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AP Biology Chapter 8 Metabolism Flashcards

7599614212	Metabolism	the totality of an organisms chemical reactions that result from interactions between molecules within the cell	0
7599614213	metabolic pathway	a sequence of chemical reactions undergone by a compound in a living organism, start with substrate end with product	1
7599614214	catabolic	breaking a complex molecule down into its simpler parts, releasing energy. ie. cellular respiration	2
7599614215	anabolic	using energy to build complex molecules from simpler molecules. ie. protein synthesis	3
7599614216	Bioenergetics	the study of how organisms manage their energy resources	4
7599614217	energy	capacity to cause change, do work	5
7599614218	kinetic energy	energy of motion	6
7599614219	heat(thermal energy)	kinetic energy associated with random movement of molecules	7
7599614220	potential energy	energy of position	8
7599614221	chemical energy	potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction, energy within bonds	9
7599614222	thermodynamics	study of energy transformations	10
7599614223	closed system	isolated from surroundings, no energy transfer, cant work at equilibrium bc its exhausted its ability to do work. free energy at a min	11
7599614224	open system	not isolated, energy and matter can be transferred between system and surroundings, ie. cells	12
7599614225	1st law of thermodynamics	energy of the universe is constant, cannot be created or destroyed, can only be transferred or transformed, conservation of energy	13
7599614226	2nd law of thermodynamics	during every energy transfer, some energy is unusable and often lost, every energy transfer or transformation increases the total entropy of the universe	14
7599614227	entropy	disorder, randomness	15
7599614228	free energy	delta G, energy that can do work when temperature and pressure are constant, related to change in enthalpy(delta H), change in entropy(delta S) and temperature in Kelvin(T). delta G = delta H - T delta S	16
7599614229	exergonic reaction	a reaction with a net release of free energy, negative free energy, spontaneous	17
7599614230	endergonic reaction	a reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings, non-spontaneous, positive free energy	18
7599614231	coupled reactions	the use of exergonic processes to drive endergonic ones, the energy given off from the exergonic is absorbed by the endergonic	19
7599614232	ATP	adenosine triphosphate, composed of ribose (5 carbon sugar), adenine (nitrogenous base), and 3 phosphate groups. Phosphate tail can be broken through hydrolysis to produce energy, ADP, and an inorganic phosphate	20
7599614233	phosphorylation	how ATP drives endergonic reactions, covalently bonding a phosphate with another molecule, such as as reactant	21
7599614234	catalyst	a chemical agent that speeds up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction	22
7599614235	enzymes	a catalytic protein, speeds up metabolic reactions by lowering activation energy, very specific, reusable, unchanged by reaction	23
7599614236	activation energy	initial energy needed to start a chemical reaction, free energy for activating reaction, given off by heat	24
7599614237	induced fit	brings the chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the reaction, makes the enzyme more effective	25
7599614238	cooperativity	another type of allosteric activation, binds to one active site but locks ALL active sites open, allowing products to be constantly produced	26
7599614239	Substrate	the REACTANT that an enzyme acts on	27
7599614240	Enzyme-Substrate Complex	enzyme and substrate	28
7599614241	Active Site	region on the enzyme where substrate binds	29
7599614242	Hydrogen and Ionic Bonds	substrate held in active site by WEAK interactions	30
7599614243	Lock and Key	active site on enzyme fits substrate exactly	31
7599614244	If reaction doesnt need energy to start (exergonic)	How do you know if a reaction is spontaneous?	32
7599614245	3 kinds of cellular work done by ATP	Shuttle renewable and nonrenewable ENERGY, provide ENERGY for cellular functions, provide ENERGY for catabolic reactions	33
7599614246	Ways enzymes lower activation energy	can do this by having a favorable environment, straining substrate molecules, orienting substrates correctly	34
7599614247	hydrolysis	happens when phosphate leaves ATP to give energy to something else. This causes ATP to become ADP, produces water	35
7599614248	cofactors	non-protein enzyme helpers ex. zinc, iron, copper	36
7599614249	coenzymes	organic enzyme helpers ex. vitamens	37
7599614250	Denature	above a certain temp activity declines, protein unwinds	38
7599614251	Renature	coils it back to normal after temp gets too high and the activity decreased	39
7599614252	Gene Regulation	cell switches on or off the genes that code for specific enzymes	40
7599614253	Feedback inhibition	end product of a pathway that continues to produce product (positive) and then turns off (negative)	41
7599614254	negative feedback inhibition	accumulation of end product slows the process that produces that amount -stop production	42
7599614255	positive feedback inhibition	end product speeds up production (less common)	43
7599614256	Allosteric Regulation	can accelerate or inhibit production and enzyme activity by attaching to another part of the protein. this changes the shape of the active site which inhibits substrates from bonding and producing more products	44
7599614257	Activator	one of the allosteric regulators, stabilizes and keeps active site open for production, wedges open	45
7599614258	Inhiibitor	one of the allosteric regulators, doesnt allow active site to work or produce, wedges closed	46
7599614259	Competitive Inhibitor	inhibitor that mimics original substrate by blocking the original substrate	47
7599614260	Noncompetetitive Inhibitor	bind to another part of enzyme to change shape and block substrate from producing	48
7599614261	ways enzymes are affects	environment, pH, temp, salinity, chemicals that infuse enzyme, increase activity by increasing substrate concentration	49
7599614262	exergonic	what reaction is spontaneous (-G)	50
7599614263	endergonic	what reaction is not spontaneous (positive G)	51

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01 Unit : Ecology : AP Biology Review Flashcards

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7500905975	ecology	study of the distribution and abundance of organisms and their interactions with other organisms and with their physical environment	0
7500905976	population	group of individuals of the same species living in the same area	1
7500905977	community	group of populations of different species living in the same area	2
7500905978	ecosystem	interrelationships between organisms in a community and their physical environment	3
7500905979	biosphere	composed of all the regions of the earth that contain living things (hydrosphere, geosphere, and atmosphere)	4
7500905980	habitat	type of place where an organism usually lives; descriptions typically include the organisms and the physical and chemical characteristics of the environment	5
7500905981	niche	all biotic and abiotic resources in the environment used by an organism	6
7500905982	biotic	living	7
7500905983	abiotic	nonliving	8
7500905984	climate	long-term prevailing weather conditions in a given area; major components include temperature, precipitation, sunlight, and wind	9
7500905985	macroclimate	global, regional, or local climate example: changing angle of earth with respect to the sun, bodies of water, mountains that exert long-term effects	10
7500905986	microclimate	fine-scale variations, like sunlight and temperature under a log	11
7500905987	biome	large region of the earth whose distribution depends on the amount of precipitation and temperature in an area; characterized by dominant vegetation and animal life	12
7500905988	major biomes of the world	tropical rainforest, temperate grasslands, conifer forest (taiga), desert, temperate deciduous forest, tropical seasonal (dry) forest, tundra, savanna, chaparral, and aquatic biomes	13
7500905989	tropical rainforest	abundant rainfall, stable temperature, high humidity most biodiversity of any biome	14
7500905990	desert	little to no rainfall, greatly varying temperatures, no humidity plants are drought-resistant and animals are typically active only at night	15
7500905991	temperate grasslands	covers huge areas in temperate and tropical regions of the world low total annual rainfall, uneven seasonal rainfall, occasional fires grazing and burrowing mammals; soil is rich in nutrients and is great for agriculture	16
7500905992	temperate deciduous forest	trees drop their leaves in winter vertical stratification of plants and animals soil is rich due to decomposition	17
7500905993	conifer forest/taiga	dominated by conifer forests fresh water lakes and ponds very cold winters, heavy snowfall largest terrestrial biome large mammals flying insects and birds in summer	18
7500905994	tundra	characterized by permafrost "frozen desert" gently rolling plains with many lakes, ponds, and bogs insects are abundant large to medium mammals	19
7500905995	savanna	grasses and some trees dominant herbivores include insects fire is a dominant abiotic factor plant growth increases during rainy season, but low otherwise	20
7500905996	chaparral	dominated by dense, spiny, evergreen shrubs coastal areas with mild rainy winters and long, hot, dry summers plants are adapted to fires	21
7500905997	aquatic biomes include...	freshwater, estuaries, marine	22
7500905998	primary way to distinguish aquatic biomes	salinity	23
7500905999	vertical stratification in aquatic biomes	photic zone: enough light for photosynthesis aphotic zone: very little light benthic zone: bottom of biome with sand, detritus, and inorganic matter	24
7500906000	thermocline	narrow layers of fast temperature change that separate a warm upper layer of water and cold deeper waters	25
7500906001	littoral zone	in fresh, standing bodies of water, it is the well-lit shallow water near the shore that contains rooted and floating aquatic plants	26
7500906002	limnetic zone	in fresh, standing bodies of water, it is the well-lit open surface waters farther from shore that are occupied by phytoplankton	27
7500906003	oligotrophic lakes	deep lakes that are nutrient-poor, oxygen-rich, and contain sparse phytoplankton	28
7500906004	eutrophic lakes	shallower, higher-nutrient content, lower oxygen content, high concentration of phytoplankton	29
7500906005	primary way to characterize moving bodies of water	current	30
7500906006	marine biome	largest and most stable biome temperature varies little because of water's high heat capacity	31
7500906007	marine biome zones	intertidal zone: land meets water, as in tide pools neritic zone: beyond intertidal zone; shallower water over continental shelves pelagic zone: vast realm of open blue water coral reef: biome created by corals, varying in shape and support the growth of other organisms	32
7500906008	population ecology	study of the growth, abundance, and distribution of populations	33
7500906009	population growth is described by...	biotic potential, carrying capacity, and limiting factors	34
7500906010	population size	symbolically represented by N it is the total number of individuals in the population	35
7500906011	population density	total number of individuals per area or volume occupied	36
7500906012	population dispersion	describes how individuals in a population are distributed	37
7500906013	clumped dispersion	most common pattern, like humans in cities or schools of fish	38
7500906014	uniform dispersion	like trees in an orchard, or plants with toxins	39
7500906015	random dispersion	like trees in a forest; occurs because of special attractions or repulsions	40
7500906016	age structure	describes the abundance of individuals of each age	41
7500906017	survivorship curves	describe how mortality of individuals in a species varies during their lifetimes	42
7500906018	type I survivorship curve	describe a species in which most individuals survive to middle age; after that age, mortality is high. example: humans	43
7500906019	type II survivorship curve	describe organisms in which the length of survivorship is random, that is, the likelihood of death is the same at any age example: rodents, invertebrates	44
7500906020	type III survivorship curve	describe species in which most individuals die young, with only a relative few surviving to reproductive age and beyond example: oysters, species with free-swimming larvae	45
7500906021	biotic potential	maximum growth rate of a population under ideal conditions with unlimited resources and without any growth restrictions	46
7500906022	factors that contribute to biotic potential	age at reproductive maturity, clutch size, frequency of reproduction, reproductive lifetime, survivorship of offspring to reproductive maturity	47
7500906023	carrying capacity	maximum number of individuals of a population that can be sustained by a particular habitat	48
7500906024	limiting factors	elements that prevent a population from attaining its biotic potential	49
7500906025	types of limiting factors	density-dependent factors and density-independent factors	50
7500906026	density-dependent factors	limiting effect becomes more intense as the population density increases examples: parasites and disease, competition, toxic effect of waste products, predation, stress	51
7500906027	density-independent factors	occur independently of the density of a population examples: natural disasters and climate extremes	52
7500906028	r-strategist (or r-selected species)	rapid, exponential growth quickly invade a habitat, quickly reproduce, then die offspring are small, quickly maturing, and require little to no parental care	53
7500906029	k-strategist (or k-selected species)	slower, logistic growth size of mature population remains relatively constant small number of large offspring extensive parental care reproduction repeats throughout lifetime	54
7500906030	exponential growth	occurs when reproductive rate is greater than zero; forms a J-shaped curve on a graph	55
7500906031	logistic growth	occurs when limiting factors restrict the size of a population to the carrying capacity of the habitat; forms an S-shaped curve on a graph	56
7500906032	life history	describes an organism's strategy for maximum fitness	57
7500906033	reproductive success	measure of fitness - how well an organism survives and reproduces	58
7500906034	reproductive success depends on four variables	age of reproductive maturity frequency of reproduction number of offspring per reproductive event how long the organism lives	59
7500906035	community ecology	concerned with the interaction of different populations	60
7500906036	interspecific competition	competition between two different species via... - competitive exclusion principle (Gause's principle) - resource partitioning - realized niche - character displacement (niche shift)	61
7500906037	Competitive Exclusion (Gause's principle)	when two species compete for exactly the same resources, or occupy the same niche, one is likely to be more successful	62
7500906038	resource partitioning	some species coexist in spite of apparent competition for the same resources. they actually occupy slightly different niches.	63
7500906039	fundamental niche	niche that an organism occupies in the absence of competition	64
7500906040	realized niche	when competitors are present, one or both species may be able to coexist by occupying realized niches. here, any niche overlap is absent. they do not compete for the same resources.	65
7500906041	character displacement	niche shift certain characteristics may enable individuals to obtain resources in their partitions more successfully. this reduces competition and leads to a divergence of features.	66
7500906042	predation	predator totally or partly consumes a plant or other animal	67
7500906043	true predator	kills and eats other animals	68
7500906044	parasite	spends most or all of its live living on or in a host; obtains nourishment by feeding on host tissues	69
7500906045	parasitoid	insect that lays eggs on a host, usually an insect or spider, and after hatching the larvae consume the host	70
7500906046	herbivore	animal that eats plants; some act like predators and totally consume the organism whereas others may only eat a part of the plant	71
7500906047	symbiosis	two species that live together in close contact during a portion or all of their lives	72
7500906048	types of symbiotic relationships	mutualism commensalism parasitism	73
7500906049	mutualism	both species benefit	74
7500906050	commensalism	one species benefits while the second is neither helped nor harmed	75
7500906051	parasitism	parasite benefits while the host is harmed	76
7500906052	coevolution	evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species - evolutionary arms race	77
7500906053	secondary compounds	toxic chemicals produced in plants that discourage would-be herbivores	78
7500906054	cryptic coloration	camouflage; any color, pattern, shape, or behavior that enables an animal to blend in with its surroundings	79
7500906055	aposematic coloration	warning coloration; conspicuous pattern or coloration of animals that warns predators that they sting, bite, taste bad, or are otherwise to be avoided	80
7500906056	mimicry	two or more species resemble one another in appearance	81
7500906057	mullerian mimicry	several animals, all with some special defense mechanism, share the same or similar coloration	82
7500906058	batesian mimicry	an animal without any special defense mechanism mimics the coloration of an animal that does possess a defense	83
7500906059	ecological succession	change in the composition of species over time; one community is gradually and predictably replaced by another community	84
7500906060	climax community	final successional stage of constant species composition; persists relatively unchanged until destroyed by a catastrophic event, like fire	85
7500906061	in succession, resident species may alter...	substrate texture, soil pH, soil water potential, light, and crowding	86
7500906062	pioneer species	species that are the first to colonize a newly exposed habitat; work to break down rock into smaller rock, then into sand, and finally into soil as succession progresses	87
7500906063	primary succession	occurs where no soil was previously present; begins on rock. pioneer species and other plants break down rock into pebbles, then sand, then soil. as organisms die and decompose, it nourishes the soil allowing for more and larger organisms to grow or live in that area	88
7500906064	secondary succession	occurs as primary succession, except soil is already present	89
7500906065	food chain	linear flow chart of who eats whom example: grass >>> zebra >>> lion >>> vulture	90
7500906066	food web	expanded, more complete version of a food chain that shows all major plants in the ecosystem, various animals that eat them, and the animals that eat the animals	91
7500906067	autotrophs	obtain energy from light or inorganic material	92
7500906068	heterotrophs	consumer other organisms for organic material and/or a source of energy	93
7500906069	ecological pyramids	show relationships between trophic levels	94
7500906070	trophic level	an organism's place in a food chain or food web	95
7500906071	primary producers	autotrophs that perform photosynthesis	96
7500906072	primary consumers	herbivores, heterotrophs that eat primary producers	97
7500906073	secondary consumers	carnivores/omnivores, heterotrophs that eat primary consumers	98
7500906074	tertiary consumers	carnivores/omnivores, heterotrophs that eat secondary consumers	99
7500906075	quaternary consumers	carnivores/omnivores, heterotrophs that eat tertiary consumers	100
7500906076	detritivores	heterotrophs that obtain their energy by consuming dead plants and animals (detritus)	101
7500906077	why will you typically not see more than five levels in a food chain, pyramid, or web?	only 10% of the energy at one trophic level is available for the next trophic level. 90% of the energy is used, stored, or lost. there's not enough energy in any ecosystem to support more than 5 levels. this is called ecological efficiency.	102
7500906078	primary productivity	amount of organic matter produced through photosynthetic activity per unit of time	103
7500906079	dominant species	most abundant species or species that contributes the greatest biomass to a community	104
7500906080	keystone species	one that has a strong influence on the health of a community or ecosystem; removal of a keystone species results in dramatic changes in the makeup of species that comprise other trophic levels	105
7500906081	invasive species	introduced species that proliferates and displaces native species because it is a better competitor or because its natural predators or pathogens are absent	106
7500906082	bottom-up model of trophic interactions	describes how changes in the structure of trophic levels are regulated by changes in the bottom level (plants)	107
7500906083	top-down model of trophic interactions	changes in the structure of trophic levels are regulated by changes in the top trophic level	108
7500906084	biodiversity	function of the number of species, niches, and trophic levels in the ecosystem and the complexity of its food web	109
7500906085	factors that influence biodiversity	climate, latitude, habitat size and diversity, and elevation	110
7500906086	biogeochemical cycles	describe the flow of essential elements from the environment to living things and back; elements are stored in reservoirs and assimilated into organisms as well as released back into the environment	111
7500906087	hydrologic cycle - reservoirs	oceans, air (water vapor), ground water, glaciers	112
7500906088	hydrologic cycle - assimilation	plants absorb water from soil, animals drink water or eat other organisms	113
7500906089	hydrologic cycle - release	plants transpire, animals and plants decompose	114
7500906090	carbon cycle - reservoirs	atmosphere, bodies of water, fossil fuels, peat, durable organic material	115
7500906091	carbon cycle - assimilation	photosynthesis, consumption	116
7500906092	carbon cycle - release	respiration, decomposition, burning	117
7500906093	nitrogen cycle - reservoirs	atmosphere, soil	118
7500906094	nitrogen cycle - assimilation	absorption, consumption, nitrogen fixation, nitrification	119
7500906095	nitrogen cycle - release	denitrifying bacteria convert ammonia into atmospheric nitrogen, detritivorous bacteria convert organic compounds into ammonia, and animals excrete ammonia, urea, or uric acid	120
7500906096	phosphorus cycle - reservoirs	rock and ocean sediments	121
7500906097	phosphorus cycle - assimilation	plants absorb from soils, animals eat plants or other animals	122
7500906098	phosphorus cycle - release	decomposition, excretion	123
7500906099	humans damage the biosphere by...	exponential population growth habitat destruction pollution	124
7500906100	most destructive consequences of human activity include...	global climate change, deforestation, acid rain, reduction in species diversity, ozone depletion, desertification, and pollution	125
7500906101	global climate change	Burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. These greenhouse gases trap infrared radiation, raising the temperature of the earth's atmosphere and resulting in large scale climate change.	126
7500906102	acid rain	burning of fossil fuels like coal and other industrial processes release pollutants in the air, which react with water vapor to produce sulfuric acid and nitric acid, which rains down on us	127
7500906103	desertification	overgrazing of grasslands that border deserts transform those grasslands into deserts; agricultural output decreases and habitats available to native species are lost	128
7500906104	deforestation	clear-cutting of forests causes erosion, flooding, and changes in weather patterns; occurs most often in the tropical rainforest, where most of our carbon fixation occurs	129

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AP Biology: Membranes & Transport NEW Flashcards

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8661400601	endomembrane system	A network of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles.	0
8661400602	dialysis	The diffusion of small solutes through a selectively permeable membrane.	1
8661400603	turgor pressure	The pressure inside of a cell as a cell pushes itself against the cell wall.	2
8661400604	plasmolysis	This happens when a cell shrinks inside its cell wall while the cell wall remains intact.	3
8661400605	flaccid	This happens when water moves, but the amount within the cell is constant; no pressure builds.	4
8661400606	cytolysis	This happens when a cell swells until pressure bursts it, resulting in cell death.	5
8661400607	crenation	This happens when a cell shrinks and shrivels; can result in cell death if severe.	6
8661400608	water potential	The physical property predicting the direction in which water will flow, governed by solute concentration and applied pressure.	7
8661400609	solute potential	This measurement has a maximum value of 0; it decreases as the concentration of a solute increases.	8
8661400610	pressure potential	This measurement has a minimum value of 0 (when the solution is open to the environment); it increases as pressure increases.	9
8661400611	fluid mosaic model	Structural model of the plasma membrane where molecules are free to move sideways within a lipid bilayer.	10
8661400612	integral proteins	proteins that are permanently attached to the cell membrane	11
8661400613	transmembrane proteins	Integral proteins that span the membrane.	12
8661400614	peripheral proteins	proteins that temporarily associate with a membrane; are not embedded in the lipid bilayer, are loosely bound to surface of membrane	13
8661400615	cell-cell recognition	The function of membrane proteins in which some glycoproteins serve as ID tags that are recognized by membrane proteins of other cells.	14
8661400616	intercellular joining	The function of membrane proteins in which membrane proteins of adjacent cells hook together, as in gap junctions or tight junctions.	15
8661400617	glycolipids	Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to lipids.	16
8661400618	glycoproteins	Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to proteins.	17
8661400619	transport protein	A membrane protein that has transports certain molecules or ions through the cell membrane	18
8661400620	channel protein	A transport protein that has a channel that allows passage of certain molecules or ions use	19
8661400621	aquaporin	A transport protein that facilitates the passage of water through cell membranes	20
8661400622	carrier protein	A transport protein that binds molecules and changes shape to shuttles them across the membrane	21
8661400623	tonicity	The ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water; depends partly on concentration of nonpenetrating solutes relative to inside of cell.	22
8661400624	osmoregulation	The control of water balance.	23
8661400625	turgid	A cell with a cell wall that has a reasonable amount of pressure but is healthy.	24
8661400626	cotransport	The coupling of the "downhill" diffusion of one substance to the "uphill" transport of another against its own concentration gradient.	25
8661400627	phagocytosis	Process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell.	26
8661400628	pinocytosis	A type of endocytosis in which the cell "gulps" droplets of fluid into tiny vesicles.	27
8661400629	receptor-mediated endocytosis	A type of endocytosis in which the cell acquires bulk quantities of specific substances, even though they may not be very concentrated in the extracellular fluid.	28

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GWHS AP Biology - Chp 10: Photosynthesis Flashcards

Photosynthesis

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7556835941	anabolic	What kind of a process is photosynthesis?	0
7556835942	catabolic	What kind of a process is cellular respiration?	1
7556835943	light (dependent) reactions	1st step of photosynthesis during which light energy is captured and used to synthesize ATP and NADPH	2
7556835944	Calvin Cycle (light-independent reactions)	2nd step of photosynthesis during which CO2 is incorporated into a sugar molecule using ATP and NADPH produced during the first step	3
7556835945	thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts	location of light reactions	4
7556835946	stroma of chloroplasts	location of Calvin Cycle light-independent reactions	5
7556835947	G3P	carbon product of the Calvin Cycle (light-independent reactions)	6
7556835948	absorption spectrum	graph of a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light	7
7556835949	action spectrum	graph of a plant's photosynthesis rate at different wavelengths of light	8
7556835950	carotenoids	accessory pigments in chloroplasts that broaden the spectrum of colors used in photosynthesis (absorb green/blue but reflect red/yellow/orange)	9
7556835951	photosystems	(#6) photosynthetic pigments embedded with protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane	10
7556835952	light harvesting complex	(3) proteins associated with pigment molecules that capture light energy and transfers it to center of a photosystem	11
7556835953	photosystem II (PS II)	1st of two light harvesting units in thylakoid membrane that passes excited electrons to reaction-center chlorophyll	12
7556835954	primary electron acceptor	(2) electrons from the reaction-center in thylakoid membranes are transferred to this molecule	13
7556835955	water	splitting this molecule replaces electrons which are excited and passed to primary electron acceptor in PSII	14
7556835956	O2	released as a byproduct of splitting water	15
7556835957	photosystem I (PS I)	2nd of two light-capturing units in thylakoid membranes that replaces its electrons by those from the 1st complex and results in production of NADPH	16
7556835958	proton-motive force	created by pumping hydrogen ions from stroma to thylakoid space during electron transport chain between PS II and PS I	17
7556835959	ATP synthase	enzyme that synthesies ATP by utilizing a proton-motive force	18
7556835960	Calvin cycle, dark reactions, and carbon fixation	other names for light independent reactions	19
7556835961	3 steps of light independent reaction	1. carbon fixation 2. reduction 3. regeneration of RuBP	20
7556835962	carbon dioxide	molecule reduced in Calvin cycle to produce sugar	21
7556835963	thylakoids	(C) flattened membranous sacs inside chloroplasts that contain systems which convert light energy to chemical energy	22
7556835964	glucose, NADH and FADH2	reactant(s) oxidized in cellular respiration	23
7556835965	H2O	reactant(s) oxidized in photosynthesis (source of electrons)	24
7556835966	rubisco	enzyme that catalyzes first step of Calvin cycle by adding CO2 to ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)	25
7556835967	stomata	pore-like openings on underside of leaves that allow gases (CO2 and O2) and water to diffuse in and out	26

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AP Biology Unit 1 Flashcards

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7135351281	Archaea	one of two prokaryotic domains, the other being Bacteria	0
7135351282	Biology	the scientific study of life	1
7135351598	Controlled Experiment	an experiment in which an experimental group is compared with a control group that varies only in the factor being tested	2
7135351602	Data	recorded observations	3
7135351810	DNA	a double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins.	4
7135351811	Emergent Properties	new properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life	5
7135352094	Eukarya	the domain that includes all eukaryotic organisms	6
7135352095	Eukaryotic Cell	a type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles.	7
7135352261	Evolution	descent with modification; the idea that living species are descendants of ancestral species that were different from the present-day ones	8
7135352262	Genes	a discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA	9
7135352498	Hypothesis	a testable explanation for a set of observations based on the available data and guided by inductive reasoning	10
7135352848	Inductive Reasoning	a type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations	11
7135352849	Inquiry	the search for information and explanation, often focusing on specific questions	12
7135353021	Natural Selection	a process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits	13
7135353022	Negative Feedback	a form of regulation in which accumulation of an end product of a process slows the process	14
7135353023	Positive Feedback	a form of regulation in which an end product of a process speeds up that process	15
7135353335	Prokaryotic Cell	a type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles	16
7135353336	Science	an approach to understanding the natural world	17
7135353534	Theory	an explanation that is broader in scope than a hypothesis, generates new hypotheses, and is supported by a large body of evidence	18
7136332665	Anion	a negatively charged ion	19
7136332908	Atom	the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element	20
7136332909	Atomic mass	the total mass of an atom	21
7136332910	Atomic number	the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, unique for each element	22
7136333238	Cation	a positively charged ion	23
7136333239	Chemical bond	an attraction between two atoms, resulting from a sharing of outer-shell electrons or the presence of opposite charges on the atoms	24
7136333240	Compound	a substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio	25
7136333570	Covalent bond	a type of strong chemical bond in which two atoms share one of more pairs of valence electrons	26
7136333571	Electron shell	an energy level of electrons at a characteristic average distance from the nucleus of an atom	27
7136333966	Electron	a subatomic particle with a single negative electrical charge	28
7136333967	Element	any substance that cannot be broken down to any other substance by chemical reactions	29
7136334233	Essential elements	a chemical element required for an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce	30
7136334234	Hydrogen bond	a type of weak chemical bond that is formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule or in another region of the same molecule	31
7136334235	Ion	an atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons, thus acquiring a charge	32
7136334236	Ionic bond	a chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions	33
7136334885	Molecule	two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds	34
7136334886	Neutron	a subatomic particle having no electrical charge found in the nucleus of an atom	35
7136335319	Product	a material resulting from a chemical reaction	36
7136335320	Proton	a subatomic particle with a single positive electrical charge found in the nucleus of an atom	37
7136335321	Reactant	a starting material in a chemical reaction	38
7136335674	Trace element	an element indispensable for life but required in extremely minute amounts	39
7136335675	Valence electron	an electron in the outermost electron shell	40
7136336054	Van der Waals interactions	Weak attractions between molecules or parts of molecules that result from transient local partial charges	41
7137103354	Acid	a substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution	42
7137103355	Adhesion	the clinging of one substance to another, such as water to plant cell walls by means of hydrogen bonds	43
7137103945	Base	a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution	44
7137103946	Buffer	a solution that contains a weak acid and its corresponding base; it minimizes changes in pH when acids or bases are added to the solution	45
7137104485	Cohesion	the linking together of like molecules, often by hydrogen bonds	46
7137104874	Hydrophilic	an affinity for water	47
7137104875	Hydrophobic	having no affinity for water	48
7137105179	Hydronium ion	a water molecule that has an extra proton bound to it (H30+, commonly represented as H+)	49
7137105180	Hydroxide ion	a water molecule that has lost a proton, OH-	50
7137105830	pH	a measure of hydrogen ion concentration equal to -log [H+] and ranging in value from 0-14	51
7137106339	Solution	a liquid that is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances	52
7137106340	Solvent	the dissolving agent of a solution	53
7137106603	Specific heat	the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of a substance to change its temperature by 1 degree Celsius	54
7137106604	Surface tension	a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid	55
7139632873	Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)	an adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate that releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed	56
7139632874	Amino group	a chemical group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms	57
7139634485	Carbonyl group	a chemical group present in aldehydes and ketones and consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom	58
7139634486	Carboxyl group	a chemical group present in organic acids and consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group	59
7139635077	Functional group	a specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and involved in chemical reactions	60
7139635078	Hydrocarbon	an organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen	61
7139635649	Hydroxyl group	a chemical group consisting of an oxygen atom joined to a hydrogen atom. Molecules possessing this group are soluble in water and are called alcohols.	62
7139635650	Isomer	one of several compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and therefore different properties.	63
7139635651	Methyl group	a chemical group consisting of a carbon bonded to three hydrogen atoms.	64
7139636049	Organic chemistry	the study of carbon compounds	65
7139636439	Phosphate group	a chemical group consisting of a phosphorous atom bonded to four oxygen atom	66
7147690792	Amino acid	an organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl and an amino group; serve as the monomers of polypeptides	67
7147690793	Antiparallel	referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix (they run in opposite 5' to 3' directions)	68
7147691050	Carbohydrates	a sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharide) or one of its polymers (polysaccharide)	69
7147691051	Catalysts	a chemical agent that selectively increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction	70
7147691052	Cellulose	a structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by beta-glycosidic linkages	71
7147691250	Chaperonin	a protein complex that assists in the proper folding of other proteins	72
7147691251	Chitin	a structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods	73
7147691252	Cholesterol	a steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids, such as many hormones	74
7147691499	Dehydration reaction	a chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule	75
7147691897	Denaturation	in proteins, a process in which a protein loses its native shape due to the disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions, thereby becoming biologically inactive	76
7147691898	Deoxyribose	the sugar component of DNA nucleotides, having one fewer hydroxyl group than ribose	77
7147692171	Enzyme	a macromolecule (usually a protein) that serves as a catalyst	78
7147693386	Fat	a lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a triglyceride	79
7147693387	Gene	a discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA	80
7147693388	Glycosidic linkage	a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction	81
7147693842	Glycogen	an extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals	82
7147693843	Hydrolysis	a chemical reaction that breaks bonds between two molecules by the addition of water	83
7147694055	Lipid	any of a group or large biological molecules, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that mix poorly, if at all, with water	84
7147694545	Monomer	the subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer	85
7147694546	Nucleic acid	a polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers; the two types are DNA and RNA	86
7147694547	Nucleotide	the building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and one or more phosphate groups	87
7147694794	Peptide bond	the covalent bond between the carboxyl group on on amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction	88
7147694795	Phospholipid	a lipid made up of glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group; they form bilayers that function as biological membranes	89
7147695232	Polymer	a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds	90
7147695233	Protein	a biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three-dimensional structure	91
7147695628	Ribose	the sugar component of RNA nucleotides	92
7147695629	RNA	a type of nucleic acid consisting of a polynucleotide made up of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases A, C, G, and U	93
7147696161	Starch	a storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by alpha-glycosidic linkages	94
7147696162	Triacylglycerol	a lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a fat or a triglyceride	95
7147700205	Steroid	a type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings with various chemical groups attached	96
7147700206	Polysaccharide	a polymer of many monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions	97
7147702472	Monosaccharide	the simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides	98
7147703644	Fatty acid	a carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain; three of these linked to a glycerol molecule form a fat molecule	99

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AP Biology (Campbell) Chapter 7 Flashcards

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5472324954	plasma membrane	a microscopic membrane of lipids and proteins that form the external boundary of the cytoplasm of a cell or encloses a vacuole and that regulates the passage of molecules in and out of the cytoplasm.	0
5472324955	selectively permeable	A membrane that allows certain molecules or ions to pass through more easily than other, by means of active or passive transport.	1
5472324956	phospholipids	consist of a glycerol molecule, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group that is modified by an alcohol. The phosphate group is the negatively-charged polar head, which is hydrophilic. The fatty acid chains are the uncharged, nonpolar tails, which are hydrophobic.	2
5472324957	lipids and proteins	primary macromolecules found in membranes	3
5472324959	fluid mosaic model	The fluid mosaic model explains various observations regarding the structure of functional cell membranes. In this model, the cell membrane as a two-dimensional liquid that restricts the lateral diffusion of membrane components.	4
5472324961	transmembrane proteins	the integral protein completely spans the membrane.	5
5472324962	integral proteins	proteins that penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer. C-C chemokine receptor type 5 is such a protein found in white blood cells.	6
5472324963	peripheral proteins	proteins that are not embedded in the lipid bilayer (Peripheral = of, relating to, or situated on the edge.	7
5472324964	cell-cell recognition	is one of the ways by which cells communicate with one another. It is possible through specific cellular adhesion molecules on the surface of the cell.	8
5472324966	transport proteins	proteins that span the plasma membrane and aid in passive or active transport	9
5472324967	channel proteins	transport proteins that certain molecules or ions use as a tunnel cross the plasma membrane.	10
5472324968	aquaporins	channel proteins that facilitate the passage of water. The interior Amino Acids are polar and thefore allow a polar channel for the water molecules to pass the nonpolar region of the plasma membrane.	11
5472324969	carrier proteins	transport proteins that bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane.	12
5472324970	diffusion	the process by which molecules spread from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.	13
5472324971	concentration gradient	is the process of particles, which are sometimes called solutes, moving through a solution or gas from an area with a higher number of particles to an area with a lower number of particles. The areas are typically separated by a membrane.	14
5472324972	passive transport	transport that requires no energy input from the cell (ATP) for transport to occur. Simple diffusion and channel proteins like Aquaporins are examples of passive transport.	15
5472324973	osmosis	a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated one, thus equalizing the concentrations on each side of the membrane.	16
5472324974	tonicity	The ability of an extracellular solution to make water move into or out of a cell by osmosis is known as its tonicity. A solution's tonicity is related to its osmolarity, which is the total concentration of all solutes in the solution.	17
5472324975	isotonic	Water enters and leaves the cell at the same rate, so no net change in the osmotic pressere. The cell stays the same.	18
5472324976	hypertonic	when the cell is immersed in a hypertonic solution where it loses water to its environment, shrivels and probably dies.	19
5472324977	hypotonic	when a cell is immersed in a Hypotonic solution, water enters the cell faster than it leaves, it swells and lyses (explodes) like an overfilled water balloon.	20
5472324978	osmoregulation	the maintenance of constant osmotic pressure in the fluids of an organism by the control of water and salt concentrations.	21
5472324979	Paramecium spp.	a single-celled organism that lives in pond water. It has a contractile vacuole that pumps out excess water from the organism.	22
5472324980	turgid	when the plant cell is very firm, which is a healthy state for most plant cells.	23
5472324983	flaccid	limp, not firm or strong (If a plant is not watered enough, its leaves become droopy and flaccid.)	24
5472324985	plasmolysis	This happens when a cell shrinks inside its cell wall while the cell wall remains intact. The plasma membrane pulls away from the wall.	25
5472324986	facilitated diffusion	the passive movement of molecules down their concentration gradient with the help of transport proteins.	26
5472324987	ion channels (gated channels)	Channels that open or close depending on the presence or abscence of an electrical, chemical, or physical stimulus.	27
5472324989	active transport	transport that requires the cell to expend metabolic energy and enables a cell to maintain internal concentrations of small molecules. Requires energy.	28
5472324991	sodium-potassium pump	transport protein that, translocating the bound solute across the membrane. Exchanges sodium ions (Na) for potassium ions (K) across the plasma membrane of animal cells.	29
5472324996	proton pumps	A proton pump is an integral membrane protein that is capable of moving protons across a biological membrane. Mechanisms are based on conformational changes of the protein structure.	30
5472324998	exocytosis	a process by which the contents of a cell vacuole are released to the exterior through fusion of the vacuole membrane with the cell membrane.	31
5472324999	endocytosis	the taking in of matter by a living cell by invagination of its membrane to form a vacuole.	32
5472325000	phagocytosis	the ingestion of bacteria or other material by cells such as amoebas. "Cell Eating"	33
5472325001	pinocytosis	the ingestion of liquid into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the cell membrane. "Cell Drinking"	34
5472325002	receptor-mediated endocytosis	is a process by which cells absorb metabolites, hormones, other proteins - and in some cases viruses - (endocytosis) by the inward budding of the plasma membrane vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in.	35
5472325003	lipoproteins	any of a group of soluble proteins that combine with and transport fat or other lipids in the blood plasma. Cholestorol is the kind you hear the most about since high levlse of LDL cholesterol are linked to cardiovascular disease.	36

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Chapter 8: Metabolism (AP Biology) Flashcards

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6212478814	metabolism	sum total of an organism's chemical reactions	0
6212478815	chemistry of life (is...)	is organized into metabolic pathways	1
6212478816	metabolic pathway (begins...)	begins with a specific molecule, which is then altered in a series of defined steps to form a specific product	2
6212478817	enzyme	A specific ____________ catalyzes each step of the pathway	3
6212478818	anabolic pathways (functions)	building up molecules; stores energy (in bonds); utilizes condensation or dehydration synthesis	4
6212478819	catabolic pathways (functions)	breaking down molecules; releases energy; utilizes hydrolysis	5
6212478820	bioenergetics	the study of how energy flows through living organisms	6
6212478821	energy	the capacity to cause change	7
6212478822	kinetic energy	the energy associated with the relative motion of objects	8
6212478823	thermal energy	kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules	9
6212478824	potential energy	the energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure	10
6212478825	chemical energy	used to refer to the potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction (stored in bonds)	11
6212478826	on a diving platform	Does a diver have more potential energy on a diving platform or in the water? (INSERT: on a diving platform/in the water)	12
6212478827	potential, kinetic	Diving (or another other drop) converts _______________ energy to ______________ energy (INSERT: ____________, ____________)	13
6212478828	thermodynamics	the study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter	14
6212478829	isolated system (or closed system; is...)	is unable to exchange either energy or matter with its surroundings	15
6212478830	(in) open systems	energy and matter can be transferred between the system and its surroundings (organisms are _______ _______________)	16
6212478831	closed, equilibrium	A ___________ system, eventually it reaches ______________ and no more work can be done. (INSERT: ____________, _____________)	17
6212478832	First Law of Thermodynamics (states...)	states that energy can be transferred and transformed, but cannot be created or destroyed ("conservation of energy")	18
6212478833	Second Law of Thermodynamics (states...)	states that every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe	19
6212478834	Entropy (∆S)	a measure of disorder or randomness; the more random a collection of matter, the greater its ___________	20
6212478835	Heat	the energy of random molecular motion	21
6212478836	Spontaneous (reaction)	always going to a more stable position (increasing entropy); decreasing Free Energy (∆G); can occur WITHOUT the input of energy	22
6212478837	Non-spontaneous (reaction)	going to a less stable position (decreasing entropy); increasing Free Energy (∆G ); needs energy input to occur	23
6212478838	Entropy	For a process to occur without energy input, it must increase the ___________ of the universe	24
6212478839	ordered, less	Cells create _____________ structures from ___________ ordered materials (INSERT: ___________, __________)	25
6212478840	negative	Only processes with a ____________ ∆G are spontaneous	26
6212478841	H	change in enthalpy or total energy (∆__)	27
6212478842	S	change in entropy (∆__)	28
6212478843	T	temperature in Kelvin	29
6212478844	Equilibrium	state of maximum stability	30
6212478845	Free energy (is...)	is a measure of a system's instability, its tendency to change to a more stable state	31
6212478846	Spontaneous	During a ____________________ change, free energy decreases and the stability of a system increases	32
6212478847	∆G = ∆H - T∆S	The change in free energy, ∆G, can be calculated for any specific chemical reaction by applying the following equation (∆G = ∆H - T∆S or ∆G = ∆Gfinal state − ∆Gstarting state; copy and paste on of the equations)	33
6212478848	Free energy (is...)	is the portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell	34
6212478849	Exergonic	releasing energy; reactants have MORE energy than products; ∆G = negative; spontaneous	35
6212478850	Endergonic	absorbing energy from environment; reactants have LESS energy than products; ∆G = positive; nonspontaneous	36
6212478851	S	S or NS?: Catabolic (breaking down)	37
6212478852	S	S or NS?: Exergonic (giving off E)	38
6212478853	S	S or NS?: Breaking down	39
6212478854	S	S or NS?: breaking bonds (hydrolysis)	40
6212478855	S	S or NS?: release free energy	41
6212478856	S	S or NS?: ∆G = Negative (Free energy decreases)	42
6212478857	S	S or NS?: ∆S = Positive (entropy increases)	43
6212478858	S	S or NS?: stability increases	44
6212478859	NS	S or NS?: anabolic (building up)	45
6212478860	NS	S or NS?: endergonic (absorbing E)	46
6212478861	NS	S or NS?: building up	47
6212478862	NS	S or NS?: making bonds (dehydration synthesis)	48
6212478863	NS	S or NS?: storing free energy	49
6212478864	NS	S or NS?: ∆G= Positive (free energy increases)	50
6212478865	NS	S or NS?: ∆S = Negative (disorder (entropy) decreases)	51
6212478866	NS	S or NS?: stability decreases	52
6212478867	Chemical work	An example of it is the synthesis of polymers from monomers (one of the three main kinds of work that a cell does)	53
6212478868	Transport work	Pumping substances across membranes (one of the three main kinds of work that a cell does)	54
6212478869	Mechanical work	Examples are the beating of cilia, contraction of muscle cells, and movement of chromosomes during cellular respiration (one of the three main kinds of work that a cell does)	55
6212478870	energy coupling	Cells manage their energy resources to do this work by _________ _____________, using an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one (ANSWER IS TWO WORDS)	56
6212478871	endergonic, phosphate	In the cell, the energy from the hydrolysis of ATP (exergonic) is directly coupled to ______________ processes by the transfer of the ______________ group to another molecule (INSERT: ______________, ______________)	57
6212478872	ATP	adenosine triphosphate; the energy molecules for cells	58
6212478873	ATP	composed of the sugar ribose, the nitrogen base adenine, and three phosphate groups	59
6212478874	Phosphorylation	transferring a phosphate group to some other molecule, such as a reactant	60
6212478875	phosphorylated intermediate	recipient molecule of phosphorylation	61
6212478876	ATP cycle	transferring of a phosphate can transfer energy from one molecule to another	62
6212478877	Enzyme	a protein that acts as a catalyst	63
6212478878	Catalyst	a molecule that speeds up a chemical reaction WITHOUT being changed or consumed during the reaction	64
6212478879	Activation Energy	the energy needed for a reaction to occur	65
6212478880	lowering, reaction	Enzymes work by ______________ the amount of activation energy required for a ______________ to occur (INSERT: _______________, _______________)	66
6212478881	Heat (speeds...)	speeds up all reactions, not just those that are needed; also denatures proteins and kills cells	67
6212478882	Substrate	the reactant that an enzyme acts on	68
6212478883	Enzyme-substrate complex	The enzyme binds to a substrate, or substrates, forming an...	69
6212478884	Induced Fit Theory (says...)	says that when the substrate binds with the enzyme at the active site, the enzyme may change shape slightly to have more of a "snug" fit	70
6212478885	R groups, catalyze	The ______________ of a few amino acids on the active site _______________ the conversion of substrate to product (INSERT: ______________, ________________)	71
6212478886	unaffected, reuseable	Enzymes are ________________ by the reaction and are ________ (INSERT: ______________, _______________)	72
6212478887	metabolic, reverse, equilibrium	Most __________________ enzymes can catalyze a reaction in both the forward and _____________ directions; in the direction of __________________ (INSERT: ______________, _______________, _______________)	73
6212478888	high, engaged	At ____________ substrate concentrations, the active sites on all enzymes are ______________ (INSERT: ____________, ________________)	74
6212478889	optimal conditions	each enzyme works best at certain ______________ ________________	75
6212478890	6-8, 2, 8	This optimal pH falls between ______ for most enzymes. However, digestive enzymes in the stomach are designed to work best at pH __, whereas those in the intestine have an optimal pH of __. (INSERT: ________, _____, ____)	76
6212478891	cofactors	non-protein helpers (usually minerals)	77
6212478892	coenzymes	organic cofactors (usually vitamins)	78
6212478893	activates	Cofactor binding ____________ the protein (a verb)	79
6212478894	Competitive Inhibition	where an inhibitor mimics the shape of the substrate and gets in the way of the active site of the enzyme; so it is competing for the active site	80
6212478895	Non-competitive Inhibition	an inhibitor binds to an allosteric site (a site on the enzyme that is NOT the active site) and therefore changes the shape of the active site on the enzyme	81
6212478896	Allosteric site	a spot on an enzyme away from the active site where an inhibitor OR activator can bind and affect the function of that enzyme	82
6212478897	binding, functional	The ____________ of an activator stabilizes the conformation that has __________________ active sites (INSERT: _________________, __________________)	83
6212478898	inhibitor, inactive	The binding of a(n) _______________ stabilizes the _______________ form of the enzyme (INSERT: _________________, __________________)	84
6212478899	Cooperativity	the binding of a substrate in the active site of ONE of the subunits can force the other subunits to stay in the active conformation	85
6212478900	Feedback Inhibition	the switching OFF of a metabolic pathway by one of its end products, the end product acts as an inhibitor of one of the enzymes in the pathway	86
6212478901	Feedback Inhibition (helps...)	helps cells regulate and not waste any resources by making TOO MUCH of a certain product	87
6212478902	Cooperativity (amplifies...)	amplifies the response of enzymes to substrates, priming the enzyme to accept additional substrates	88
6212478903	35 to 40 degrees	Most human enzymes have optimal temperatures of about ____ to _____ degrees Celsius (INSERT: ____ to _____ degrees)	89
6212478904	carbohydrates, fats	What are two examples of chemical energy? (INSERT: _______________________, _____________________)	90
6212478905	ATP	What is the body's energy currency?	91
6212478906	carbon dioxide, water	What are two examples of chemical waste? (INSERT: _______________________, _____________________)	92
6212478907	converted	energy can be ________________ from one form to another	93
6212478908	transform	Organisms _______________ energy	94
6212478909	Allosteric activator	modifies the active site of the enzyme so that the substrate can bind to the active site	95
6212478910	Allosteric inhibitor	a regulatory molecule that binds to an enzyme in a spot different from the active site for another molecule, causing a conformational change in the active site for the second molecule, preventing binding	96
6212478911	Heat	Much of the increased entropy of the universe takes the form of increasing ________	97

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AP Biology (Campbell) Chapter 7 Flashcards

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7288780891	plasma membrane	a microscopic membrane of lipids and proteins that form the external boundary of the cytoplasm of a cell or encloses a vacuole and that regulates the passage of molecules in and out of the cytoplasm.	0
7288780892	selectively permeable	A membrane that allows certain molecules or ions to pass through more easily than other, by means of active or passive transport.	1
7288780893	phospholipids	consist of a glycerol molecule, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group that is modified by an alcohol. The phosphate group is the negatively-charged polar head, which is hydrophilic. The fatty acid chains are the uncharged, nonpolar tails, which are hydrophobic.	2
7288780894	lipids and proteins	primary macromolecules found in membranes	3
7288780895	fluid mosaic model	The fluid mosaic model explains various observations regarding the structure of functional cell membranes. In this model, the cell membrane as a two-dimensional liquid that restricts the lateral diffusion of membrane components.	4
7288780896	transmembrane proteins	the integral protein completely spans the membrane.	5
7288780897	integral proteins	proteins that penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer. C-C chemokine receptor type 5 is such a protein found in white blood cells.	6
7288780898	peripheral proteins	proteins that are not embedded in the lipid bilayer (Peripheral = of, relating to, or situated on the edge.	7
7288780899	cell-cell recognition	is one of the ways by which cells communicate with one another. It is possible through specific cellular adhesion molecules on the surface of the cell.	8
7288780900	transport proteins	proteins that span the plasma membrane and aid in passive or active transport	9
7288780901	channel proteins	transport proteins that certain molecules or ions use as a tunnel cross the plasma membrane.	10
7288780902	aquaporins	channel proteins that facilitate the passage of water. The interior Amino Acids are polar and thefore allow a polar channel for the water molecules to pass the nonpolar region of the plasma membrane.	11
7288780903	carrier proteins	transport proteins that bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane.	12
7288780904	diffusion	the process by which molecules spread from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.	13
7288780905	concentration gradient	is the process of particles, which are sometimes called solutes, moving through a solution or gas from an area with a higher number of particles to an area with a lower number of particles. The areas are typically separated by a membrane.	14
7288780906	passive transport	transport that requires no energy input from the cell (ATP) for transport to occur. Simple diffusion and channel proteins like Aquaporins are examples of passive transport.	15
7288780907	osmosis	a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated one, thus equalizing the concentrations on each side of the membrane.	16
7288780908	tonicity	The ability of an extracellular solution to make water move into or out of a cell by osmosis is known as its tonicity. A solution's tonicity is related to its osmolarity, which is the total concentration of all solutes in the solution.	17
7288780909	isotonic	Water enters and leaves the cell at the same rate, so no net change in the osmotic pressere. The cell stays the same.	18
7288780910	hypertonic	when the cell is immersed in a hypertonic solution where it loses water to its environment, shrivels and probably dies.	19
7288780911	hypotonic	when a cell is immersed in a Hypotonic solution, water enters the cell faster than it leaves, it swells and lyses (explodes) like an overfilled water balloon.	20
7288780912	osmoregulation	the maintenance of constant osmotic pressure in the fluids of an organism by the control of water and salt concentrations.	21
7288780913	Paramecium spp.	a single-celled organism that lives in pond water. It has a contractile vacuole that pumps out excess water from the organism.	22
7288780914	turgid	when the plant cell is very firm, which is a healthy state for most plant cells.	23
7288780915	flaccid	limp, not firm or strong (If a plant is not watered enough, its leaves become droopy and flaccid.)	24
7288780916	plasmolysis	This happens when a cell shrinks inside its cell wall while the cell wall remains intact. The plasma membrane pulls away from the wall.	25
7288780917	facilitated diffusion	the passive movement of molecules down their concentration gradient with the help of transport proteins.	26
7288780918	ion channels (gated channels)	Channels that open or close depending on the presence or abscence of an electrical, chemical, or physical stimulus.	27
7288780919	active transport	transport that requires the cell to expend metabolic energy and enables a cell to maintain internal concentrations of small molecules. Requires energy.	28
7288780920	sodium-potassium pump	transport protein that, translocating the bound solute across the membrane. Exchanges sodium ions (Na) for potassium ions (K) across the plasma membrane of animal cells.	29
7288780921	proton pumps	A proton pump is an integral membrane protein that is capable of moving protons across a biological membrane. Mechanisms are based on conformational changes of the protein structure.	30
7288780922	exocytosis	a process by which the contents of a cell vacuole are released to the exterior through fusion of the vacuole membrane with the cell membrane.	31
7288780923	endocytosis	the taking in of matter by a living cell by invagination of its membrane to form a vacuole.	32
7288780924	phagocytosis	the ingestion of bacteria or other material by cells such as amoebas. "Cell Eating"	33
7288780925	pinocytosis	the ingestion of liquid into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the cell membrane. "Cell Drinking"	34
7288780926	receptor-mediated endocytosis	is a process by which cells absorb metabolites, hormones, other proteins - and in some cases viruses - (endocytosis) by the inward budding of the plasma membrane vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in.	35
7288780927	lipoproteins	any of a group of soluble proteins that combine with and transport fat or other lipids in the blood plasma. Cholesterol is the kind you hear the most about since high levels of LDL cholesterol are linked to cardiovascular disease.	36

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Photosynthesis (Chapter 10) AP Biology Flashcards

Photosynthesis

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6416238168	photosynthesis (definition)	process of harnessing light energy to build carbohydrates in autotrophs (ex. plants, cyanobacteria)	0
6416238169	photosynthesis (equation)	6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6 O2	1
6416238170	autotroph	organism that CAN capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use it to produce its own food (producer)	2
6416238171	heterotroph	organism that CANNOT produce its own food and therefore obtains it by consuming other living things (consumer)	3
6416238172	anabolic	What kind of a process is photosynthesis?	4
6416238173	catabolic	What kind of a process is cellular respiration?	5
6416238174	light-dependent reactions	1st step of photosynthesis during which light energy is captured and used to synthesize ATP and NADPH	6
6416238175	light-independent reactions	2nd step of photosynthesis during which CO2 is incorporated into a sugar molecule using ATP and NADPH produced during the first step	7
6416238176	thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts	location of light-dependent reactions	8
6416238177	stroma of chloroplasts	location of light-independent reactions	9
6416238178	G3P	carbon product of the light-independent reactions	10
6416238179	photon	(1) quantum (discrete quantity) of electromagnetic radiation (light energy) with both wave and particle properties	11
6416238180	inverse	What is the relationship between wavelength and energy?	12
6416238181	pigments	substances that can absorb, reflect, or transmit light	13
6416238182	absorption spectrum	graph of a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light	14
6416238183	violet, blue and red	Which wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls ABSORB?	15
6416238184	green and yellow	Which wavelengths of the visible light spectrum do chlorophylls REFLECT?	16
6416238185	carotenoids	accessory pigments in chloroplasts that broaden the spectrum of colors used in photosynthesis (absorb green/blue but reflect red/yellow/orange)	17
6416238186	mesophyll	(C) ground tissue of a leaf, sandwiched between upper and lower epidermis that specializes in photosynthesis	18
6416238187	chlorophyll b	pigment, green/olive, in chloroplast	19
6416238188	chlorophyll a	pigment, blue/green, in chloroplast	20
6416238189	excited state	(7) when absorbed photon energy causes electron to move away from nucleus	21
6416238190	photosystems	(6) photosynthetic pigments embedded with protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane	22
6416238191	water	splitting this molecule replaces electrons which are excited and passed to primary electron acceptor in PSII	23
6416238192	O2	released as a byproduct of splitting water	24
6416238193	proton-motive force	created by pumping hydrogen ions from stroma to thylakoid space during electron transport chain between PS II and PS I	25
6416238194	ATP synthase	enzyme that synthesies ATP by utilizing a proton-motive force	26
6416238195	Calvin cycle, dark reactions, and carbon fixation	other names for light independent reactions	27
6416238196	3 steps of light independent reaction	1. carbon fixation 2. reduction 3. regeneration of RuBP	28
6416238197	reduction	step in Calvin cycle that produces sugar G3P	29
6416238198	carbon dioxide	molecule reduced in Calvin cycle to produce sugar	30
6416238199	thylakoids	(C) flattened membranous sacs inside chloroplasts that contain systems which convert light energy to chemical energy	31
6416238200	absorbed	energy is ____________ in photosynthesis	32
6416238201	released	energy is _____________ in cellular respiration	33
6416238202	glucose and oxygen	reactants of cellular respiration	34
6416238203	carbon dioxide and water	reactants of photosynthesis	35
6416238204	glucose	source of electrons used in ETC of cellular respiration	36
6416238205	intermembrane space	site of proton gradient built up in cellular respiration	37
6416238206	thylakoid space	site of proton gradient built up in photosynthesis	38
6416238207	NAD+ and FAD	high energy electron carrier(s) before reduction in cellular respiration (after they drop off electrons at ETC)	39
6416238208	NADH and FADH2	high energy electron carrier(s) after reduction in cellular respiration (after they pick up electrons from Kreb's cycle)	40
6416238209	NADP+	high energy electron carrier(s ) before reduction in photosynthesis (after they drop off electrons for Calvin cycle)	41
6416238210	NADPH	high energy electron carrier(s ) after reduction in photosynthesis (after they pick up electrons from ETC)	42
6416238211	ATP	energy product(s) from ETC in cellular respiration	43
6416238212	ATP and NADPH	energy product(s) from ETC in photosynthesis	44
6416238213	glucose, NADH and FADH2	reactant(s) oxidized in cellular respiration	45
6416238214	H2O	reactant(s) oxidized in photosynthesis (source of electrons)	46
6416238215	cyclic electron flow	light dependent reactions using only photosystem I to pump protons and generate excess ATP (not NADPH)	47
6416238216	linear electron flow	light dependent reactions involving both photosystems; electrons from H2O are used to reduce NADP to NADPH	48
6416238217	rubisco	enzyme with affinity for both CO2 and O2 that catalyzes first step of Calvin cycle by adding CO2 to ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)	49
6416238218	stomata	pore-like openings on underside of leaves that allow gases (CO2 and O2) and water to diffuse in and out	50
6416238219	bundle-sheath cells	tightly packed around the veins of a leaf (site of Calvin cycle in C4 plants)	51
6416238220	photorespiration	occurs on hot, dry days when stomata close, O2 accumulates and Rubisco fixes O2 rather than CO2, using up ATP, O2 and sugars	52
6416238221	C3 plants	do not separately fix CO2 and use Rubisco in Calvin Cycle	53
6416238222	C4 plants	spatially separate carbon fixation (mesophyll cells) from Calvin Cycle (bundle-sheath cells); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO2	54
6416238223	CAM plants	temporally separate carbon fixation (day) and Calvin Cycle (night); use PEP carboxylase instead of Rubisco to fix CO2	55

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AP Biology Chapter 14/15 Flashcards

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5823091788	why did Mendel work with peas?	they are available in many varieties, short generation time, large number of offspring, and mendel could strictly control mating between plants	0
5823091789	character	a heritable feature that varies among individuals (flower color)	1
5823091790	trait	each variant for a character (purple flower color)	2
5823091791	how do pea plants usually mate?	self-pollination	3
5823091792	how did mendel achieve cross pollination?	by removing immature stamens of a plant before they produced pollen and then dusted pollen from another plant on the altered flowers	4
5823091793	true breeding plants	those that produce offspring of the same variety when they self pollunate	5
5823091794	hybridization	the crossing of two true breeding varieties	6
5823091795	P generation	the parent individuals from which offspring are derived in studies of inheritance	7
5823091796	F1 generation	the first hybrid offspring in a series of genetic crosses	8
5823091797	F2 generation	offspring resulting from allowing the F1 hybrids to self-pollunate	9
5823091798	mendel's two fundamental principles of heredity	law of segregation and law of independent assortment	10
5823091799	alleles	alternative versions of genes	11
5823091800	what are the three mendelian concepts?:	1. alleles account for variation in inherited characteristics 2.for each character, an organism gets two alleles one from each parent 3.the dominant allele determines an organisms appearance while the recessive has no effect	12
5823091801	law of segregation	the two alleles in a pair separate into different gametes during gamete formation	13
5823091802	law of segregation in chromosomes	the distribution of the two members of a homologous pair of chromosomes to different gametes in meiosis	14
5823091803	how are homozygous different from heterozygous?	unlike homozygous, heterozygous are not true breeding because they produce gametes with different alleles	15
5823091804	testcross	breeding an organism of unknown genotype with a recessive homozygote to reveal the genotype of that organism	16
5823091805	monohybrids	individuals heterozygous for one character	17
5823091806	dihybrids	individuals heterozygous for two characters	18
5823091807	law of independent assortment	each pair of alleles assorts independently of each other pair during gamete formation	19
5823091808	incomplete dominance	a phenotype somewhere between those of the two parental varieties (pink)	20
5823091809	codominance	when the two alleles are both equally expressed in the phenotype	21
5823091810	how is an allele dominant?	dominant and recessive alleles coexist but do not interact at all it is the pathway from genotype to phenotype that dominance and recessiveness come into play	22
5823091811	Tay-Sachs disease	when the brain cells of a child cannot metabolize certain lipids because an enzyme doesn't work, accumulation of these lipids causes problems	23
5823091812	pleiotropy	genes with multiple phenotypic effects	24
5823091813	what are two situations where two or more genes are involved in determining a particular phenotype?	epistasis and polygenic inheritance	25
5823091814	epistasis	a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus	26
5823091815	polygenic inheritance	an effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character seen in quantitative characters or those that range	27
5823091817	multifactorial	referring to a phenotypic character that is influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors	28
5823091818	what does an allele that codes for a genetic disorder do?	it codes either for a malfunctioning protein or for no protein at all	29
5823091819	what type of mating is more likely to result in offspring homozygous for a recessive trait?	people with recent common ancestors	30
5823091820	cystic fibrosis	a recessive allele genetic disorder for a chloride channel protein, characterized by excessive mucus and vulnerability to infection	31
5823091821	sickle cell disease	a recessive allele genetic disorder that results in the substitution of a single amino acid in a globin polypeptide that is part of a hemoglobin protein, characterized by deformed red blood cells with numerous symptoms	32
5823091822	how do all lethal alleles arise?	mutation in cells that produce sperm or eggs	33
5823091823	huntingtons disease	a dominant allele genetic disorder, characterized by uncontrollable body movements and degeneration of the nervous system	34
5823091824	some diseases are not simple mendelian disorders, rather...	multifactorial and the hereditary component is polygenic	35
5823091825	amniocentesis	a technique of prenatal diagnosis in which amniotic fluid is analyzed to detect certain genetic and congenital defects in the fetus	36
5823091826	chorionic villus sampling	acquiring a tiny sample of tissue from the placenta which have the same genotype as the individual and can be karyotyped	37
5823091827	what are imaging techniques used to see major anatomical abnormalities in a fetus?	ultrasound (sound waves to produce a fetus image) fetoscopy (a tube to transmit light is inserted into uterus)	38
5823091828	Mendel's heritable factors	genes located on chromosomes	39
5823091829	chromosome theory of inheritance	states that genes are located on specific spots on chromosomes and the chromosomes undergo segregation and independent assortment	40
5823091830	What animal did Thomas Hunt Morgan choose to study and why?	the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster because they produce hundreds of offspring, their generation span is 2 weeks, they only have four pairs of chromosomes	41
5823091831	wild type	phenotype for a character most commonly observed in natural populations	42
5823091832	mutant phenotypes	traits that are alternatives to the wild type	43
5823091833	what did morgan's work support?	the chromosome theory of inheritance, specifically that a specific gene is carried on a specific chromosome	44
5823091834	homologous regions on X and Y chromosomes	short segments at either end of the Y chromosome are the only regions that are homologous with corresponding regions of the X	45
5823091835	egg and sperm containing chromosomes	egg= contains one X chromosome sperm= half contains an X and half contain a Y chromosome	46
5823091836	sex-linked gene	a gene located on either sex chromosome	47
5823091837	fathers can pass sex linked alleles to: mothers can pass sex linked alleles to:	:only daughters :sons or daughters	48
5823091838	Duchenne muscular dystrophy	a sex linked recessive genetic disease, characterized by progressive weakening and a loss of muscle tissue	49
5823091839	Hemophilia	a sex linked recessive disorder defined by the absence of one or more of the proteins required for blood clotting	50
5823091840	why do females not make double the amount of proteins encoded by genes on the X chromosome than males do?	one X chromosome in each cell in females becomes almost completely inactivated during embryonic development	51
5823091841	Barr body	the inactive X in each cell of a female condenses into a compact object called this which lies along the inside of the nuclear envelope	52
5823091842	linked genes	genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together in genetic crosses	53
5823091843	genetic recombination	the production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent	54
5823091844	how do you conclude that genes are on the same chromosome?	a higher proportion of parental types than would be expected of independent assortment (more than 50%)	55
5823091845	parental types	an offspring with a phenotype that matches one of the parental phenotypes	56
5823091846	recombinant types or recombinants	an offspring whose phenotype differs from that of the parents	57
5823091847	crossing over	accounts for the recombination of linked genes	58
5823091848	genetic map	an ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome	59
5823091849	what did Sturtevant discover?	the farther apart two genes are on a chromosome the higher the probability that a crossover will occur between them and therefore the higher the recombination frequency	60
5823091850	linkage map	a genetic map based on recombination frequencies	61
5823091851	map units/ centimorgans	the units Sturtevant used to express the distances between genes (equal to 1% recombination frequency)	62
5823091852	cytogenetic map	locates genes with respect to chromosomal features	63
5823091853	nondisjunction	when the members of a pair of homologous chromosomes do not move apart properly during meiosis 1 or sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis 2, this results in one gamete receiving two of the same type of chromosomes and another receiving none	64
5823091854	aneuploidy	a chromosomal abnormality in which one or more chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number	65
5823091855	monosomic	referring to a cell that has only one copy of a particular chromosome instead of the normal two	66
5823091856	trisomic	referring to a diploid cell that has three copies of a particular chromosome instead of the normal two	67
5823091857	polyploidy	a chromosomal alteration in which the organism possesses more than two complete chromosome sets, it is the result of an accident of cell division	68
5823091858	errors in meiosis or damaging agents such as radiation can cause breakage of a chromosome which can lead to what four types of changes in chromosome structure?	-deletion -duplication -inversion -translocation	69
5823091859	deletion	occurs when a chromosomal fragment is lost thus the chromosome is missing genes	70
5823091860	duplication	if a deleted fragment becomes attached as an extra segment to a sister chromatid or a nonsister chromatid carrying different alleles for certain genes	71
5823091861	inversion	a chromosomal fragment may also reattach to the original chromosome but in the reverse orientation	72
5823091862	translocation	nonhomolgous chromosomes exchange fragments	73
5823091865	syndrome	genetic disorders caused by aneuploidy that can be diagnosed before birth by fetal testing	74
5823091866	Down syndrome	a human genetic disease caused by the presence of an extra chromosome 21, characterized by mental retardation and heart and respiratory defects	75
5823091867	nondisjunction of sex chromosomes produces a variety of aneuploid conditions:	-Klinefelter syndrome= extra x chromosome (male sex organs but female characteristics) -extra Y chromosome in males (taller than average) -extra X chromosome in females (normal in phenotype) -Turner syndrome=one x (phenotypically female but sex organs do not mature)	76
5823091868	deletion in human chromosomes	cause severe problems such as cri du chat	77
5823091869	translocations in human chromosomes	implicated certain cancers such as chronic myelogenous leukemia (translocation in white blood cells with the philadelphia chromosome)	78
5823091870	genomic imprinting	when the expression of an allele in offspring depends on whether the allele is inherited from the male or female parent	79
5823091871	how are the imprints transmitted to all the body cells after occurring during the formation of gametes?	during development so either the maternal or paternal allele of a given imprinted gene is expressed in every cell of that organism	80
5823091872	in a given species, the imprinted genes..	are always imprinted in the same way	81
5823091873	what exactly is a genomic imprint?	a methyl group added to cytosine nucleotides of one of the alleles either silencing it or activating it	82
5823091874	where are genes located?	-nuclear chromosomes -extranuclear or cytoplasmic genes in the mitochondria and chloroplasts	83
5823091875	extranuclear or cytoplasmic genes	are not distributed to offspring according to the same rules that direct the distribution of nuclear chromosomes during meiosis (do not display mendelian inheritance)	84

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