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Campbell AP Biology--CHAPTER 5 Flashcards

7400483126	Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids	Name the 4 types of macromolecules	0
7400483127	Metabolism	All the chemical conversions that occur within a cell Metabolism = anabolism + catabolism	1
7400483128	Catabolism	Conversion of complex organic molecules into smaller molecules by breaking chemical bonds	2
7400483129	Anabolism	Conversion of small organic molecules by forming chemical bonds between smaller molecules	3
7400483130	Hydrolysis	Pocess that is the reverse of dehydration synthesis. In __________, or water breakage, the bond between monomers is broken by the addition of a water molecule.	4
7400483131	Dehydration synthesis	Reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded, with the loss of a water molecule	5
7400483132	Polymers	Long molecules consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds.	6
7400483133	Glycosidic linkage	In carbohydrates, monosaccharides are joined together in a covalent bond called __________ _______.	7
7400483134	Monosaccharides	Carbohydrates are made up of _______________.	8
7400483135	Monosaccharide	The monomer in a carbohydrate is a(n) ______________. EX: Glucose	9
7400483136	Disaccharide	Two monosaccharides covalently bonded form a ____________. EX: Sucrose	10
7400483137	Polysaccharide	Three or more monosaccharides linked together form a ______________.	11
7400483138	Glycosidic linkage	The bond in a carbohydrate is a(n) __________ _______.	12
7400483139	Chitin; cellulose	Two examples of structural carbohydrates are ______ and _________.	13
7400483140	Cellulose	Polymer of β glucose monomers that is found in plant cell walls	14
7400483141	Glycogen; starch	Stored carbohydrate in an animal is called ________; in a plant, it is ______.	15
7400483142	α glucose	Starch and glycogen are polymers of ________ molecules.	16
7400483143	Polymers	Lipids are the only large biological molecules that do not form __________.	17
7400483144	Lipids	Cushioning of organs, insulation, and energy storage are three functions of ___________.	18
7400483145	Glycerol; fatty acid chains	Triglyceride is composed of a ______ and three ____ _____ ______.	19
7400483146	Unsaturated fats	Fats with one or more double covalent bonds, which is less likely to solidify and more flexible.	20
7400483147	Phospholipid	Basic structural component of cell membranes, with a polar/hydrophilic head region and a nonpolar/hydrophobic tail region, giving membranes their selective permeability.	21
7400483148	Steroid	Lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of hydrogen-fused rings.	22
7400483152	Amino acid	The monomer in a protein is a(n) _____ ____.	23
7400483153	Amino; carboxyl; R	Amino acids are formed of a(n) _____ group with a(n) ________ group and a(n) _ group side chain.	24
7400483154	20	# different amino acids which can assemble according to genetic code to make different proteins.	25
7400483155	Peptide	In a _______ bond, the ---COOH group in one amino acid loses an ---OH and the ---NH2 group in another amino acid loses a H.	26
7400483156	Polypeptide	The polymer in a protein is a(n) ___________.	27
7400483157	3D structure	The amino acid sequence ultimately determine the __ _________ of proteins.	28
7400483158	Structure	A protein's _________ determines its function.	29
7400483159	Primary	At the _______ level of protein structure, a linear sequence of amino acids is joined by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide.	30
7400483160	Secondary	At the _________ level of protein structure, hydrogen bonds form between the partial positive hydrogen atom of amine groups and the partial negative oxygen atom of carboxyl groups.	31
7400483161	β Pleated Sheet	__ ___________ ______________ are a secondary structure found in proteins.	32
7400483162	α Helix	___ ___________ are a secondary structure found in proteins.	33
7400483163	Tertiary	At the ________ level of protein structure, various chemical associations in precise regions of a polypeptide cause it to fold into a 3D shape that will determine its function.	34
7400483164	Quaternary	At the __________ level of protein structure, 2 to 4 completely formed polypeptides combine.	35
7400483165	Sickle cell anemia	In this disease, one amino acid at the primary level (valine) replaces glutamic acid and the result is a distorted shape at the subsequent levels.	36
7400483166	Hormonal	Insulin and glucagon are examples of _________ proteins.	37
7400483167	Receptor	________ proteins are embedded in all membranes and allow cells to interact with molecules and other cells.	38
7400483168	Contractile/Movement	___________ proteins, such as actin and myosin, are found in muscle cells.	39
7400483169	Transport	_____________ proteins move molecules into and out of cells.	40
7400483170	Defensive	_________ proteins, like antibodies, are produced in response to antigens and bind to them.	41
7400483171	Denaturation	Excessive heat can cause ____________, in which a protein unravels and loses its native shape.	42
7400483172	Chaperonins	Assist in the proper folding of the protein by keeping the polypeptide segregated from disruptive chemical conditions in the cytoplasmic and create a hydrophilic environment for folding polypeptides	43
7400483173	Nucleotides	Nucleic acids are composed of ___________.	44
7400483174	Polynucleotide	The polymer in a nucleic acid is a(n) ______________.	45
7400483175	Phosphodiester bonds	Nucleotides link together via ________ _____ to form nucleic acid.	46
7400483176	Ribose	The sugar in RNA is ______.	47
7400483177	deoxyribose	The sugar in DNA is ______.	48
7400483178	A, T, C, G	The nitrogenous bases in DNA are ____.	49
7400483179	A, U, C, G	The nitrogenous bases in RNA are ____.	50
7400483180	Hydrogen	Nitrogenous bases in DNA and RNA form complementary base pairs by forming ____________ bonds.	51
7400483181	sugars; phosphate groups	The backbone of DNA and RNA molecules is composed of alternating _____________ and ______________.	52

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AP Biology: Prefixes and Suffixes Flashcards

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5709181412	bio-	life	0
5709181414	-ic	of or pertaining to	1
5709181415	-meter; -metry	measure	2
5709181416	micro-	small	3
5709181417	multi-	many	4
5709181418	-ology; -logy	study of; science of	5
5709181419	-stasis	stationary condition	6
5709181420	-ous	having the nature of	7
5709181421	-thesis	an argument	8
5709181422	-scope; -scopy	instrument to observe something	9
5709181423	psuedo-	false	10
5709181424	-genesis	beginning; origin	11
5709181425	paleo-	old	12
5709181426	-phyte; pytho-	a plant; to grown in a certain way or place.	13
5709181427	arthe-, artho-	joint	14
5709181428	bi-, di-	two	15
5709181429	cephalo-, ceph-	head	16
5709181430	cyst-, -cytis	pouch	17
5709181431	derm-, -dermis	skin, covering	18
5709181432	epi-	on, on the outside, over	19
5709181433	ex-, exo-	outside of	20
5709181434	gastro-	stomach	21
5709181435	morph-	form	22
5709181436	osteo-, ossi-	bone	23
5709181437	zoo-, zoa-	animal	24
5709181438	pod-, ped-	foot	25
5709181439	a-, an-	not, without	26
5709181440	auto-	self, same, automatic	27
5709181441	eco-	environment, habit	28
5709181442	hyper-	above, over	29
5709181443	hypo-	below, under	30
5709181444	-troph, -trophic	having to do with nutrition, eat	31
5709181445	-therm	heat	32
5709181446	carnis-, carn-	meat	33
5709181447	geo-	earth-	34
5709181448	omni-	all	35
5709181449	syn-, synm-	together with, by means of	36
5709181450	hetero-	other, another, different	37
5709181451	homo-, homeo-	same	38
5709181452	uni-, mono-	one	39
5709181453	bacterio-	bacteria	40
5709181454	-cide	kill	41
5709181455	herb-	plant	42
5709181456	-sphere-	round	43
5709181457	-vore	to eat	44
5709181458	macro-	large	45
5709181461	-ose	carbohydrate	46
5709181462	sacchar-	sugar	47
5709181463	poly-	many	48
5709181464	aqua-	water	49
5709181465	-ase	enzyme	50
5709181466	-phile	affinity (to like something)	51
5709181467	-phobe, phobia	fear, dislike	52
5709181468	cyte-, cyto-	cell	53
5709181469	endo-	inner, inside	54
5709181470	eu-	true	55
5709181471	extra-	outside	56
5709181472	karyo-	nucleus	57
5709181473	neur-, neuro-	nerve	58
5709181474	-phage, phago-	eat	59
5709181475	pro-, proto-	first, primitive, before	60
5709181476	semi-	partial	61
5709181477	-phyll	leaf or pigment	62
5709181478	-plasm, -plast	thing formed	63
5709181479	chromo, chroma	color	64
5709181480	aero-	needing oxygen or air	65
5709181481	chemo-	of, with or by chemicals	66
5709181482	chloro-	green	67
5709181483	hydro-	water	68
5709181484	iso-	equal	69
5709181485	-lysis, -lyse	to break	70
5709181486	meso-	In the middle	71
5709181487	-osis	state of disease, action	72
5709181488	osmo-	impulse, thrust	73
5709181489	gen, geno, gen	production or relating to gene	74
5709181490	-phase	stage	75
5709181491	trans-	across, beyond, through to other side	76
5709181492	inter-	between, among	77
5709181493	meta-	between	78
5709181494	telo-, -telos	end	79
5709181495	oo-, ovi-	egg	80
5709181496	sperm	male sex cell	81
5709181497	anti-	against	82
5709181498	-emia, hemo-	blood	83
5709181500	path-, patho-	disease	84
5709181501	-itis	inflammation	85
5876291992	intra-	inside, within	86
5876294456	inter-	between	87

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AP Biology Unit 5 Meiosis Flashcards

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7815679891	sex chromosomes	A pair of chromosomes carrying genes that determine whether an organism is male or female.	0
7815694018	autosomes	All chromosomes other than sex chromosomes.	1
7815701028	homologous chromosomes	Chromosomes that have the same sequence of genes and the same size and structure	2
7815714624	sister chromatids	two identical chromosomes that make up a duplicated chromosome	3
7815737404	diploid cell	A cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n), one set inherited from each parent.	4
7815740250	haploid cell	A cell containing only one set of chromosomes (n).	5
7815744984	somatic cell	any cell of a living organism other than the reproductive cells.	6
7815751612	gametes	specialized cell involved in sexual reproduction (e.g. sperm and egg)	7
7815759066	zygote	Diploid cell formed when a sperm fertilizes an egg.	8
7815762490	fertilization	fusion of male and female gametes	9
7815766087	meiosis	a process in which one diploid cell divides to make four haploid sex cells	10

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AP Biology - Basic Chemistry Flashcards

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5477712165	Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)	A molecule that provides energy for cellular reactions and processes. It releases energy when one of its high‐energy bonds is broken to release a phosphate group.	0
5477712166	Atom	The most basic unit of matter; the smallest particle of an element	1
5477712167	Structure of an Atom	Consists of mostly empty space; Protons (+) and neutrons (0) make up the tiny, dense nucleus. Electrons (-) exist in orbitals at various energy levels surrounding the nucleus. The electrons involved in forming chemical bonds occupy the outermost energy level (AKA the valence shell)	2
5477712168	Ion	An atom with a positive or negative electric charge	3
5477712171	Element	Simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties; a pure substance made of only one kind of atom	4
5477712172	Isotope	A variant of an element that differs only in its number of neutrons.	5
5477712173	Radioisotope	Heavier isotopes of certain atoms that become unstable and begin to decompose. Radioactive decay involves the ejection of particles from the nucleus that may cause damage to living cells; These are used in very small amounts to tag biological molecules so they can be followed or traced through the body and used as a tool for medical diagnosis and treatment.	6
5477712176	Polar molecule	A molecule that has a positive charge on one end and a negative charge on the other due to an imbalance in the way electrons are shared between its atoms.	7
5477712177	Nonpolar molecule	A molecule that does not have oppositely charged ends because its atoms share electrons equally.	8
5477712181	Ionic Bond	A bond formed by the complete transfer of electron(s) from one atom to another. The resulting charged atoms, or ions, are oppositely charged and thus attract each other	9
5477712182	Covalent Bond	A bond formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms	10
5477712183	Hydrogen Bond	A bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule; relatively weak	11
5477712184	Synthesis Reaction	A reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a new compound. A + B --> AB	12
5477712186	Decomposition Reaction	A reaction in which a single compound breaks down to form two or more simpler substances	13
5477712188	Metabolism	The sum total of the chemical reactions that occur in the body	14
5477712189	Catabolism	Chemical reactions that break down complex organic compounds into smaller, simpler ones; releases energy.	15
5477712190	Anabolism	Chemical reactions that build up complex organic compounds from smaller, simpler components; requires energy	16
5477712191	Solvent	A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances	17
5477712192	Solute	A substance that is dissolved in a solution.	18
5477712193	Solution	A homogenous mixture that forms when one substance (the solvent) dissolves another (the solute).	19
5477712194	Water (H2O)	A liquid made of hydrogen and oxygen that is essential to body function.	20
5477712195	Oxygen (O2)	An inorganic molecule critical to the process of cellular respiration; absorbed by the alveoli of the lungs, required for decomposition reactions that release energy from food.	21
5477712196	Carbon Dioxide (CO2)	An inorganic molecule produced as a cellular waste product during decomposition reactions; helps maintain acid-base balance in body.	22
5477712197	Electrolytes	These substances, when dissolved, separate into charged particles (ions). The solution is then capable of conducting an electric current.	23
5477712198	Acid	Electrolytes that release H+ ions in an aqueous solution; proton donors	24
5477712199	Base	Electrolytes that produce OH- ions in an aqueous solution; proton acceptors	25
5477712200	Salt	Any ionic compound that can be made from the neutralization of an acid with a base	26
5477712201	PH Scale	Measurement system used to indicate the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution; ranges from 0 to 14. 0 is most acidic + and 14 is most basic + or alkaline.	27
5477712202	Buffer	A substance that prevents large pH changes in solution to which small quantities of acids or bases are added; stabilizes pH by absorbing or releasing H+ ions as needed	28

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AP Biology: Meiosis (Chapter 10) Flashcards

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8573002531	Oogenesis	Eggs in ovaries halted before anaphase I meiosis I completed during maturation meiosis 2 completed after fertilization	0
8573002532	Nondisjunction	problems with meitotic spindle fibers cause Incorrect # of chromosomes because chromosomes don't separate properly	1
8573002533	Nondisjunction in meiosis I	Homologous chromosomes do not separate properly (all cells abnormal)	2
8573002534	Nondisjunction in meiosis 2	Half cells abnormal, sister chromatids fail to separate in meiosis 2	3
8573002535	Trisomy disorder	2n+1, cells have 3 copies of one chromosome	4
8573002536	Monosomy disorder	Cells have only one copy of a chromosome	5
8573002537	Syndrome	A survivable chromosomal mutation	6
8573002538	Down syndrome	3 copies of chromosome 21, the smallest chromosome, not least amount of genes, frequency correlates with age of mother	7
8573002539	Prophase II	Spindle apparatus forms, chromatids still held at centromere	8
8573002540	Telophase I and Cytokinesis	Cell has haploid set of chromosomes, cytokinesis creates cleavage furrow creating 2 cells, no replication between m I and m II	9
8573002541	Metaphase II	Chromosomes position on metaphase plate, chromatids not genetically identical cuz of m I crossing over, kinetochores attach to spindle fibers	10
8573002542	Anaphase II	Breakdown of proteins holding sister chromatids together, chromatids separate moving to opposite poles of cells,	11
8573002543	Telephase II and cytokinesis	Nuclei form with haploid number of chromosomes, each 4 new cells genetically distinct	12
8573002544	Heredity	The transmission of traits from one generation to the next	13
8573002545	Variation	Differences between members of the same species	14
8573002546	Genetics	The scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation	15
8573002547	Gametes	A haploid reproductive cell, such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote	16
8573002548	Somatic Cell	Any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg	17
8573002549	Locus	A specific place along the length of a chromosome where a given gene is located	18
8573002550	Asexual Reproduction	The generation of offspring from a single parent that occurs w/o fusion of gametes. In most cases, the offspring are genetically identical to the parent	19
8573002551	Clone	A lineage of genetically identical individuals or cells	20
8573002552	Sexual Reproduction	A type of reproduction in which two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the gametes of the parents	21
8573002553	Life Cycle	The generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism	22
8573002554	Karyotype	A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape	23
8573002555	Homologous Chromosomes	A pair of chromosomes of the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern that possesses genes for the same characters at corresponding loci	24
8573002556	Sex Chromosomes	A chromosome responsible for determining the sex of an individual	25
8573002557	Autosome	A chromosome that is not directly involved in determining sex; not a sex chromosome	26
8573002558	Diploid Cell	A cell containing two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent	27
8573002559	Haploid Cell	A cell containing only one set of chromosomes	28
8573002560	Fertilization	The union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote	29
8573002561	Zygote	The diploid product of the union of haploid gametes during fertilization; a fertilized egg	30
8573002562	Meiosis	A modified type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms consisting of two rounds of cell division but only one round of DNA replication. It results in cells w/ half the number of chromosome sets as the original cell	31
8573002563	Meiosis I	The first division of a two-stage process of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in cells with 1/2 the number of chromosome sets as the original cell	32
8573002564	Meiosis II	The second division of a two-stage process of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in cells w/ half the number of chromosome sets as the original cell	33
8573002565	Prophase I	Chromosomes condense, crossing over, Synapsis, centrosome, movement, chiasmata, micro tubules attach to centromeres	34
8573002566	Synapsis	The pairing and physical connection of replicated homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis	35
8573002567	Tetrad	A set of 4 chromatids	36
8573002568	Crossing Over	The reciprocal exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids during prophase I of meiosis	37
8573002569	Metaphase I	Chromosomes line up on plate crossed over with independent assortment, chromosomes attached to micro tubule,	38
8573002570	Anaphase I	Proteins holding chromatids together break down, chromosomes move to opposite poles of cell,	39
8573002571	Recombinant Chromosomes	A chromosome created when crossing over combines the DNA from two parents into a single chromosome	40
8573002572	Independent Assortment	The process of random segregation and assortment of chromosomes during anaphase I of meiosis resulting in the production of genetically unique gametes	41
8573002573	Random Fertilization	Any possible egg can be fertilized by any possible sperm	42
8573002574	How are karyotypes prepared?	By pairing up chromosomes based on size centromere location and staining patterns on a computer	43
8573002575	What are the 3 steps of crossing over?	Breakage of DNA Crossing over Refusal of DNA	44
8573002576	What happens to to most chromosomal mutations?	The baby will be aborted with high frequency, too disastrous, developmental problems result from biochemical imbalance, certain conditions tolerated	45

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AP BIology DNA Replication, Cell Cycle (Mitosis) AP Biology Flashcards

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8170644088	DNA Replication	the process by which a DNA molecule is copied; also called DNA synthesis	0
8170644089	Antiparallel	subunits run in opposite directions	1
8170644090	Semiconservative Model	the two strands of the parental molecule separate and each functions as a template for synthesis of a new complementary strand- most common	2
8170644091	Replication Fork	a Y shaped region where the parental strands of DNA are being unwound	3
8170644092	Helicases	enzymes that untwist the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and make them available as template strands	4
8170644093	Single Strand Binding Proteins	Bind to the unpaired DNA strands keeping them from repairing	5
8170644094	Topoisomerase	The untwisting of double helix causes tighter twisting and strain ahead of replication fork Relieve this strain by breaking swiveling, and rejoining DNA strands	6
8170644095	Primer	The initial nucleotide chain that is produced during DNA synthesis is actually a short stretch of RNA	7
8170644096	Primase	Synthesizes the primer Starts a complementary RNA chain from a single RNA nucleotide, adding more RNA nucleotides one at a time, using the parental DNA strand as a template	8
8170644097	DNA polymerase III	The main enzyme that catalyze the synthesis of a new DNA strand by adding nucleotides to a preexisting chain	9
8170644098	Leading strand	Strand that continuously adds nucleotides to the new complementary strand as the fork progresses	10
8170644099	Lagging Strand	The strand that DNA polymerase III builds moving away from the replication fork Synthesized discontinuosly as a series of segments	11
8170644100	Okazaki fragments	Series of segments that are 1000-2000 nucleotides long. Made due to the discontinuous building of the lagging strand.	12
8170644101	DNA Ligase	joins the sugar phosphate backbones of all the Okazaki fragments and replaced primers into a continuous DNA strand	13
8170644102	DNA polymerase I	Removes RNA nucleotides of primer from 5' end and replaces them with DNA nucleotides	14
8170644103	Chromatin	complex of DNA and protein	15
8170644104	Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase	What are the four stages of mitosis?	16
8170644105	prophase	Which phase? the first stage of mitosis, in which the chromatin condenses into discrete chromosomes visible with a light microscope, the mitotic spindle begins to form, and the nucleolus disappears but the nucleus remains intact.	17
8170644106	Metaphase	Which Phase? The second stage of mitosis, in which the spindle is complete and the chromosomes, attached to microtubules at their kinetochores, are all aligned at the metaphase plate.	18
8170644107	anaphase	Which phase?-the third stage of mitosis, in which the chromatids of each chromosome have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell.	19
8170644108	telophase	Which phase?-The fourth and final stage of mitosis, in which daughter nuclei are forming and cytokinesis has typically begun.	20
8170644109	Cytokinesis	Which phase is when there is division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells immediately after mitosis.	21
8170644110	Sister Chromatids	Two copies of a duplicated chromosome attached to each other by proteis at the centromere and sometimes, along the arms. While joined, two sister chromatids make up one chromosome. Chromatids are eventually separated during mitosis or meiosis II	22
8170644111	Interphase	Which Phase?-The period in the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing. During interphase, cellular metabolic activity is high, chromosomes and organelles are duplicated, and cell size may increase. Interphase often accounts for about 90% of the cell cycle.	23
8170644112	Spindle	An assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movement of chromosomes during mitosis.	24
8170644113	Growth of a multicellular organism Replacement/Repair of cells	What are two roles of Mitosis?	25
8170644114	G1, S, G2	What are the Phases of the Interphase?	26
8170644115	DNA replication.	What happens in the S Phase?	27
8170644116	G2	This third subphase of interphase is a period of metabolic activity and growth. During this phase the cell makes final preparations for division.	28
8170644117	G1	This is the portion of the cell cycle just after division, but before DNA synthesis. During this time the cell grows by producing proteins and organelles.	29
8170644118	cytoplasm divides in two.	What happens during cytokinesis?	30
8170644119	Difference between mitosis and cytokinesis	What does this describe? Cell division consists of two processes: mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis— division of the nucleus and its chromosomes— is divided into five phases: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Mitosis is followed by cytokinesis, when the cytoplasm splits to form two separate daughter cells.	31
8170644120	1. The nucleoli disappear 2. Chromatin fibers coil up to become discrete chromosomes. 3. Each chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids, joined at the centromere. 4. Spindle starts to form	What happens during prophase?	32
8170644121	Spindle moves chromosomes. Chromosomes move to the metaphase plate (MIDDLE), an imaginary plane equidistant from the poles.	What happens during metaphase?	33
8170644122	The two centromeres of each chromosome come apart, separating the sister chromatids.	What happens during anaphase?	34
8170644123	1. nuclear envelopes form around the identical sets of chromosomes at the two poles of the cell.	What happens during Telophase?	35
8170644124	Membrane pinches in	How does cytokinesis happen in animal cells?	36
8170644125	Cell plate forms new cell wall	How does cytokinesis happen in plant cells?	37
8170644126	Cleavage Furrow	The first sign of cleavage in an animal cell; a shallow groove around the cell in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate.	38
8170644127	a centromere	The region of a chromosome holding the two double strands of replicated DNA together is called _____.	39
8170644128	sister chromatids are attached to one another	The centromere is a region in which _____.	40
8170644129	Proto-oncogene	A gene that causes cell division to occur when it should. When mutated, it can become an oncogene allowing for more cell division than needed.	41
8170644130	Tumor Suppressor Gene	A gene that either stops cell division or destroys damaged cells.	42
8170644131	Metastasis	When cancer cells break away from their origin and spread to a different part of the body.	43
8170644132	Malignant	Means "mean" or harmful to other cells.	44
8170644133	Telomerase	An enzyme that adds to the ends of chromosomes so that they do not shorten during replication	45
8170644134	During G1, mitosis (before anaphase) and G2	When are checkpoints in the cell cycle?	46
8170644135	CdK (cyclin dependent kinase) and cyclin.	What are the 2 components of MPF (maturation promotion factor)?	47
8170644136	Cyclin	What substance builds up during interphase to later bind with CdK (cyclin dependent kinase)?	48
8170644137	MPF	Causes Mitosis to start.	49
8170644138	Benign	means "nice" or not harmful to other cells.	50

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AP Biology - Intro to Biology Flashcards

all the vocab words and root words in chapter 1

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7257501959	archaea	one of two prokaryotic domains, the other being bacteria	0
7257501960	bacteria	one of two prokaryotic domains, the other being archaea	1
7257501961	bioinformatics	the use of comps, software, and mathematical models to process and integrate biological info from large data sets	2
7257501962	biology	the scientific study of life	3
7257501963	biosphere	the entire portion of earth inhabited by life; the sum of all the planter's ecosystems	4
7257501964	cell	the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms; they may exist as independent units of life	5
7257501965	community	all the organisms that inhabit a particular area; an assemblage of populations of different species living close enuf together for potential interactions	6
7257501966	consumer	relies upon the feeding of other organisms for survival	7
7257501967	controlled experiment	an experiment in which an experimental group is compared with a control group that caries only in the factor being tested	8
7257501968	data	recorded observations	9
7257501969	deductive reasoning	a type of logic in which specific results are predicted from a general premise	10
7257501970	DNA	a double-streanded, helical nuvleic acid molecule consisting of nucleotide monomers w a deoxrubose sugar and the nitrogenous bases A, C, G, T capable of replicating and determining the ingerited structure of a cell's proteins	11
7257501971	discovery science	the process of scientific inquiry that focuses on describing nature	12
7257501972	domain	a taxonomic caregory above the kingdom level	13
7257501973	eukarya	the domain that includes all eukaryotic organisms	14
7257501974	ecosystems	all the organisms in a given area as well as the abiotic factors with which they intereact; one or more communities and the phusical environment around them.	15
7257501975	emergent properties	new properties that arise w each step upward in the heratchy of life, owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexitly of life increases	16
7257501976	eukaryotic cell	a type of cell w a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles.	17
7257501977	gene	a discrete unit of hereditary info consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA	18
7257501978	genome	the genetic material of an organism or virus; the complete complement of an organism's or citus's genes along with its nincoding nucleic acid sequence	19
7257501979	hypothesis	a tentative answer to a well framed question, narrower in scope than a theory and subject to testing	20
7257501980	inductive reasoning	a type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific obserations	21
7257501981	inquiry	the search for info and explanation, often focused by specific questions	22
7257501982	animalia	the kingdom that consists of multicellular eukaryotes that ingest their food	23
7257501983	Fungi	eukaryotic kingdom that includes organisms that absorb nutrients after decomposing organic material	24
7257501984	Plantae	the kingdom that consists of multicellular eukaryotes that carry out photosynthesis	25
7257501985	model	a rep of a theory or proces	26
7257501986	molecule	two or more atoms eld together by covalent bonds	27
7257501987	negative feedback	a primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a phusiological variable truggers a response that counteracts the initial change	28
7257501988	organ	a specialized center of body function composed of several diff types of tissues	29
7257501989	organ system	a group of organs that work together in performing viral body functions	30
7257501990	organelle	any of several membreans enclosed structires w specialized functions, suspended in the cytosaol of eukaryotic cells	31
7257501991	population	a lockalized group of individuals of the same species that can interbreed, producing fertile offspring	32
7257501992	positive feedback	a physiological control mechanism in which a change in a variable truggers mechanisms that amplify the change	33
7257501993	prokaryotic cell	a type of cell lacking a membrane enclosed nucleus and membrane enclosed organelles	34
7257501994	reductionism	the whole is greater than the sum of its parts	35
7257501995	systems biology	an approach to studying biology that aims to model the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems	36
7257501996	technology	the application of scientific knowlede for a specific purpose, often involving industry or commerce but also including uses in basic research	37
7257501997	theory	an explanation that is broad on schope, generates new hypotheses, and is supported by a large body of evidence	38
7257501998	tissue	an integrated goup of cells w a common function, structure or both	39

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AP Biology Ch 17: Biotechnology Flashcards

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8692834749	Recombinant DNA	DNA produced by combining DNA from different sources	0
8692834750	Biotechnology	A form of technology that uses living organisms, usually genes, to modify products, to make or modify plants and animals, or to develop other microorganisms for specific purposes.	1
8692834751	Plasmids	Small rings of DNA found naturally in some bacterial cells in addition to the main bacterial chromosome. Can contain genes for antibiotic resistance, or other "contingency" functions.	2
8692834752	Gene Cloning	The production of multiple copies of a gene.	3
8692834753	Restriction enzymes	Enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides	4
8692834754	Sticky end	A single-stranded end of a double-stranded DNA restriction fragment.	5
8692834755	DNA Ligase	A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.	6
8692834756	Ti Plasmid	Plasmid that infects plants- can carry new genes into mature plants cells	7
8692834757	Gene gun	Gun that shoots gold particles with plasmids attached- way to get genes into plant cells where Ti plasmid doesn't work, like wheat and corn	8
8692834758	polymerase chain reaction (PCR)	A method of producing thousands of copies of DNA segment using the enzyme DNA polymerase	9
8692834759	gel electrophoresis	Procedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments by placing a mixture of DNA fragments at one end of a porous gel and applying an electrical voltage to the gel. Larger fragments move slower, DNA moves towards positive charge because DNA is negative	10
8692834762	Genetic profile	An individual's unique set of genetic markers, detected most often today by PCR or, previously, by electrophoresis and nucleic acid probes.	11

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AP Biology - Chapter 10 (photosynthesis), AP Biology Chapter 10 Photosynthesis Flashcards

AP Bio Photosynthesis

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5659057957	photosynthesis (definition)	process of harnessing light energy to build carbohydrates in autotrophs (ex. plants, cyanobacteria)	0
5659057958	photosynthesis (equation)	6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6 O2	1
5659057959	autotroph	organism that CAN capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use it to produce its own food (producer)	2
5659057960	heterotroph	organism that CANNOT produce its own food and therefore obtains it by consuming other living things (consumer)	3
5659057961	light-dependent reactions	1st step of photosynthesis during which light energy is captured and used to synthesize ATP and NADPH	4
5659057962	light-independent reactions (aka Calvin cycle)	2nd step of photosynthesis during which CO2 is incorporated into a sugar molecule using ATP and NADPH produced during the light dep. rx.	5
5659057963	thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts	location of light-dependent reactions	6
5659057964	stroma of chloroplasts	location of light-independent reactions	7
5659057967	inverse	What is the relationship between wavelength and energy?	8
5659057969	pigments	substances that can absorb particular wavelengths of light energy	9
5659057970	absorption spectrum	graph of a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light	10
5659057971	action spectrum	graph of a plant's photosynthesis rate at different wavelengths of light	11
5659057972	violet, blue and red	Which wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls ABSORB?	12
5659057973	green and yellow	Which wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls REFLECT?	13
5659057974	carotenoids	accessory pigments in chloroplasts that broaden the spectrum of colors used in photosynthesis (absorb green/blue but reflect red/yellow/orange)	14
5659057975	mesophyll	(C) ground tissue of a leaf, sandwiched between upper and lower epidermis that specializes in photosynthesis	15
5659057976	chlorophyll b	pigment, green/olive, in chloroplast	16
5659057977	chlorophyll a	pigment, blue/green, in chloroplast	17
5659057978	excited state	when absorbed photon energy causes electron to move away from nucleus	18
5659057979	photosystems	located in the thylakoid membrane and trap light energy and use it to excite electrons	19
5659057980	parts of photosystems	accessory (aka antenna) pigments, reaction center chlorophyll a, primary electron acceptor	20
5659057981	reaction-center complex	(4) centrally located proteins associated with a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor	21
5659057982	light harvesting complex	(3) proteins associated with pigment molecules that capture light energy and transfers it to center of a photosystem	22
5659057983	photosystem II (PS II)	1st of two light harvesting units in thylakoid membrane that passes excited electrons to reaction-center chlorophyll	23
5659057984	primary electron acceptor	(2) electrons from the reaction-center in thylakoid membranes are transferred to this molecule	24
5659057985	water	splitting this molecule replaces electrons which are excited and passed to primary electron acceptor in PSII	25
5659057986	O2	released as a byproduct of splitting water	26
5659057987	photosystem I (PS I)	2nd of two light-capturing units in thylakoid membranes that replaces its electrons by those from the 1st complex and results in production of NADPH	27
5659057988	proton-motive force	created by pumping hydrogen ions from stroma to thylakoid space during electron transport chain between PS II and PS I	28
5659057989	ATP synthase	enzyme that synthesies ATP by utilizing a proton-motive force	29
5659057990	Calvin cycle, dark reactions, and carbon fixation	other names for light independent reactions	30
5659057991	3 steps of light independent reaction	1. carbon fixation 2. reduction 3. regeneration of RuBP	31
5659057992	reduction	step in Calvin cycle that produces sugar G3P	32
5659057993	carbon dioxide	molecule reduced in Calvin cycle to produce sugar	33
5659057994	thylakoids	(C) flattened membranous sacs inside chloroplasts that contain systems which convert light energy to chemical energy	34
5659057995	absorbed	energy is ____________ in photosynthesis	35
5659057996	released	energy is _____________ in cellular respiration	36
5659057997	glucose and oxygen	reactants of cellular respiration	37
5659057998	carbon dioxide and water	reactants of photosynthesis	38
5659057999	glucose	source of electrons used in ETC of cellular respiration	39
5659058000	intermembrane space	site of proton gradient built up in cellular respiration	40
5659058001	thylakoid space	site of proton gradient built up in photosynthesis	41
5659058002	NAD+ and FAD	high energy electron carrier(s) before reduction in cellular respiration (after they drop off electrons at ETC)	42
5659058003	NADH and FADH2	high energy electron carrier(s) after reduction in cellular respiration (after they pick up electrons from Kreb's cycle)	43
5659058004	NADP+	high energy electron carrier(s ) before reduction in photosynthesis (after they drop off electrons for Calvin cycle)	44
5659058005	NADPH	high energy electron carrier(s ) after reduction in photosynthesis (after they pick up electrons from ETC)	45
5659058006	ATP	energy product(s) from ETC in cellular respiration	46
5659058007	ATP and NADPH	energy product(s) from ETC in photosynthesis	47
5659058009	H2O	reactant(s) oxidized in photosynthesis (source of electrons)	48
5659058010	cyclic electron flow	light dependent reactions using only photosystem I to pump protons and generate excess ATP (not NADPH)	49
5659058011	linear electron flow	light dependent reactions involving both photosystems; electrons from H2O are used to reduce NADP to NADPH	50
5659058012	rubisco	enzyme with affinity for both CO2 and O2 that catalyzes first step of Calvin cycle by adding CO2 to ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)	51
5659058013	PEP carboxylase	enzyme with great affinity for CO2 (gas) adds it to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to form oxaloacetate (4-carbon solid) prior to photosynthesis	52
5659058014	stomata	pore-like openings on underside of leaves that allow gases (CO2 and O2) and water to diffuse in and out	53
5659058015	bundle-sheath cells	tightly packed around the veins of a leaf (site of Calvin cycle in C4 plants)	54
5659058016	photorespiration	occurs on hot, dry days when stomata close, O2 accumulates and Rubisco fixes O2 rather than CO2, using up ATP, O2 and sugars	55
5659058017	C3 plants	do not separately fix CO2 and use Rubisco in Calvin Cycle	56
5659058018	C4 plants	spatially separate carbon fixation (mesophyll cells) from Calvin Cycle (bundle-sheath cells); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO2	57
5659058019	CAM plants	temporally separate carbon fixation (day) and Calvin Cycle (night); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO2	58
5659058020	autotroph	organism capable of synthesizing its own food from CO₂ and other inorganic raw materials. The producers.	59
5659058021	heterotroph	an organism that depends on other's complex organic substances for nutrition.	60
5659058022	photoautotroph	plants that use energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water to carbon compounds.	61
5659058023	chlorophyll	the green pigment located within chloroplasts. It absorbs light energy to drive the synthesis of food molecules in the chloroplast.	62
5659058024	mesophyll	the tissue in the interior of the leaf, contains 30-40 chloroplasts	63
5659058026	stroma	thick fluid contained in the inner membrane of a chloroplast, surrounding thylakoids membranes.	64
5659058027	photosynthesis	process by which plants and some other organisms use light energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and high-energy carbohydrates such as sugars and starches 6CO₂ + 12H₂O + Light Energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ + 6H₂O	65
5659058028	splitting of water	photolysis	66
5659058032	photophosphorylation	The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of a proton-motive force generated by the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast during the light reactions of photosynthesis.	67
5659058034	carbon fixation	incorporating CO₂ from the atmosphere into organic molecules from the chloroplast	68
5659058035	rubisco	Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase, an enzyme that fixes CO₂ together with RuBP.	69
5659058036	RuBP	ribulose biphosphate	70
5659058038	electromagnetic spectrum	the entire range of radiation	71
5659058040	spectrometer	a machine that measures the ability of a pigment to absorb various wavelengths of light	72
5659058047	reaction center	where the first light-driven chemical reaction of photosynthesis occurs, e⁻ goes in, gets excited and jumps up, grabbed by PEA	73
5659058048	primary electron acceptor	grabs the e⁻ when it gets excited and dumps it into ETC	74
5659058049	photosystem II	first photosystem, center is p680, takes in H₂O, splits and leaves out 1/2 O₂ and takes 2 e⁻, excites electrons and sends to primary acceptor	75
5659058051	photosystem I	takes e⁻ from ETC and excites them (uses light), gives them to primary acceptor in noncyclic, go down ETC again	76
5659058052	noncyclic electron flow	A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems and produces ATP, NADPH, and oxygen. The net electron flow is from water to NADP+.	77
5659058056	G3P	glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, the threecarbon sugar formed in the Calvin cycle	78
5659058061	mesophyll cell	more loosely arranged between bundle-sheath and leaf surface. takes in CO₂, fixed by PEP carboxylase	79
5659058062	PEP carboxylase	adds CO₂ to PEP, higher affinity to CO₂ than rubisco	80
5659058063	CAM plants	(crassulacean acid metabolism) temporal adaptation, open stomata during the night, closed during day. store organic acids made during night in vacuoles	81

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AP Biology Unit 1: Biochemistry Flashcards

THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MACROMOLECULES

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7276269354	macromolecule	A giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a condensation reaction. Polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids are examples of this type of molecule.	0
7276269355	polymer	A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together.	1
7276269356	monomer	The subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer.	2
7276269357	condensation reaction (dehydration synthesis)	A reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other through the loss of a small molecule, usually water, in which case it is also called a dehydration reaction.	3
7276269358	hydrolysis	A chemical process that lyses, or splits, molecules by the addition of water, functioning in disassembly of polymers to monomers.	4
7276269359	carbohydrate	A sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides).	5
7276269360	monosaccharide	The simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also known as simple sugars, monosaccharides have molecular formulas that are generally some multiple of CHO.	6
7276269361	dissacharide	A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage formed during dehydration synthesis.	7
7276269362	glycosidic linkage	A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.	8
7276269363	polysaccharide	A polymer of many monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions.	9
7276269364	starch	A storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by glycosidic linkages.	10
7276269365	glycogen	An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.	11
7276269366	cellulose	A structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by β glycosidic linkages.	12
7276269367	chitin	A structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods.	13
7276269368	fat	A lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a triacylglycerol or triglyceride.	14
7276269369	triaglycerol (Triglyceride)	Three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a fat or a triglyceride.	15
7276269370	unsaturated fatty acid	A fatty acid possessing one or more double bonds between the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.	16
7276269371	saturated fatty acid	A fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that are attached to the carbon skeleton.	17
7276269372	trans fat	An unsaturated fat containing one or more trans double bonds.	18
7276269373	phospholipid	A lipid made up of glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group. The hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids act as nonpolar, hydrophobic tails, while the rest of the molecule acts as a polar, hydrophilic head. Phospholipids form bilayers that function as biological membranes.	19
7276269374	steroid	A type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four rings with various chemical groups attached.	20
7276269375	cholesterol	A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids, such as hormones.	21
7276269376	polypeptide	A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.	22
7276269377	protein	A functional biological molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three-dimensional structure.	23
7276269378	amino acid	An organic molecule possessing both carboxyl and amino groups. Amino acids serve as the monomers of polypeptides.	24
7276269379	peptide bond	The covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction.	25
7276269380	X-ray crystallography	A technique that depends on the diffraction of an X-ray beam by the individual atoms of a crystallized molecule to study the three-dimensional structure of the molecule.	26
7276269381	gene	A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).	27
7276269382	nucleic acid	A polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. The two types are DNA and RNA.	28
7276269383	deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)	A double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule consisting of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T); capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins.	29
7276269384	ribonucleic acid (RNA)	A type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis, gene regulation, and as the genome of some viruses.	30
7276269385	polynucleotide	A polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers in a chain; nucleotides can be those of DNA or RNA.	31
7276269386	nucleotide	The building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group.	32
7276269387	purine	One of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring.	33
7276269388	pyrimidine	One of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-membered ring.	34
7276269389	ribose	The sugar component of RNA nucleotides.	35
7276269390	deoxyribose	The sugar component of DNA nucleotides, having one fewer hydroxyl group than ribose, the sugar component of RNA nucleotides.	36
7276269391	double helix	The form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape.	37
7276269392	2 purines	Adenine (A) and guanine (G).	38
7276269393	3 pyrimidines	Cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U).	39
7276269394	endergonic reaction	A reaction requiring a net input of free energy	40
7276269395	exergonic reaction	Reaction that proceeds with a net release of free energy.	41
7276269396	alcohol	A substituted hydrocarbon that contains one or more hydroxyl groups	42
7276269397	carbonyl/aldehyde	carbon atom with a double bond to an oxygen atom	43
7276269398	carboxyl	A functional group present in organic acids and consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group.	44
7276269399	hydroxyl	A functional group consisting of a hydrogen atom joined to an oxygen atom by a polar covalent bond. Molecules possessing this group are soluble in water and are called alcohols.	45
7276269400	reduction	Any process in which electrons are added to an atom or ion (as by removing oxygen or adding hydrogen)	46
7276269401	oxidation	To attach oxygen, to remove hydrogen, or to remove electrons from a molecule.	47
7276269402	phosphate		48
7276269403	amino group	A functional group that consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms	49
7276269404	sulfhydryl		50
7276269405	greenhouse effect	Natural situation in which heat is retained in Earth's atmosphere by carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and other gases	51
7276269406	ozone layer	Layer of the stratosphere with a high concentration of ozone; absorbs most of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation	52