polyphyletic group	Groups of species that include members of different ancestral lineages. All members in the grouping do not share a recent common ancestor.	45
7333482633	shared primitive character	Trait shared beyond the taxon.	46
7333482634	shared derived character	Evolutionary novelty unique to that clade.	47
7333482635	outgroup	The taxon or group representing the point of comparison in a cladistic study. Possesses the most distant evolutionary relationship relative to any of the ingroups.	48
7333482636	phylograms	A phylogenetic tree in which the lengths of the trunks and branches are relative to the number of genetic differences separating different species.	49
7333482638	maximum parsimony	A principle that states that when considering multiple explanations for an observation, the simplest explanation is usually correct Useful when establishing evolutionary relationships between species and in explaining evolutionary adaptations.	50
7333482639	maximum likelihood	when considering multiple phylogenetic hypotheses, the one that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events, given certain rules about how DNA changes over time is likely correct	51
7333482643	Miller-Urey Experiment	Experiment that found that organic molecules can form in a strongly reducing atmosphere.	52
7333482644	protobionts	Aggregates of abiotically produced molecules surrounded by a membrane.	53
7333482645	liposomes	Membrane-bound droplets that form when lipids are added to water.	54
7333482646	radiometric dating	Dating using decay of radioactive isotopes.	55
7333482647	radioisotopes	Isotopes that have unstable nuclei and undergo radioactive decay.	56
7333482648	stromatolites	Oldest known fossils formed from many layers of bacteria and sediment.	57
7333482649	endosymbiotic theory	Ancestors of mitochondria and plastids were prokaryotes that came to live in a host cell.	58
7333482650	colony	Collection of autonomously replicating cells.	59
7333482673	antibiotic resistance	Resistance evolving rapidly in many species of prokaryotes due to overuse of antibiotics, especially in agriculture.	60
10264281979	analogous structures	Similar structures in different species that may appear similar externally and serve similar functions but develop from different embryonic origins; evidence of convergent evolution. Suggest similar environmental pressures resulting in similar adaptations among species in separate lineages. Examples include the wings of a bat, an insect, and a bird.	61
10264334308	postzygotic isolation	Reproductive isolating mechanism that prevents a hybrid zygote from ever developing fully and/or successfully reproducing	62
10264376405	frequency-dependent selection	A decrease in the reproductive success of an organism of a given phenotype due to the increased frequency of that physical characteristic in the population.	63
10264432312	phylogeny	evolutionary history of a species or of a group of closely related species.	64
10264484497	ingroup	The group of taxa being studied cladistically that share some derived traits. Helps establish evolutionary relatedness between species.	65
10264519542	molecular clock	A mechanism of determining evolutionary time, based on the notion that some parts of the genome change at relatively constant and predictable rates.	66
10264526223	fossil record	The extensive collection of data that displays much of the history of life on Earth through the remnants of organisms in sedimentary rock.	67
10264560567	endemic	Describes a species that is only found in one discrete geographical location.	68
10264569359	morphological species concept	The definition of a species based upon shared physical characteristics. Used more exclusively for asexual organisms and before genetic information was known about different species.	69
10264580528	balancing selection	Natural selection that maintains relatively stable frequencies of at least two phenotypic traits in a population (balancing polymorphism)	70
10264595553	heterochrony	Evolutionary change that affects the specific timing and/or rate of an organism's development.	71
10264598921	convergent evolution	A pattern of evolution observed when groups of relatively unrelated organisms possess similar traits or morphs due to evolution in similar environments. Not evidence of common ancestry, but instead suggestive of a like response to similar environmental pressures.	72

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Ap Biology Cell Organelles Flashcards

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6702071569	Chloroplast	Site of photosynthesis Converts solar energy into potential energy in the glucose molecule plant cells only	0
6702071577	Contractile Vacuole	Osmoregulation Takes water from cell then pushes the water out through cell membrane or wall Protists and algae	1
6702071578	Cell Membrane	Protects cell from surroundings Allows certain substances in, keeps others out Phospholipid bilayer with proteins plant and animal	2
6702071579	Nucleus	Contains the DNA in a eukaryote cell.	3
6702071580	Nucleolus	Non-membranus structure involved in production of ribosomes; located in the nucleus plant and animal	4
6702071581	Centrioles	Helps organize microtubules during cell division Animal only	5
6702071582	Ribosomes	Site of translation (protein synthesis); made from proteins and rRNA	6
6702071583	Golgi Apparatus	organelle active in modification, sorting, and secretion of cell products	7
6702071584	Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum	network of membranous sacs and tubes that makes and stores lipids	8
6702071585	Mitochondria	organelle where cellular resperation occurs and most ATP is generated	9
6702071586	Lysosomes	digestive organelle where macromolecules are hydrolyzed (broken down); autophagy; apoptosis animal only	10
6702071587	Cytoskeleton	reinforces cell's shape;functions in cell movement; components are made of microfilaments	11
6702071591	Central Vacuole	Largest organelle in plant cell; maintains turgor pressure because it is inflated with water. plant only	12
6702071592	Cell Wall	outer layer that maintains cell's shape and protects from damage made of cellulose and other polysachrides, and proteins Plant only	13
6702071593	Cilia	located on outside of cell. pushes cell forward; short, numerous, and hair-like plant and animal	14
6702071594	Flagellum	located on the outside of a cell; used for locomotion whip like structure made of microtubles	15
6702071595	centrosome	made of two centrioles; helps rearrange the cytoskeleton for cell division	16
6702807878	Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum	network of membranous sacs and tubes that has ribosomes attached. Proteins are modified, tagged and sent to other parts of the cell.	17