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AP Biology (Campbell) Chapter 7 Flashcards

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5472068498plasma membraneseperates the living cell from its surroundings. Contros traffic in and out of the cell. Is selectively permeable.0
5472068499selectively permeableallows some substances to cross more easily than others.1
5472068500phospholipidsmost abundant lipids2
5472068501lipids and proteinsmain macromolecules in membranes3
5472068502amphipatic moleculeshave hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions4
5472068503fluid mosaic modelThe arrangement of phospholipids and proteins in biological membranes is described by the...5
5472068505transmembrane proteinsthe integral protein completely spans the membrane as span the entire lipid bilayer and protrude into both the cytosol and extracellular fluid6
5472068506integral proteinsproteins that penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer7
5472068507peripheral proteinsproteins that are not embedded in the lipid bilayer8
5472068508cell-cell recognitionthe ability of a cell to disitnguish one type of neighboring cell from another.9
5472068510transport proteinsproteins that span the membrane.10
5472068511channel proteinstransport proteins that have a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions use as a tunnel though the membrane.11
5472068512aquaporinschannel proteins that facilitate the passage of water12
5472068513carrier proteinstransport proteins that bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane.13
5472068514diffusionmovement of molecules of any substance to spread out in available space14
5472068515concentration gradientthe region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or decreases.15
5472068516passive transporttransport that requires no energy from the cell to make it happen16
5472068517osmosisthe diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane17
5472068518tonicitythe ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water.18
5472068519isotonicif a cell with no cell wall is immersed in an enviroment where there is no net movement of water across the plasma membrane. Stays the same.19
5472068520hypertonicwhen the cell is immersed in a solution where it loses water to its environment, shrivels and probably dies.20
5472068521hypotonicwhen a cell is immersed in a solution, water enters the cell faster than it leaves, it swells and lyses (explodes) like an overfilled water balloon.21
5472068522osmoregulationthe control of water balance22
5472068523Parameciumis a protist that is hypertonic to the pond water in which it lives. Has contractive vacuole23
5472068524turgidA plant cell with a cell wall that has a reasonable amount of pressure but is healthy.24
5472068530facilitated diffusionthe passive movement of molecules down their concentration gradient with the help of transport proteins.25
5472068531ion channels (gated channels)Channels that open or close depending on the presence or abscence of an electrical, chemical, or physical stimulus.26
5472068533active transporttransport that requires the cell to expend metabolic energy and enables a cell to maintain internal concentrations of small molecules. Requires energy.27
5472068534ATPsupplies energy for most active transport (adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work28
5472068535sodium-potassium pumptransport protein that, translocating the bound solute across the membrane. Exchanges sodium ions (Na) for potassium ions (K) across the plasma membrane of animal cells.29
5472068537electrochemical gradientions move in response to a combined concentration and electrical gradient30
5472068538electrogenic pumpsspecial transport proteins that generate the voltage gradient across a membrane. Ex. sodium potassium pump and proton pumps.31
5472068539sodium-potassium pumpmajor electrogenic pump in animals. Restores the electrochemical gradient by setting up a concentration gradient. It pumps 2 K ions for every 3 Na ions that it moves out, it generates a voltage.32
5472068542exocytosistransport vesicle budded from the Golgi apparatus is moved by the cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane. When the 2 membranes come in contact, the bilayers fuse spill the contents.33
5472068543endocytosisa cell brings in biological molecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane. 3 types: phagocytosis, pinocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis.34
5472068544phagocytosisa cell engulfs a particle in a vacuole. The vacuole fuses with a lysosome to digest the particle.35
5472068545pinocytosismolecules are taken up when extracellular fluid is "gulped" into tiny vesicles.36
5472068546receptor-mediated endocytosisendocytosis that enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific materials that may be in low concentrations in the environment.37
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AP Biology Chapter 4 and 5 Flashcards

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7341327918Significance of carbon to lifeCarbon can form complex, diverse, and large bio-molecules Its chemical structure allows it to form four bonds0
7341327919Molecules that make up lifeCarbon, hydrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, nitrogen, oxygen1
7341327920Functional GroupsDirectly affect molecular function2
7341327921Hydroxyl-OH or HO- Example - Ethanol Polar3
7341327922MethylCH3 Example - 5-Methyl Cytosine Nonpolar4
7341327923CarbonylCarbon double bonded with oxygen Example - Ketone (group is in the middle of the carbon skeleton/two "R" groups) - Acetone Aldehyde (group is at the end of a carbon skeleton/one "R" group) - Propanol Polarity depends on the geometry5
7341327924Carboxyl-COOH or HOOC- (Carbon single bonded with OH and double bonded with O) Example - Acetic Acid Very polar6
7341327925PhosphateP04 (Phosphate single bonded to two negatively charged oxygen, double bonded to one oxygen, and single bonded to an "R" group) Example - Glycerol Phosphate Very polar7
7341327926Amine (Amino)-NH2 or -NH3+ (Acts as a base) Example - Glycine Very polar8
7341327927Sulhydryl-SH or HS- Example - Cysteine Nonpolar9
7341327928PolymerizationThe process of which two or more monomers synthesize into a polymer10
7341327929Dehydration SynthesisThe process in which two or more monomers form a polymer and lose a water molecule Example - 10 molecules of water are released when 11 monomers are linked together (don't count the initial monomer)11
7341327930HydrolysisThe process in which a polymer is decomposed into simpler monomer units with the addition of a water molecule Example - 4 water molecules are required to hydrolyze a 5-monomer unit polymer12
7341327931ChitinA polysaccharide that is chemically similar to cellulose, but with the addition of nitrogen molecule(s) Makes the exoskeleton of fungi, insects or crustaceans (can be molted)13
7341327932StarchA polysaccharide that consists of Alpha 1,4 links bond the glucose monomers together (can be digested by humans) Found in plants, seeds14
7341327933CelluloseA polysaccharide that is chemically similar to starch, but uses Beta 1,4 links to bond glucose monomers together (cannot be digested by animals unless a specialized bacterium is present, as in cows) Found in plants, seeds, fungi15
7341327934GlycogenA branched polysaccharide of many glucose monomers, found in the animals (liver and muscle cells). Used for energy storage. "Animal starch"16
7341327935Glycosidic LinkagesAlpha 1,4 (Oxygen bonded with hydrogens angled downwards) Beta 1,4 (Oxygen bonded with hydrogens angled upwards)17
7341327936GlucoseThe basic monomer unit for all carbohydrates (monosaccharide) Serves as the main source of energy Has an aldehyde (carbonyl) at C1 Hexose (C6H12O6)18
7341327937FructoseA monosaccharide similar to that of glucose Abundant in plants Has a ketone (carbonyl) at C2 Hexose (C6H12O6)19
7341327938GalactoseA monosaccharide similar to that of glucose (orientation of H and OH on C4 are interchanged)20
7341327939LactoseMilk sugar, a dissacharide Composed of galactose and glucose21
7341327940MaltoseBrewing (beer) sugar, rarely found in nature, a dissacharide Composed of two glucose monomers22
7341327941SucroseTable sugar, a dissacharide Composed of glucose and fructose23
7341327942StarchComposed of linked L (alpha)-Glucose24
7341327943CelluloseComposed of linked D (beta)-Glucose monomers25
7341327944Molecular formula for a polymer with 4 glucose moleculesC24H42O21 Subtract 3 Oxygen and 6 Hydrogen since three H2O molecules are required to bond four glucose monomers together26
7341327945Carbohydrate LoadingEating large amounts of carbohydrates in preparation for an athletic event A strategy used for endurance athletes to saturate the liver and muscles with glycogen27
7341327946Ring Structure of Glucose28
7341327947Flattened GlucoseH C=O H-C-OH HO-C-H H-C-OH H-C-OH H-C-OH H29
7341327948DissaccharidesSucrose - Fructose and Glucose Maltose - Glucose and Glucose Lactose - Glucose and Galactose30
7341327949Why fat is better at storing energy than carbohydrateFats contain more energy per unit (2x as much as carbohydrates). Fats are better at storing energy because each glycerol unit can hold three long fatty acid units. Long hydrocarbon chains and their geometry allow dense packing31
7341327950Saturated FatsFatty acids are only comprised of single bonds that allow linear hydrocarbon chains to form Dense packing for high energy concentration Typically solids at room temperature32
7341327951Unsaturated FatsFatty acids are comprised of one or more double bond that produces a "kink" or a bend in the hydrocarbon chain Prevents optimal packing, and creates spaces Typically liquids at room temperature33
7341327952SteriodsExample - Cholesterol, sex hormones Composed of 4 fused carbon rings Different steroids are due to different functional groups34
7341327953PhospholipidsMake up the plasma membrane Phosphate head (hydrophilic, polar) Fatty acid tail (hydrophobic, nonpolar) Heads attracted to H2O, which is why there is water in the intracellular and extracellular matrix Self assembles into aggregates35
7341327954GlycerolA 3C (3 carbon) alcohol that forms the backbone of a lipid OH Removed when combined with fatty acid36
7341327955Fatty AcidLong hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at the start (an H from the OH is removed when combined with glycerol)37
7341327956Ester LinksO-C=O bonds Occurs between the two oxygens38
7341327957Parts of an amino acidCentral Carbon Amino group to the left and carboxylic group to the right Hydrogen at the top "R" group at the bottom (determines polarity)39
7341327958Protein functions and examplesCatalysis (enzymes - amylase) Structure (collagen) Storage (ferratin) Transport (protein pumps) Hormones (insulin) Receptor Motor (muscles and motor proteins - myosin) Defense (antibodies)40
7341327959Primary Structure of ProteinsLinear chain of amino acids immediately when a polypeptide is formed41
7341327960Secondary Structure of ProteinsForms immediately after the primary structure Shapes due to hydrogen bonds (more bonds, more stability) and the placement of amino acids from the primary structure Alpha Helixes and Beta-Pleated sheets42
7341327961Tertiary Structure of ProteinsInteractions between two (or more) R-Groups or with the peptide backbone Hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, Van der Waals interactions, covalent disulfide bonds, ionic bonds Many proteins are complete in the tertiary structure43
7341327962Quaternary Structure of ProteinsMultiple polypeptide (Tertiary Proteins) form a functional protein Collagen, or hemoglobin44
7341327963Peptide BondA covalent bond between an amino functional group and a carboxyl functional group NH2 loses a hydrogen, and -COOH loses OH45
7341327964Sickle Cell AnemiaIn normal hemoglobin, the 6th amino acid is Glutamic Acid (polar) Sickle Cell Anemia replaces Glutamic Acid with Valine (non-polar) Mutated hemoglobin crystallize into sickle (half moon) shaped cells Clogs small vessels and cannot carry oxygen as well46
7341327965Denaturing a proteinTransfer of the protein from an aqueous solution to a nonpolar solvent Chemical exposure Excessive heat Changes the primary structure of a protein by breaking the intermolecular bonds that holds its shape47
7341327966How proteins foldA chaperone protein (Chaperonins) Polypeptide enters one end of the chaperonin The chaperonin closes, and the cylindrical shape of the chaperonin changes (in a hydrophilic enviornment) The chaperonin opens up and a correctly folded protein exits48
7341327967IsomerCompounds with the same formula but different molecular makeup (different geometry)49
7341327968EnantiomerIsomers that are mirror images of each other, and differ due to a central (asymmetrical) carbon L-isomer (left) D-isomer (right)50
7341327969Functional GroupChemical groups that affect molecular function by directly being involved in a chemical reaction51
7341327970MonomerSmall molecules that act as repeating units for larger molecules52
7341327971PolymerA large molecule made up of many monomer units53
7341327972HexoseA 6-Carbon sugar (ex. Glucose, fructose)54
7341327973PentoseA 5-Carbon sugar (ex. Ribose)55
7341327974NucleotideThe monomer unit of a polynucleotide (nucleic acids) Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine (DNA)/Uracil (RNA)56
7341327975Pyrimidine6-Member ring of carbon and nitrogen Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil57
7341327976PurineA 6-member ring of carbon and nitrogen fused to a 5-member ring Larger than pyrimidines Adenine and guanine58
7341327977C:H:O Ratios in macromoleculesCarbohydrates - 1:2:1 Lipids - 1:2:(Barely any) Proteins and Nucleic Acids - No exact ratio59
7341327978Elements associated with macromoleculesCarbohydrates - Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon Lipids - Phosphorus (only in phospholipids, but NOT in fats and steriods), Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon Proteins - Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfer Nucleic Acid - Phosphorus, Nitrogen, Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen60
7341327979Where certain functional groups are found-OH (Many proteins and lipids) -CH2 (Many proteins and lipids) -COOH (All proteins and many lipids) -NH2 (All proteins) -SH (Many proteins) -PO4 (Many lipids)61
7341327980Element unique to proteinsSulfer62
7341327981RNA vs DNARibose vs Deoxyribose Uracil vs Thymine Single vs Double stranded63
7341327982Rules to identify macromoleculesCarbohydrates - 1:2:1 ratio of ONLY Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen Lipids - Made up of a glycerol backbone and fatty acids, 1:2 Carbon to Hydrogen ratio Proteins - Contains NH2 or NH3+, contains a -COOH functional group, and peptide bonds Nucleid Acids - Nucleotides, 5 Carbon Sugar, and a phosphate group64
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AP Biology: Genetics Unit Flashcards

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6895186729Goals of meiosisThe goal of meiosis is to produce sperm & eggs (gametes).0
6895186730Significance of events in prophase I and metaphase ISignificance of Prophase 1: In prophase 1, crossing-over occurs, which allows for genetic variation. Significance of Metaphase 1: In metaphase 1,1
6895186731Significance of crossing over to evolutionary historyCrossing over results in recombinant DNA, which leads to genetic variation. This variation helped humans adapt to changes in the environment and helps us evolve to this day.2
6895186732Be able to ID specific stages of meiosis I or IIMeiosis 1: In meiosis 1, crossing over occurs, and the diploid cell is separated into 2 Meiosis 2: In meiosis 2, no crossing over occurs, and the haploid cells are further separated so the sister chromatids are all separate.3
6895186733Be able to interpret a karyotypeA normal karyotype consists of: (see picture attached)4
6895186734Mendel's 3 principles & experiment (P, F1, F2)Principle 1: Law of independent assortment (When two pairs of independent alleles enter into combination in the F2, they exhibit independent dominant effects.)(9:3:3:1 ratio) Principle 2: Law of dominance (Some traits Mendel observed as "dominant" to other traits, which are considered "recessive") Principle 3: Law of segregation (Mendel demonstrated that a hybrid between two different varieties possesses both types of parental factors, which subsequently separate or segregate in the gametes) (3:1 ratio) Generation P=Parents F1= First generation after F2= "grandkids" of Parent generation5
6895186735Monohybrid, Dihybrid & Trihybrid characteristic phenotypic ratiosMonohybrid: 1:2:1 Dihybrid: 9:3:3:1 Trihybrid: 27:9:9:9:3:3:3:16
6895186736Why did Mendel use pea plantsMendel used pea plants because of their: -short generation time -large # of offspring -controlled mating (cross-pollination)7
6895186737Epistasis Word Problems: EX: The chicken comb problem (single comb, rose comb, walnut comb) or the colored mice problem.To solve epistasis problems, you would do a dihybrid cross and end up with a 9:3:3:1 ratio.8
6895186738Multiple alleles (blood type)To solve blood type problems you would have to analyze the parents' blood type. For example, if Mom has type A, she either has the genotype IAi or IAIA. If Dad has blood type B, he is either IBIB or IBi. The child then, would either be the genotype IAIB (therefore type AB) or would have the genotype of ii (therefore type O). In another example, if Mom is type A (IAIA or IAi), the baby is type O, the father must then the father can either be type A, B, or O himself. The father cannot, however, be type AB.9
6895186739Incomplete dominance -Ratio -What it is/example -Word Problems & how to solve themThe phenotypic ratio is 1:2:1. The difference between incomplete dominance and codominance is that there is no "blending" of traits (such as redxwhite flowers making pink flowers). Incomplete dominance means that both traits show (such as roan cattle). Example of a word problem: In this same cactus, if you cross a plant that has red flowers to one that has yellow flowers, you produce a plant that has orange flowers. Is this codominance or incomplete dominance? Show the cross of an orange flowered plant to a red flowered plant. Question: Is this codominance or incomplete dominance? A: It's incomplete dominance because neither trait shows.10
6895186740Codominance -Ratio -What they are/examples -World Problems & how to solve themThe phenotypic ratio for codominance is 1:2:1. Codominance is when both traits show, and there is no clear dominance. An example of this is AB blood type; both the A allele and B allele show up, and neither is dominant over the other. Example of a word problem: In a certain cactus, prickly spines can be two pronged or one pronged. If a true breeding one-pronged cactus is crossed with a true breeding two-pronged cactus, the F1 generation has a mixture of spines, some are two-pronged, some are one-pronged. Question: What would the F2 generation look like? Answer: Well if you cross the P generation, FF and ff, the F1 generation will all be Ff (and will have mixture of spines). If you cross the Ff with another Ff, you'll have: 1/4 two-pronged, 1/4 one-pronged, 2/4 mixed.11
6895186741Sex-linked traits -Ratio -What they are/examples -Word Problems & how to solve themRatio: Varies Example: Colorblindness Word problem: Red-green color blindness is caused by a sex-linked recessive allele. A color-blind man marries a woman with normal vision whose father was color-blind. (a) What is the probability that they will have a color-blind daughter? (b)What is the probability that their first son will be color-blind? Answer A: Mother's genotype (normal vision but whose father was color blind) XNXn. She is a carrier because of her heterozygous condition. For the recessive gene to be expressed one must be homozygous for it. So the father's genotype (color blind) is XnY. The kids will then be: XNXn one normal (carrier) girl XNY one normal boy XnXn one color blind girl XnY one color blind boy SOOO, there is a 25% chance that their daughter will be colorblind. Answer B: The probability that their first son is color blind is 50% (0.50). In this question only males are part of the solution.12
6895186742Pedigrees: Autosomal dominant vs recessiveAutosomal dominant: -If it is a 50/50 ratio between men and women the disorder is autosomal -If the disorder is dominant, one of the parents must have the disorder -Does not skip generations Autosomal recessive: -If the disorder is recessive, neither parent has to have the disorder because they can be heterozygous - Trait tends to skip generations13
6895186743Pedigrees: Sex-linked dominant vs recessiveSex-linked dominant: -Both males and females are affected; often more females than males are affected -Does not skip generations -Affected fathers will pass the trait on to all their daughters Sex-linked recessive: -More males than females are affected -It is never passed from father to son -All daughters of affected fathers are carriers14
6895186744Pedigrees: Mitochondrial-Trait is inherited from mother only -All children of a mother are at risk to be affected or carriers15
6895186745Pedigrees: Y-linked traits(Y Linked Dominant) -Only males are affected -It is passed from father to all sons -It does not skip generations16
6895186746Significance of Morgan's work with Drosophila melanogasterMorgan used fruit flies which are cheap to breed and do so quickly. They have the same number of chromosomes as humans, so it makes for precise and accurate genetic research.17
6895186747X inactivation in females? Barr Body?A Barr Body is an inactive X chromosome in a female somatic cell. The inactivation is random - one X chromosome may be turned off in one cell and the other X chromosome inactivated in a neighboring cell. Once a chromosome is turned off it remains turned off in all descendent cells.18
6895186748What are linked genes? How linkage affects inheritance?Linked genes sit close together on a chromosome, making them likely to be inherited together, (recall the adding up and crossing over lab).19
6895186749How can crossing over and recombination of linked genes be used to create gene maps (see pgs 301-304)Sturtevant predicted that the farther apart that two genes are, the higher the probability that a cross-over will occur and therefore there would be a higher recombination frequency. Going off of that, a genetic map based off of those recombination frequencies was made and is called a linkage map. Using that and a cytogenic map, you can plot out the order of genes.20
6895186750Huntington's Disease: symptoms & inheritance patternsSymptoms: -abnormality walking -increased muscle activity -involuntary movements -problems with coordination, loss of muscle, or muscle spasms Inheritance pattern: Autosomal dominant21
6895186751Sickle-cell anemia: Symptoms & inheritance patternsSymptoms: -joint pain -fatigue -abnormal breakdown of red blood cells -delayed development -inflamed fingers and toes Inheritance pattern: Autosomal recessive22
6895186752Hemophilia (Remember the 4H Club) symptoms & inheritance patternsSymptoms: -pain in the joints -constant bleeding -bruising easily Inheritance pattern: X-linked recessive23
6895186753Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Symptoms & inheritance patternsSymptoms: -muscle weakness -learn disability -walking on tip-toe -enlarged calves Inheritance pattern: X-linked recessive24
6895186754Colorblindness Symptoms & inheritance patternsSymptoms: -inability to see variants of colors Inheritance pattern: X-linked recessive25
6895186755Cystic fibrosis Symptoms & inheritance patternsSymptoms: -pulmonary hypertension -nasal polyps -chronic cough Inheritance pattern: Autosomal recessive26
6895186756Albinism Symptoms & inheritance patternsSymptoms: -Extreme sensitivity to light -loss of freckles -astigmatism Inheritance pattern: Autosomal recessive27
6895186757Tay-Sachs: Symptoms & inheritance patterns **Just for future nurses/doctors: Tay-Sachs has an identical inheritance pattern to Canavan's Disease, but Canavan's is deadlier, and babies usually show symptoms at 6 months and die shortly after. Both Tay-Sachs and Canavan's are diagnosed using amniocentesis and you can find out if you're a carrier by doing a simple blood test.**Symptoms: -muscle weakness, problems with coordination, rhythmic muscle contractions, or stiff muscles -Seizures Inheritance pattern: Autosomal Recessive28
6895186758Deletion as a chromosomal mutationDeletions involve the loss of DNA sequences. The larger the deletion, the more severe phenotypic effect.29
6895186759Inversion as a chromosomal mutationIt is the rearrangement in which a segment of a chromosome is reversed end to end. An inversion occurs when a single chromosome undergoes breakage and rearrangement within itself. Inversions are of two types: paracentric and pericentric.30
6895186760Translocation as a chromosomal mutationIt is the rearrangement of parts between nonhomologous chromosomes. A gene fusion may be created when the translocation joins two otherwise separated genes.31
6895186761Duplication as a chromosomal mutationA chromosomal duplication is when a fragment of the deleted chromosome is attached to another chromosome.32
6895186762Trisomy 21 KaryotypeSee picture attached Characterized by: Duplication of chromosome 21.33
6895186763XXY KaryotypeSee picture attached Characterized by: Duplication of chromosome X.34
6895186764XYY KaryotypeSee picture attached Characterized by: Duplication of chromosome Y.35
6895186765Trisomy 18 KaryotypeSee picture attached Characterized by: Third copy of chromosome 18 (aka duplication of chromosome 18).36
6895186766cri du chat karyotypeSee picture attached Characterized by: A piece of chromosome 5 is missing37
6895186767CML (philadelphia chromosome) karyotypeSee picture attached Characterized by: Translocation is a specific genetic abnormality in chromosome 2238
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GWHS AP Biology - Cell Communication Flashcards

Cell Communication
Vocabulary: signal transduction pathway, quorum sensing, hormones, protein kinase, protein phosphatase, G proteins, cyclic AMP, first messengers, second messengers, signal amplification, apoptosis, paracrine signaling, synaptic signaling, hormonal signaling
1. Know the three stages of Cell Signaling:
a. Reception - receptors in the plasma membrane, intracellular receptors
b. Transduction - signal transduction pathways, phosphorylation and dephosporylation, second messengers
c. Response - nuclear and cytoplasmic responses; protein synthesis, ion channels, cell shape
2. Describe the relationship between signal molecules and cell surface receptors, and give examples of each.
3. Describe G-protein-linked receptors and receptor tyrosine kinases, and explain the role of each in receiving chemical signals and initiating signal transduction pathways.
4. Describe a signal transduction pathway and explain how this multi-step process can amplify the signal and lead to a cellular response.
5. Understand that different kinds of cells have different collections of proteins (p.221) and how this affects the response of a particular cell to a specific signaling molecule.
6. Define apoptosis and describe its importance and function(s) in an organism.

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6205885177amplificationThe strengthening of stimulus energy during transduction.0
6205885178apoptosisA program of controlled cell suicide, which is brought about by signals that trigger the activation of a cascade of suicide proteins in the cell destined to die.1
6205885179cytoplasmThe contents of the cell, exclusive of the nucleus and bounded by the plasma membrane.2
6205885180epinephrinewater soluble ligand molecule; when secreted by the adrenal medulla, mediates "fight-or-flight" responses to short-term stresses; also released by some neurons as a neurotransmitter; also known as adrenaline.3
6205885181G proteinA GTP-binding protein that relays signals from a plasma membrane signal receptor, known as a G protein-coupled receptor, to other signal transduction proteins inside the cell.4
6205885182gap junctionA type of intercellular junction in animals that allows the passage of materials between cells.5
6205885183glycogenAn extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.6
6205885185ligand-gated ion channelA protein pore in cellular membranes that opens or closes in response to a signaling chemical (its ligand), allowing or blocking the flow of specific ions.7
6205885186local regulatorA secreted molecule that influences cells near where it is secreted. Used in paracrine and synaptic signaling.8
6205885187protein kinaseAn enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein, thus phosphorylating the protein.9
6205885188protein phosphataseAn enzyme that removes phosphate groups from (dephosphorylates) proteins, often functioning to reverse the effect of a protein kinase.10
6205885191second messengerA small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecule or ion, such as a calcium ion (Ca2+) or cyclic AMP, that relays a signal to a cell's interior in response to a signaling molecule bound by a signal receptor protein.11
6205885195transcription factorA regulatory protein that binds to DNA and affects transcription of specific genes. The hormone-receptor complex becomes a transcription factor in the steroid transduction pathway.12
6205885196three stages of cell communicationreception - receptor responds to binding of ligand molecule; transduction - translation & amplification of message; response - activation of cellular response13
6205885197g-linked protein receptorreceives message for g-linked protein signaling pathway. Consists of seven alpha helices that span the plasma membrane. Changes shape when ligand molecule binds.14
6205885198signal transduction pathwayThe process by which a signal on a cell's surface is converted into a specific cellular response.15
6205885200hormonesCirculating chemical signals that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and act on specific target cells.16
6205885201ligandA molecule that specifically binds to another molecule, often a larger one.17
6205885203protein phosphatasesEnzymes that can rapidly remove phosphate groups from proteins.18
6205885204second messengersSmall, non-protein water soluble molecules or ions that send messages throughout the cells by diffusion.19
6205885205receptionThe target cell's detection of a signal molecule coming from outside the cell.20
6205885206transductionThe binding of the signal molecule changes the receptor protein in some way.21
6205885207responseThe transduced signal finally triggers a specific cellular response.22
6205885208G-protein-linked receptorA plasma membrane receptor that works with the help of a G-protein.23
6205885209receptor tyrosine kinaseA receptor with enzymatic activity that can trigger more than one signal transduction pathway at once; ex. growth factor binds to neighboring RTKs, they combine to become a cross-linked dimer24
63172410093 Types of Cell SignalingContact Dependent; Paracrine; Endocrine25
6317256787Contact-dependent signalingcells can communicate by cell-to-cell contact; ex. APC & Helper T cells; Plasmodesmata; Gap Junctions26
6317294414Paracrine signalingcells communicate over short distances by using local regulators that target cells in the near vicinity; ex. Neurotransmitters, Quorum Sensing & Morphogens27
6317409483Endocrine signalingsignals released by one cell type can travel long distances to target cells of another cell type; Insuline, Growth Hormone; Thyroid Hormone28
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AP Biology Review Chapter 20 Flashcards

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6769313397Recombinant DNADNA produced by combining DNA from different sources0
6769313398BiotechnologyA form of technology that uses living organisms, usually genes, to modify products, to make or modify plants and animals, or to develop other microorganisms for specific purposes.1
6769313399PlasmidsSmall rings of DNA found naturally in some bacterial cells in addition to the main bacterial chromosome. Can contain genes for antibiotic resistance, or other "contingency" functions.2
6769313400Gene CloningThe production of multiple copies of a gene.3
6769313401Restriction enzymesEnzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides4
6769313402Sticky endA single-stranded end of a double-stranded DNA restriction fragment.5
6769313403DNA LigaseA linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.6
6769313404Cloning vectorDNA molecules that can carry foreign DNA into a host cell and replicate there.7
6769313405Complimentary DNA (cDNA)is made from mRNA by reverse transcriptase8
6769313406polymerase chain reaction (PCR)A method of producing thousands of copies of DNA segment using the enzyme DNA polymerase9
6769313407gel electrophoresisProcedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments by placing a mixture of DNA fragments at one end of a porous gel and applying an electrical voltage to the gel10
6769313408southern blottingA hybridization technique that enables researchers to determine the presence of certain nucleotide sequences in a sample of DNA.11
6769313409reverse transcriptase- PCRAn enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.12
6769313410Genetic profileAn individual's unique set of genetic markers, detected most often today by PCR or, previously, by electrophoresis and nucleic acid probes.13
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AP Biology Chapter 9 Vocabulary Flashcards

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5801833945Cell Divsionmeans "every cell from a cell"; the continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells; DNA is duplicated, by copying each stand according to base pairing rules, 2 DNA molecules held together at centromere called sister chromatids0
5801835056Cell CycleAn ordered sequence of events in the life of a eukaryotic cell, from its origin in the division of a parent cell until its own division into two.1
5801835057GenomeThe complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes.2
5801835464ChromosomesA threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins.3
5801835465ChromatinSubstance found in eukaryotic chromosomes that consists of DNA tightly coiled around histones4
5801835836Somatic CellsAny cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg or their precursors.5
5801835837GametesA haploid cell such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.6
5801837101Sister ChromatidsReplicated forms of a chromosome joined together by the centromere and eventually separated during mitosis or meiosis II.7
5801837102CentromereRegion of a chromosome where the two sister chromatids attach8
5801837495MitosisA process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Mitosis conserves chromosome number by equally allocating replicated chromosomes to each of the daughter nuclei.9
5801837496CytokinesisThe division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells immediately after mitosis, meiosis I, or meiosis II.10
5801838683Mitotic (M) PhaseThe part of the cell cycle when the nucleus is divided (via mitosis), its chromosomes are distributed to the daughter nuclei, and the cytoplasm divided (via cytokinesis), producing two daughter cells.11
5801838684InterphaseA period between two mitotic or meiotic divisions during which the cell grows, copies its DNA, and synthesizes proteins12
5801838685S PhaseThe synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.13
5801839050G1 PhaseThe first gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.14
5801839051G2 PhaseThe second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs.15
5801839052ProphaseDNA and proteins condense into tightly coiled chromosomes. The nuclear envelope breaks down, centrioles begin to move to opposite poles, and spindle fibers form.16
5801840232PrometaphaseThe second stage of mitosis, in which discrete chromosomes consisting of identical sister chromatids appear, the nuclear envelope fragments, and the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes.17
5801840233MetaphaseCentromeres of duplicated chromosomes are aligned at plate. Fully formed spindle attach to the sister chromatids from opposite poles18
5801840234AnaphaseChromatids of each chromosome separate at the centromere and move towards opposite poles of the dividing cell19
5801840235TelophaseFinal phase of mitosis during which chromosomes uncoil, a nuclear envelope returns around the chromatin, and a nucleolus becomes visible in each daughter cell20
5801840702Mitotic SpindleAn assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis.21
5801840703CentrosomeA structure present in the cytoplasm of animal cells that functions as a microtubule-organizing center and is important during cell division. A centrosome has two centrioles.22
5801841084KinetochoreA structure of proteins attached to the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.23
5801841557Metaphase PlateAn imaginary structure located at a plane midway between the two poles of a cell in metaphase on which the centromeres of all the duplicated chromosomes are located.24
5801841558Cleavage(1) The process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane.25
5801842176Cleavage FurrowThe first sign of cleavage in an animal cell; a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate.26
5801842994Cell PlateA membrane-bounded, flattened sac located at the midline of a dividing plant cell, inside which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis.27
5801842995Binary FissionA form of asexual reproduction in which one cell divides to form two identical cells.28
5801843602Origin of ReplicationThe specific location on a DNa strand where replication begins.. Prokaryotes typically have a single origin of replication, while eukaryotes have several per chromosome.29
5801844446Growth Factor(1) A protein that must be present in the extracellular environment (culture medium or animal body) for the growth and normal development of certain types of cells. (2) A local regulator that acts on nearby cells to stimulate cell proliferation and differentiation.30
5801846075Density-Dependent InhibitionThe phenomenon observed in normal animal cells that causes them to stop dividing when they come into contact with one another.31
5801846538Anchorage DependenceThe requirement that a cell must be attached to a substratum in order to initiate cell division.32
5801847062TransformationA phenomenon in bacteria. They have the ability to transform themselves by transferring genetic factors from one bacteria cell to another.33
5801847063Benign TumorAn abnormal mass of cells that remains at its original site in the body.34
5801847527Malignant TumorA cancerous tumor containing cells that have significant genetic and cellular changes and are capable of invading and surviving in new sites. Malignant tumors can impair the functions of one or more organs.35
5801848826MetastasisIs the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body36
5807085833AngiogenesisThe process through which the tumor supports its growth by creating its own blood supply37
5801855471ZygoteDiploid cell formed when a sperm fertilizes an egg.38
5801855472Homologous ChromosomesChromosomes that have the same sequence of genes, that have the same structure, and that pair during meiosis.39
5801855790HaploidAn organism or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes. (n)40
5801855791DiploidContaining two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent (2n)41
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AP Biology Nervous System Flashcards

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6712719344neuronmain cell of the nervous system0
6712719345glial cellscells that support neurons (ex: Schwann cells)1
6712719346cell bodycontains nucleus of the neuron2
6712719347dendritereceive stimuli; highly branched extensions3
6712719348axonconduct and propagate impulses4
6712719349Schwann cellcreates the myelin sheath5
6712719350node of Ranviergap between myelin sheaths that expose the axon, help accelerate impulses6
6712719351sensory neuronpick up stimuli from the environment and send to the brain7
6712719352motor neuronsends impulses to muscles to create movement8
6712719353interneuronneurons in the CNS that communicate internally and connect sensory to motor neurons; are responsible for reflexes9
6712719354resting potentialmembrane potential of a neuron that is not firing, -70 mV10
6712719355sodium-potassium pumpprotein that uses active transport to move 3 Na out of the membrane and 2 K in, which resets the neuron to resting potential11
6712719356action potentialrapid change in the voltage between the membrane of a neuron in response to a stimulus12
6712719357thresholdthe voltage needed to open the voltage gated Na channels and start the unstoppable flow of Na into the cell, -55 mV13
6712719358depolarizationthe massive influx of Na causes the cell's voltage to become less negative, all the way up to 35 mV14
6712719359repolarizationNa channels close and K channels open, which allows K out of cell so the cell is more negative15
6712719360hyperpolarizationbecause K channels are slow to close, the voltage reaches -80 mV, and causes the Na/K pump to reset the neuron16
6712719361refractory periodperiod where the neuron resets using the Na/K pump before a neuron can be fired again17
6712719362synapsetransmission of information is from one neuron to the next18
6712719363neurotransmittermolecule that neurons use in synaptic transmission19
6712719364synaptic vesiclehold the neurotransmitters in the presynaptic neuron20
6712719365postsynaptic receptorreceive neurotransmitters and open Na gated ion channels to start another action potential21
6712719366synaptic cleftspace between the pre and postsynaptic neurons22
6712719367myelin sheathinsulates the axon and speeds transmission of the impulse23
6712719368afferent pathwaysignal received from outside your nervous system and conducted toward it24
6712719369efferent pathwaycarry signals away from the central nervous system toward muscle cells or glandular cells25
6712719370dopamineneurotransmitter that controls the brain's reward and pleasure center26
6712719371serotoninneurotransmitter responsible for maintaining mood balance27
6712719372GABAneurotransmitter that inhibits nerve impulse from being transmitted28
6712719373ion-gated channelsproteins responsible for allowing sodium or potassium to diffuse into or out of the axon29
6712719374sodiumion responsible for depolarization30
6712719375potassiumion responsible for repolarization31
6712719376calciumion that signals vesicles to release neurotransmitters32
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AP Biology Chapter 16 Flashcards

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8556625722DNA replicationThe process by which a DNA molecule is copied; also called DNA synthesis0
8556625723transformation(1) The conversion of a normal animal cell to a cancerous cell. (2) A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell. When the external DNA is from a member of a different species, transformation results in horizontal gene transfer1
8556625724bacteriophageA virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage2
8556625725virusAn infectious particle incapable of replicating outside of a cell, consisting of an RNA or DNA genome surrounded by a protein coat (capsid) and, for some viruses, a membranous envelope3
8556625726A and T=30, C and G=20percentage breakdown of human DNA4
8556625727double helixThe form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape.5
8556625728antiparallelReferring to the arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix (they run in opposite 5' S 3' directions)6
85566257293.4 nm and 10 nucleotideslength between 2 nucleotides and # of nucleotides per turn7
85566257302 hydrogen bondsadenine forms8
85566257313 hydrogen bondsguanine forms9
85566257322 nmdiameter of the double helix10
8556625733semiconservative modelType of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the parental molecule, and one newly made strand11
8556625734conservative modelthe two parental strands somehow come back together after the process12
8556625735dispersive modelall four strands of DNA following replication have a mixture of old and new DNA13
8556625736origin of replicationSite where the replication of a DNA molecule begins, consisting of a specific sequence of nucleotides14
8556625737replication forkA Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where the parental strands are being unwound and new strands are being synthesized.15
8556625738helicaseAn enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at replication forks, separating the two strands and making them available as template strands.16
8556625739single-strand binding proteinA protein that binds to the unpaired DNA strands during DNA replication, stabilizing them and holding them apart while they serve as templates for the synthesis of complementary strands of DNA17
8556625740topoisomeraseA protein that breaks, swivels, and rejoins DNA strands. During DNA replication, ________ helps to relieve strain in the double helix ahead of the replication fork18
8556625741primerA short stretch of RNA with a free 3' end, bound by complementary base pairing to the template strand and elongated with DNA nucleotides during DNA replication19
8556625742primaseAn enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make a primer during DNA replication, using the parental DNA strand as a template20
8556625743DNA polymeraseAn enzyme that catalyzes the elongation of new DNA (for example, at a replication fork) by the addition of nucleotides to the 3' end of an existing chain. There are several different ________; ________ III and _______ I play major roles in DNA replication in E. coli.21
8556625744500 nucleotides per second and 50/secondrate of elongation in bacteria and humans respectively22
8556625745nucleoside triphosphatea nucleoside (a sugar and base) with three phosphate groups. where each added nucleotide comes from23
8556625746leading strandThe new complementary DNA strand synthesized continuously along the template strand toward the replication fork in the mandatory 5' S 3' direction24
8556625747lagging strandA discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments, each synthesized in a 5' S 3' direction away from the replication fork25
8556625748okazaki fragmentA short segment of DNA synthesized away from the replication fork on a template strand during DNA replication. Many such segments are joined together to make up the lagging strand of newly synthesized DNA. about 1000-2000 nucleotides in bacteria and 100-200 in eukaryotes26
8556625749sliding clampDNA pol III is closely associated with this. it encircles the newly synthesized double helix like a doughnut. it moves DNA pol III along the DNA template strand27
8556625750overview of lagging strand28
8556625751DNA polymerase IIIadds nucleotides to the primer in the 3' direction29
8556625752DNA polymerase Iin the lagging strand, replaces RNA primer nucleotides with DNA nuceleotides30
8556625753DNA ligaseA linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of one DNA fragment (such as an Okazaki fragment) to the 5' end of another DNA fragment (such as a growing DNA chain)31
85566257541) all the proteins are part of one complex 2) the template is likely moved through the complex2 ways its not like a train32
85566257551/10^10 and 1/10^5completed error rate and error rate33
8556625756mismatch repairThe cellular process that uses specific enzymes to remove and replace incorrectly paired nucleotides34
8556625757nucleaseAn enzyme that cuts DNA or RNA, either removing one or a few bases or hydrolyzing the DNA or RNA completely into its component nucleotides35
8556625758nucleotide excision repairA repair system that removes and then correctly replaces a damaged segment (usually DNA pol I) of DNA using the undamaged strand as a guide36
8556625759thymine dimersthe covalent linking of thymine bases that are adjacent on a DNA strand. causes the DNA to buckle and interfere with DNA replication37
8556625760telomeresThe tandemly repetitive DNA at the end of a eukaryotic chromosome's DNA molecule. ________ protect the organism's genes from being eroded during successive rounds of replication. repeating TTAGGG sequence between 100 and 1000 times38
8556625761telomeraseAn enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells39
8556625762negativecharge of the backbone40
8556625763histonesresponsible for the first level of DNA packing in chromatin41
8556625764H2A, H2B, H3, H4four common types of histone42
8556625765nucleosomethe "bead" on the string. the basic unit of DNA packing. 10 nm in length43
8556625766linker DNAthe DNA between nucleosomes44
8556625767histone tailthe amino end that extends outwards from each histone45
8556625768H1a fifth histone involved in nucleosome packing46
855662576930-nm fiberuses H1 histone that packs the nucleosome into thicker fibers47
8556625770looped domainsthe 30 nm fibers loop into these that attach to a scaffold of proteins, thus making a 300 nm fiber48
8556625771scaffoldrich in topoisomerase and H1 molecules49
8556625772metaphase chromosomein a mitotic chromosome, the looped domains themselves coil and fold in a manner further compacting into a 700 nm chromatid50
8556625773nucleoidA non-membrane-bounded region in a prokaryotic cell where the DNA is concentrated51
8556625774chromatinThe complex of DNA and proteins that makes up eukaryotic chromosomes. When the cell is not dividing, chromatin exists in its dispersed form, as a mass of very long, thin fibers that are not visible with a light microscope52
8556625775heterochromatinEukaryotic chromatin that remains highly compacted during interphase and is generally not transcribed53
8556625776euchromatinThe less condensed form of eukaryotic chromatin that is available for transcription54
8556625777depurinationtype of DNA damage in which a purine base is removed55
8556625778deaminationtype of DNA damage in which an amine group is removed from a molecule56
8556625779uner tan syndromePersons affected by this syndrome walk with a quadrupedal locomotion and are afflicted with primitive speech and severe mental retardation57
8556625780photolyaseDNA repair enzymes that repair damage caused by exposure to ultraviolet light58
8556625781phosphodiester bondthe bond between two nucleotides59
8556625782major groovethe bigger of the distances between base pairs60
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AP Biology Unit 4 Vocabulary Flashcards

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8406968444anaphasethe 4th stage of mitosis, in which chromatids are separated and and the daughter cells are moving to opposite poles of the cell.0
8406968445cancerthe abnormal growth of cells due to multiple factors.1
8406968446cell cyclean ordered sequence of events in the life of a cell, from the origin of the cell to the division.2
8406968447cellular differentiationthe process by which a cell becomes specialized in order to perform a certain function.3
8406968448cell divisionthe reproduction of cells4
8406968449centriolesthe "churro"-like stuctures in an animal cell that is composed of microtubules5
8406968450chromosomea cellular structure that contains genetic material6
8406968451crossing overthe reciprocal exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids in prophase 1 or meiosis7
8406968452crossover frequencythe further apart the chromosomes are the more likely they are to cross over, the close they are together, the chances are smaller that crossing over will occur.8
8406968453cyclin-dependent kinasea protein kinase that is active only when attached to a particular cyclin9
8406968454cytokinesisthe division of the cytoplasm to form tow separate daughter cells10
8406968456diploid (2n)a cell containing two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parents11
8406968457DNA replicationthe process by which DNA molecule is copied, aka DNA synthesis.12
8406968458fertilizationthe union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote13
8406968459gametea haploid reproductive cell (egg or sperm)14
8406968460haploid (n)a cell containing only one set of chromosomes15
8406968461homologous chromosomesa pair of structurally identical chromosomes, one inherited from mother, the other from father16
8406968462interphasea period in the cell reproduction cycle where the cell is not dividing but is preparing to divide. (organelles duplicated, cell size increase.17
8406968463meiosisa tpye of sexual cell reproduction that consists of two rounds of cell division. It results in half the number of chromosomes as the original cell.18
8406968464metaphasethe third stage of mitosis where spindle fibers are complete and are attached to chromosomes lined up on metaphase plate.19
8406968465mitosisthe process of nuclear division the is divided into five stages20
8406968466p53a tumor supressor gene that codes for a specific transcription promoting the synthesis of the cell cycle21
8406968467prophasethe first stage of mitosis in which the chromatin condenses into discrete chromosomes.22
8406968468somatic cellany cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm/egg23
8406968469telophasethe fifth/final stage of mitosis where daughter nuclei are forming and cytokinesis is beginning.24
8406968470allelethe alternate version of a gene that may produce distinguishable phenotypic effects25
8406968471autosomea chromosome that is not directly involved with determining sex26
8406968473codominencethe situation where the phenotypes of both alleles are exhibited in a heterozygote, this is because both alleles affect the phenotpe in separate distinguishable ways27
8406968474dihybrid crossa cross between two organisms that are each heterozygous for both of the characteristics being followed28
8406968475genomic imprintingthe phenomenon in which the allele of an offspring is depends on whether the allele is inherited from the male or female parent.29
8406968476genotypethe genetic makeup of an organism, a set of alleles30
8406968477incomplete dominancethe situation where the phenotype of a heterozygote is immediate between the phenotypes of an individuals homozygous for either allele.31
8406968478linkagegenes close enough together on a chromosome that they tend to be inherited together32
8406968479monohybrid crossa heterozygous organism crossed with a homozygous organism33
8406968480non-disjunctionan error in meiosis or mitosis that causes sister chromatids to not separate properly,34
8406968481pedigree analysisexamining the inheritance of characteristics among parents and offspring with the use of symbols35
8406968482phenotypepsysical representation of an allele, gene36
8406968483phenotypic plasticitythe ability of one genotype to product multiple phenotypes when exposed to different environments37
8406968484polygenetic inheritancean additive effect of of two or more genes on a single phentypic character38
8407205579G1In interphase - cell grows rapidly, builds new organelles; also performs regular cell functions39
8407215919G2The final period of interphase during which the cell prepares for mitosis.40
8407224479G0A nondividing state occupied by cells that have left the cell cycle, sometimes reversibly.41
8407237281S PhaseThe synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.42
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AP Biology Chapter 4 Flashcards

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7288582468Hydroxyl Group-is polar due to electronegative oxygen. -forms hydrogen bonds with water, helping dissolve compounds such as sugars. -compound name: alcohol (specific name usually ends in -ol)0
7288582469Carbonyl Group-sugars with ketone groups are called ketoses; those with aldehydes are called aldoses. -compound name: ketone (carbonyl group is within a carbon skeleton) or aldehyde (carbonyl group is at the end of a carbon skeleton)1
7288582470Carboxyl Group-acts as an acid (can donate H+) because the covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is so polar. -compound name: carboxylic acid, or organic acid2
7288582471Amino Group-acts as a base; can pick up an H+ from the surrounding solution (water, in living organisms) -compound name: amine3
7288582472Sulfhydryl Group-two--SH groups can react, forming a "cross-link" that helps stabilize protein structure. -hair protein cross-links maintain the straightness or curliness of hair; in hair salons, permanent treatments break cross-links, then re-form them while the hair is in the desired shape. -compound name: thiol4
7288582473Phosphate Group-contributes negative charge (1 - when positioned inside a chain of phosphates; 2 - when at the end) -when attached, confers on a molecule the ability to react with water, releasing energy. -compound name: organic phosphate5
7288582474Methyl Group-affects the expression of genes when on DNA or on proteins bound to DNA. -affects the shape and function of male and female sex hormones. -compound name: methylated compound6
7288582475Hydrocarbons-molecules with H and C -not in most living things -a component of macromolecules (such as lipids) -nonpolar -release large amounts of energy when involved in reactions7
7288582476Isomers-compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and proteins8
7288582477Types of Isomers-structural -cis-trans -enantiomers9
7288582478Structural Isomers-isomers that have different covalent arrangements of their atoms... aka same structure different arrangement10
7288582479Cis-Trans Isomers-isomers that have the same covalent bonds but differ in spatial arrangements... aka same formula, different positioning around a double bond11
7288582480Enantiomers-same formula, mirror image positioning around a central carbon -biological systems tend to use only one of any two of this form -all cells use D-sugars, and L-amino acids12
7288582481Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)-the potential to react with water, a reaction that releases energy to be used by the cell13
7288582482Functional Groups-the components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions14
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