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AP Biology Unit 1 Flashcards

Unit 1 from the textbook Campbell Reece Biology, by chapter, in the order they appear.
Unit name: The Chemistry of Life
Unit pages: 32-91
Chapters: 2-5

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7278414386	matter	anything that takes up space and has mass	0
7278414387	element	any substance that cannot be broken down to any other substance	1
7278414388	compound	a substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio	2
7278414389	trace element	an element indispensable for life but required in extremely minute amounts	3
7278414390	atom	the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element	4
7278414391	neutron	an electrically neutral particle (a particle having no electrical charge), found in the nucleus of an atom	5
7278414392	proton	a subatomic particle with a single positive electrical charge, found in the nucleus of an atom	6
7278414393	electron	a subatomic particle with a single negative charge. One or more electrons move around the nucleus of an atom	7
7278414394	atomic nucleus	an atom's central core, containing protons and neutrons	8
7278414395	dalton	a measure of mass for atoms and subatomic particles	9
7278414396	atomic number	the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, unique for each element and designated by a subscript to the left of the elemental symbol	10
7278414397	mass number	the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus	11
7278414398	atomic mass	the total mass of an atom, which is the mass in grams of one mole of the atom	12
7278414399	isotope	one of several atomic forms of an element, each containing a different number of neutrons and thus differing in atomic mass	13
7278414400	radioactive isotope	an isotope (an atomic form of a chemical element) that is unstable; the nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off detectable particles and energy	14
7278414401	energy	the capacity to do work (to move matter against an opposing force)	15
7278414402	potential energy	the energy stored by matter as a result of its location or spatial arrangement	16
7278414403	energy level	any of several different states of potential energy for electrons in an atom	17
7278414404	electron shell	an energy level represented as the distance of an electron from the nucleus of an atom	18
7278414405	periodic table of the elements	a chart of the chemical elements, arranged in three rows, corresponding to the number of electron shells in their atoms	19
7278414406	valence electron	an electron in the outermost electron shell	20
7278414407	valence shell	the outermost energy shell of an atom, containing the valence electrons involved in the chemical reactions of that atom	21
7278414408	orbital	the three-dimensional space where an electron is found 90% of the time	22
7278414409	chemical bond	an attraction between two atoms, resulting from a sharing of outer-shell electrons or the presence of opposite charges on the atoms. The bonded atoms gain complete outer electron shells	23
7278414410	covalent bond	a type of strong chemical bond in which two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons	24
7278414411	molecule	two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds	25
7278414412	structural formula	a type of molecular notation in which the constituent atoms are joined by lines representing covalent bonds	26
7278414413	molecular formula	a type of molecular notation indicating only the quantity of the constituent atoms	27
7278414414	valence	the bonding capacity of an atom, generally equal to the number of unpaired electrons in the atom's outermost shell	28
7278414415	electronegativity	the attraction of an atom for the electrons of a covalent bond	29
7278414416	nonpolar covalent bond	a type of covalent bond in which electrons are shared equally between two atoms of similar electronegativity	30
7278414417	polar covalent bond	a covalent bond between atoms that differ in electronegativity. The shared electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom, making it slightly negative and the other atom slightly positive	31
7278414418	ion	an atom that has gained or lost electrons, thus acquiring a charge	32
7278414419	cation	an ion with a positive charge, produced by the loss of one or more electrons	33
7278414420	anion	a negatively charged ion	34
7278414421	ionic bond	a chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions	35
7278414422	ionic compound	a compound resulting from the formation of an ionic bond; also called a salt	36
7278414423	salt	a compound resulting from the formation of an ionic bond; also called an ionic compound	37
7278414424	hydrogen bond	a type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule	38
7278414425	van der Waals interactions	weak attractions between molecules or parts of molecules that are brought about by localized charge fluctuations	39
7278414426	chemical reaction	a process leading to chemical changes in matter; involves the making and/or breaking of chemical bonds	40
7278414427	reactant	a starting material in a chemical reaction	41
7278414428	product	an ending material in a chemical reaction	42
7278414429	chemical equilibrium	in a reversible chemical reaction, the point at which the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction	43
7278414430	polar molecule	a molecule (such as water) with opposite charges on opposite sides	44
7278414431	cohesion	the binding together of like molecules, often by hydrogen bonds	45
7278414432	adhesion	the attraction between different kinds of molecules	46
7278414433	surface tension	a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. Water has a high surface tension because of the hydrogen bonding of surface molecules	47
7278414434	kinetic energy	the energy of motion, which is directly related to the speed of that motion. Moving matter does work by imparting motion to other matter	48
7278414435	heat	the total amount of kinetic energy due to molecular motion in a body of matter. Heat is energy in its most random form	49
7278414436	temperature	a measure of the intensity of heat in degrees, reflecting the average kinetic energy of the molecules	50
7278414437	Celsius scale	a temperature scale (°C) equal to 5/9 (°F - 32) that measures the freezing point of water at 0°C and the boiling point of water at 100°C	51
7278414438	calorie (cal)	the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C; also the amount of heat energy that 1 g of water releases when it cools by 1°C. The Calorie (with a capital C), usually used to indicate the energy content of food, is a kilocalorie	52
7278414439	kilocalorie (kcal)	a thousand calories; the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C	53
7278414440	joule (J)	a unit of energy: 1 J = 0.239 cal; 1 cal = 4.184 J	54
7278414441	specific heat	the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of a substance to change its temperature by 1°C	55
7278414442	heat of evaporation	the quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g of it to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state	56
7278414443	evaporative cooling	the property of a liquid whereby the surface becomes cooler during evaporation, owing to a loss of highly kinetic molecules to the gaseous state	57
7278414444	solution	a liquid that is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances	58
7278414445	solvent	the dissolving agent of a solution. Water is the most versatile solvent known	59
7278414446	solute	a substance that is dissolved in a solution	60
7278414447	aqueous solution	a solution in which water is the solvent	61
7278414448	hydration shell	the sphere of water molecules around each dissolved ion	62
7278414449	hydrophilic	having an affinity for water	63
7278414450	colloid	a mixture made up of a liquid and particles that (because of their large size) remain suspended in that liquid. See large intestine	64
7278414451	hydrophobic	having an aversion to water; tending to coalesce and form droplets in water	65
7278414452	molecular mass	the sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule; sometimes called molecular weight	66
7278414453	mole (mol)	the number of grams of a substance that equals its molecular weight in daltons and contains Avogadro's number of molecules	67
7278414454	molarity	a common measure of solute concentration, referring to the number of moles of solute per liter of solution	68
7278414455	hydrogen ion	a single proton with a charge of 1+. The dissociation of a water molecule (H2O) leads to the generation of a hydroxide ion (OH-) and a hydrogen ion (H+)	69
7278414456	hydroxide ion	a water molecule that has lost a proton (OH-)	70
7278414457	acid	a substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution	71
7278414458	base	a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution	72
7278414459	pH	a measure of hydrogen ion concentration equal to -log [H+] and ranging in value from 0 to 14	73
7278414460	buffer	a substance that consists of acid and base forms in a solution and that minimizes changes in pH when extraneous acids or bases are added to the solution	74
7278414461	acid precipitation	rain, snow, or fog that is more acidic than pH 5.6	75
7278414462	organic chemistry	the study of carbon compounds (organic compounds)	76
7278414463	hydrocarbon	an organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen	77
7278414464	isomer	one of several organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and therefore different properties. The three types of isomers are structural isomers, geometric isomers, and enantiomers	78
7278414465	structural isomer	one of several organic compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms	79
7278414466	geometric isomer	one of several organic compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the spatial arrangements of their atoms	80
7278414467	cis	arrangement of two noncarbon atoms, each bound to one of the carbons in a carbon-carbon double bond, where the two noncarbon atoms are on the same side relative to the double bond	81
7278414468	trans	arrangement of two noncarbon atoms, each bound to one of the carbons in a carbon-carbon double bond, where the two noncarbon atoms are on opposite sides relative to the double bond	82
7278414469	enantiomer	one of two molecules that are mirror images of each other	83
7278414470	functional group	a specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and usually involved in chemical reactions	84
7278414471	hydroxyl group	a functional group consisting of a hydrogen atom joined to an oxygen atom by a polar covalent bond (--OH). Molecules possessing this group are soluble in water and are called alcohols	85
7278414472	carbonyl group	a functional group present in aldehydes and ketones and consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom (--CO)	86
7278414473	carboxyl group	a functional group present in organic acids and consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group (--COOH)	87
7278414474	amino group	a functional group that consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms (--NH2); can act as a base in solution, accepting a hydrogen ion and acquiring a charge of 1+	88
7278414475	sulfhydryl group	a functional group consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom (--SH)	89
7278414476	phosphate group	a functional group important in energy transfer (--OPO3-2)	90

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AP Biology Cell Transport Sipe Flashcards

This is for AP Biology and is about cell transport.

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5957243212	Selectively Permeable	a property of cell membranes that allows some substances to pass through, while others cannot	0
5957243213	Phospholipid Bilayer	double layer of phospholipids that makes up plasma and organelle membranes	1
5957243214	Integral Proteins	penetrate the hydrophobic core and often span the membrane	2
5957243215	Peripheral Proteins	Bound to the inner or outer surfaces of the membrane and are easily separated from it.	3
5957243216	Glycoproteins	proteins that have carbohydrates covalently bonded to them, often for self vs foreign recognition	4
5957243218	Passive Transport	any transport that does not require the cell to expend energy (always from a high to low concentration)	5
5957243219	Active Transport	energy-requiring process where a substance moves against the concentration gradient (low to high concentration)	6
5957243220	Diffusion	net movement of a substance down a concentration gradient (high to low)	7
5957243221	Facilitated Diffusion	diffusion of solutes across a membrane, with the help of transport proteins	8
5957243222	Osmosis	diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane	9
5957243223	Hypertonic	solute concentration is greater than inside the cell, cell loses water	10
5957243224	Hypotonic	solute concentrations in less than inside the cell, cell gains water	11
5957243225	Isotonic	solute concentrations are the same on both sides of the membrane, cell does not gain or lose water	12
5957243226	Sodium-Potassium Pump	actively pumps Na+ ions out and K+ ions in, 3 Na leave for every 2 K that enter	13
5957243227	Proton Pump	pumps (H+ ions) out of the cell, creating a proton gradient, protons then diffuse back into the cell, this is used to power the production of ATP	14
5957243228	Contransport	process where single ATP-powered pump actively transports one solute out and indirectly drives the transport of other solutes in (against their concentration gradient)	15
5957243229	Exocytosis	exporting materials by fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane	16
5957243230	Endocytosis	importing materials by forming vesicles derived from plasma membrane	17
5957243231	Phagocytosis	part of the cell membrane engulfs LARGE particles or entire cells (cell eating)	18
5957243232	Pinocytosis	part of the cell membrane engulfs SMALL dissolved substances or fluid droplets in vesicles (cell drinking)	19
5957243233	Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis	importing of specific macromolecules by receptor proteins bind to a specific ligand which triggers the inward budding of vesicles formed from coated pits	20
5957243234	Ligands	molecule that binds to the specific receptor site on another molecule	21
5957243236	Fluid Mosaic Model	states that the membrane is a fluid structure with a mosaic of various proteins embedded in it	22
5957243237	Cholesterol	found in the cell membrane and contributes fluidity, less fluid at warmer temperatures, more fluid at lower temperatures	23
5957243238	Transport Proteins	allow passage of hydrophilic/polar substances across the membrane	24
5957243239	Concentration Gradient	spectrum of ion concentration. Ions tend to move from high concentration to low concentration	25
5957243240	Turgor Pressure	outward force exerted by the water-filled central vacuoule. The cell becomes firm	26
5957243241	Gated Channels	protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus	27
5957243242	Aquaporins	proteins that facilitate the passage of water into a cell	28
5957243244	plasmolysis	As a plant cell loses water, it shrivels, and its plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall	29
5957243245	crenation	Condition wherein animal cells decrease in size, shrivel and wrinkle, and are no longer functional when in a hypertonic solution	30
5957243248	water potential		31
5967297660	alpha-helix protein	specific spiraled protein that spans the membrane and is involved in receptor function	32
5967320525	plasmodesmata	cell to cell connection in plants that allows movement of water and other materials	33
5967350374	unsaturated fatty acid tails	double carbon bond results in a "bent" structure that provides FLUIDITY to the cell membrane.	34

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AP Biology Chapter 53 Flashcards

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7414753219	Density	the number of individuals per unit area or volume	0
7414753220	Dispersion	the pattern of spacing of those individuals	1
7414753221	Mark-Recapture Method	A sampling technique used to estimate wildlife populations.	2
7414753222	Immigration	Migration to a new location	3
7414753223	Emigration	Migration from a location	4
7414753224	Clumping Distribution	aggregrate in noticeable but irregular groups (schools of fish, flocks of birds, fungi)	5
7414753225	Uniform Distribution	Distribution where populations are spaced evenly (plant/animals)	6
7414753226	Random Distribution	spacing between individuals is irregular (dandelions)- not common in nature	7
7414753227	Demography	the scientific study of population characteristics (what affect population size over time)	8
7414753228	Life Table	An age-specific summary of the survival pattern of a population.	9
7414753229	Cohort	A group of individuals of the same age of the same population	10
7414753230	Survivorship Curve	shows the number of proportion of members of a cohort still alive at each age	11
7414753231	Survivorship Curve Type I	Low mortality during early age and middle age and a rapid increase with old age (humans)	12
7414753232	Survivorship Curve Type II	Death is relatively constant throughout the life span (squirrels)	13
7414753233	Survivorship Curve Type III	has high initial mortality with the few offspring that survive likely to reach adulthood (oysters)	14
7414753234	Reproductive Table	an age-specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population	15
7414753235	Zero Population Growth	occurs when the birth rate equals the death rate	16
7414753236	Exponential Population Growth	The geometric increase of a population as it grows in an ideal, unlimited environment. (unlimited food, no competition or predators, can reproduce as they want)	17
7414753237	Carrying Capacity (K)	Largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support	18
7414753238	Logistic Population Growth	Population growth that levels off as population size approaches carrying capacity.	19
7414753239	Life History	Traits that affect an organism's schedule of reproduction and survival. (age of sexual maturation, how often produce, # of offspring during each event)	20
7414753240	Semelparity	Big-bang reproduction, once, survival rate of offspring low, many produced at once, individuals die less afterwards, less stable environments (salmon, octopus)	21
7414753241	Iteroparity	Repeated reproduction, adults produce large number of offspring many times over years, more stable environments, provide better for offspring	22
7414753242	Density Independent	a birth rate or a death rate that does not change as population density changes (population doesn't matter) (natural disasters)	23
7414753243	Density Dependent	if death rate rises with increasing population density, the birth rate is dependent if it falls with increasing population density (population does matter) (predation, disease, competition, territoriality, waste accumulation, physiological factors)	24
7414753244	Population Dynamics	the study of the variations in population size and the biotic and abiotic factors that cause them	25
7414753245	Metapopulation	a group of populations occupying separated suitable habitats may be linked through immigration and emigration	26
7414753246	Demographic Transition	change in a population from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates	27
7414753247	Age Structure	number of males and females of each age in a population	28
7414753248	Ecological Footprint	measure of human impact on Earth's ecosystems. It's typically measured in area of wilderness or amount of natural capital consumed each year.	29
7414985593	Population	group of individuals of a single species living in same general area- rely on same resources, influenced by same environment factors, high likely hood of interacting and breeding	30
7414994968	Natality	birthrate	31
7415048009	K-selection (density-dependent)	Selection for life history traits that are sensitive to population density (humans, elephants) (pop close to K)	32
7415054839	R-selection (density-independent)	selection for life history traits that maximize reproductive success in uncrowded environments (cockroaches, bacteria) (max reproductive success)	33

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AP Biology: Evolution Chapter 22/23/26 Flashcards

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7860967315	homologous structures	structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry	0
7860967316	vestigial structures	remnants of features that served important functions in the the organism's ancestors	1
7860967317	convergent evolution	the independent evolution of similar features in different lineages	2
7860967318	Hardy-Weinberg	the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population will remain constant from generation to generation, provided that only Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles are at work	3
7860967319	gene pool	the aggregate of all of the alleles for all of the loci in individuals in a population	4
7860967320	population	a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and interbreed, producing fertile offspring	5
7860967321	natural selection	a process in which organisms with certain inherited characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce than are organisms with other characteristics	6
7860967322	genetic drift	changes in the gene pool due to random events	7
7860967323	founder effect	when a individuals become isolated from a larger population, this smaller group may establish a new population whose gene pool differs from the source population	8
7860967324	bottleneck effect	when there is a severe drop in population size, certain alleles may be overrepresented among the survivors, others may be underrepresented, and some may be absent altogether	9
7860967325	gene flow	the transfer of alleles into or out of a population due to the movement of fertile individuals or their gametes	10
7860967326	directional selection	when conditions favor individuals exhibiting one extreme of a phenotypic range, thereby shifting the frequency curve for the phenotypic character in one direction or the other	11
7860967327	disruptive selection	when conditions favor individuals at both extremes of a phenotypic range over individuals with intermediate phenotypes	12
7860967328	stabilizing selection	acts against both extreme phenotypes and favors intermediate variants	13
7860967329	sexual selection	a form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates	14
7860967330	sexual dimorphism	marked differences between the two sexes in secondary sexual characteristics, which are not directly associated with reproduction or survival (differences in size, color, ornamentation, and behavior)	15
7860967331	diploidy	the state of being diploid, that is having two sets of chromosomes	16
7860967332	heterozygote advantage	when individuals who are heterozygous at a particular locus have greater fitness than do both kind of homozygous	17
7860967333	frequency-dependent selection	fitness of a phenotype declines if it becomes too common in the population	18
7860967334	speciation	the process by which one species splits into two or more species	19
7860967335	microevolution	changes over time in allele frequencies in a population	20
7860967336	macroevolution	the broad pattern of evolution over long time spans	21
7860967337	species	a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring- but do not produce viable, fertile offspring with members of other such groups	22
7860967338	reproductive isolation	the existance of biological barriers that impede members of two species from producing viable offspring	23
7860967339	hybrids	offspring that result from interspecific mating	24
7860967340	prezygotic barriers	impede mating or hinder fertilization if mating occurs (five types: habitat, temporal, behavioral, mechanical, gametic)	25
7860967341	post zygotic barriers	prevents hybrid zygote from developing into a viable fertile adult through reducing hybrid viability, reducing hybrid fertility, or hybrid breakdown	26
7860967342	allopatric speciation	gene flow is interrupted when a population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations	27
7860967343	sympatric speciation	speciation occurs in populations that live in the same geographic area (usually occurs due to polyploidy, habitat differentiation, and sexual selection)	28
7860967344	polyploidy	extra sets of chromosomes due to accidents during cell division	29
7860967345	punctuated equilibrium	the theory that in the evolution there are long periods of little morphological change punctuated by relatively short periods of significant change	30
7860967346	endosymbiosis	mitochondria and chloroplasts were formally small prokaryotes that began living within larger cells	31
7860967347	adaptive radiation	Period of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill vacant ecological roles in their communities	32
7860967348	homeotic genes	master regulatory genes that determine such basic features as where a pair of wings and a pair of legs will develop on a bird or how a plant's flower parts are arranged	33
7860967349	phylogeny	the evolutionary history of a species or group of species	34
7860967350	systematics	study and classification of biodiversity and determining their evolutionary relationships	35
7860967351	phylogenetic tree	evolutionary history of a group of organisms represented in a branching diagram	36
7860967352	analogy	similarity due to convergent evolution	37
7860967353	homology	similarity due to shared ancestry	38
7860967354	clade	a group of species which includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants	39
7860967355	outgroup	a species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that includes the species we are studying	40
7860967356	maximum parsimony (Ockham's Theory)	a principle that states that when considering multiple explanations for an observation, one should first investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts	41
7860967357	Darwin's Theory (five parts)	1. Variation 2. Overproduction 3. Competition 4. Survival of the fittest 5. Overtime, emergence of new species (new alleles)	42
7860967358	Cryptic species	Species which look almost identical but that are very different in other traits	43
7860967359	Monophyletic	A branch on a phylogenetic tree that contains all decscendants of a common ancestor	44
7860967360	Abiogenesis	origin of life from nonliving matter	45
7860967361	abiotic synthesis	formation of organic molecules from inorganic material	46
7860967362	ozone shield	protect organisms from harmful UV rays	47
7860967363	geologic timescale	division of the history of Earth into eras, periods and epochs	48
7860967364	extinction	total disappearance of all members of a species	49
7860967365	mass extinction	total disappearance of a large number a species within a few million years	50
7860967366	extant	still in existance	51
7860967367	fitness	ability to produce surviving offspring	52
7860967368	morphological species concept	new species differ by physical characteristics known as diagnostic traits	53
7860967369	evolutionary species concept	members of a species share distinct evolutionary pathway and common traits	54
7860967370	phylogenetic species concept	a family tree is used to identify species based on a common ancestor	55
7860967371	biological species concept	species are identified as separate because of reproductive isolation.	56
7860967372	plate tectonics	branch of geology which follows the movement of pieces of Earth's crust which float on a lower, hot mantle layer	57
7860967373	continental drift	change over time of the positions of the continents	58
7860967374	fossil	remains and traces of evidence of past life	59
7860967375	paleontology	study of the fossil record	60
7860967376	index fossils	fossils used to identify deposits made at apparently the same time in different parts of the world, used for relative dating	61
7860967377	absolute dating	relies on radiometric dating to assign an age to a fossil	62
7972266705	evolution	descent with modification	63
7972296031	strata	superimposed layers of sediment cover older layers of rock	64
7972311286	palentology	the study of fossils	65

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Chycota AP Biology: Cells Flashcards

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4949075248	prokaryotic cell	a simple cell with no nucleus and no membrane-bound organelles. Genetic material is found in the nucleoid.	0
4949075249	eukaryotic cell	a complex cell containing a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.	1
4949075250	plasma membrane	a selective barrier around a cell composed of a double layer of phospholipids.	2
4949075251	cell wall	a wall or barrier that functions to shape and protect cells. Present in all prokaryotes and plant cells.	3
4949075252	ribosomes	host organelle for protein synthesis in the cell, found in the cytoplasm and are composed of a large unit and a small subunit. In eukaryotes, there are ones bound to the rough ER.	4
4949075253	nucleolus	structure where eukaryotic ribosomes are built.	5
4949075254	smooth endoplasmic reticulum	a membrane-bound organelle involved in lipid synthesis, detoxification, and carbohydrate metabolism.	6
4949075255	rough endoplasmic reticulum	a membrane-bound organelle with ribosomes on the cytoplasmic surface. Proteins produced are secreted and carried by vesicles to the Golgi apparatus.	7
4949075256	Golgi apparatus	where proteins, lipids, and other macromolecules are sent to be modified by the addition of sugars and other molecules to form glycoproteins.	8
4949075257	Mitochondria	double-membraned organelles that specialize in the production of ATP.	9
4949075258	lysosome	a membrane-bound organelle that specializes in digestion. Contains enzymes that break down proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates.	10
4949075259	nucleus	the control center of the cell where, in eukaryotic cells, genetic material is store. Also contains the nucleolus.	11
4949075260	vacuole	a storage organelle that is very large in plant cells, but small in animal cells.	12
4949075261	peroxisomes	organelles containing enzymes that produce hydrogen peroxide as a by-product while performing various functions such as breakdown of fatty acids and detoxification of alcohol in the liver. Also contains an enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide into water.	13
4949075262	chloroplast	the site of photosynthesis and energy production in plant cells.	14
4949075265	mictrotubules	constructed from tubulin and have a lead role in the separation of cells during cell division.	15
4949075266	microfilaments	constructed from actin and play a big part in muscular contraction.	16
4949123842	nuclear envelope	Double membrane that surrounds the nucleus, perforated with pores that regulate traffic with the cytoplasm. The outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.	17
4949138915	cytoskeleton	Network of microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments that extends throughout the cytoplasm and serves a variety of mechanical, transport and signaling functions.	18
4949152322	centrosome	a structure present in the cytoplasm of animal cells that functions as a microtubule-organizing center and is important during cell division (has 2 centrioles).	19
4949175841	cilia	short appendages containing microtubules in eukaryotic cells. Functions include locomotion, movement, sensory or signaling.	20
4949201197	flagella	long appendage specialized for locomotion	21
4949215861	plasmodesmata	An open channel through the cell wall that connects the cytoplasm of adjacent plant cells, allowing water, small solutes, and some larger molecules to pass between cells.	22

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AP Biology Speciation Flashcards

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7879473256	Adaptive radiation	Period of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill vacant ecological roles in their communities Example: Hawaiian plants have spread into different habitats and formed new species with strikingly different adaptations.	0
7879473257	Allopatric Speciation	The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another Example: The water in a lake may subside, resulting in two or more smaller lakes that are now home to separated populations.	1
7879473258	Behavioral Isolation	Courtship rituals that attract mates and other behaviors unique to a species are effective reproductive barriers, even between closely related species. Example: Blue-footed boobies mate only after a courtship unique to their species.	2
7879473259	Gene Flow	The transfer of alleles from one population to another, resulting from the movement of fertile individuals or their gametes. Example: The migration of people throughout the world has increased the transfer of alleles between populations that once were isolated from one another.	3
7879473260	Geographic Isolation/Barrier	The separation of two populations of the same species by a physical barrier, such as a mountain or body of water Example: Antelope squirrels are on opposite rims of the Grand Canyon and are separated from each other	4
7879473261	Hybrid Breakdown	Some first-generation hybrids are viable and fertile, but hen they mate with one another or with either parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile Example: The hybrids of strains of cultivated rice carry too many recessive alleles, making them small and sterile.	5
7879473262	Hybrid fertility	Even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile. If chromosomes of the two parent species differ in number or structure, meiosis in the hybrids may fail to produce normal gametes. Since the infertile hybrids cannot produce offspring when they mate with either parent species, genes cannot flow freely between the species. Example: The hybrid offspring of a donkey and a horse is a mule, which is robust but sterile.	6
7879473263	Hybrid Viability	The genes of different parent species may interact in ways that impair the hybrid's development or survival in its environment. Example: Some salamander subspecies of the genus Ensatina live in the same regions and habitats, where they may occasionally hybridize. But most of the hybrids do not complete development, and those that do are frail.	7
7879473264	Mechanical Isolation	Mating is attempted, but morphological differences prevent its successful completion. Example: The shells of two species of snails spiral in different directions. As a result, the snails' genital openings are not aligned, and mating cannot be completed.	8
7879473265	Natural Selection	A process in which organisms with certain inherited characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce than are organisms with other characteristics Example: Giraffes have adapted long necks because the trait of having a long neck is necessary for survival to obtain food from trees.	9
7879473266	Polyploidy	A chromosomal alteration in which the organism possesses more than two complete chromosome sets. It is the result of an accident of cell division. Example: Polyploid bananas contain no seeds, as do other polyploidy seedless plants.	10
7879473267	Post Zygotic Barrier(s) / Isolation	If a sperm cell from one species overcomes prezygotic barriers and fertilizes ovum from another species, a variety of barriers may contribute to isolation after the hybrid zygote is formed. Example: Developmental errors may reduce survival among hybrid embryos. The hybrid offspring of a donkey and a horse is a mule, which is robust but sterile.	11
7879473268	Prezygotic Barrier(s) / Isolation	Block fertilization from occurring by impeding members of different species from attempting to mate, by preventing an attempted mating from being successfully completed, or by hindering fertilization if mating is completed successfully. Example: Blue-footed boobies mate only after a courtship unique to their species.	12
7879473269	Reproductive Barrier / Isolation	The existence of biological factors that impede members of two species from producing viable, fertile offspring. Example: The shells of two species of snails spiral in different directions. As a result, the snails' genital openings are not aligned, and mating cannot be completed.	13
7879473270	Species	A population or group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring, but do not produce viable, fertile offspring with members of other such groups. Example: Humans	14
7879473271	Sympatric Speciation	The formation of new species in populations that live in the same geographic area Example: The ancestors of apple maggot flies laid their eggs only on hawthorns; however, today, these flies lay eggs on hawthorns (which are native to America) and domestic apples (which were introduced to America by immigrants and bred). Females generally choose to lay their eggs on the type of fruit they grew up in, and males tend to look for mates on the type of fruit they grew up in. So hawthorn flies generally end up mating with other hawthorn flies and apple flies generally end up mating with other apple flies.	15
7879473272	Temporal Isolation	Species that breed during different times of the day, different seasons, or different years cannot mix their gametes. Example: In North America, the geographic ranges of the eastern spotted skunk and the western spotted skunk overlap, but the eastern spotted skunk mates in late winter and the western spotted skunk mates in late summer.	16

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AP Biology: Chapter 9 Flashcards

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10276658373	aerobic	Chemical reactions that require the presence of oxygen	0
10276658375	anaerobic	process that does not require oxygen	1
10276658376	ATP synthase	protein structure in cell mitochondria that uses energy from H+ ions to convert ADP to ATP	2
10276658377	beta oxidation	reaction that converts fatty acid molecules to acetyl CoA. The CoA then enters the Krebs cycle to produce ATP energy	3
10276658378	cellular respiration	Breaking down glucose to provide energy for the cell; occurs in the mitochondria in eukaryotes	4
10276658379	chemiosmosis	the generation of ATP energy by the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane during cellular respiration or photosynthesis	5
10276658382	electron transport chain	A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons down a series of redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP.	6
10276658383	facultative anaerobe	organism that can survive with or without oxygen	7
10276658384	fermentation	a metabolic process that consumes sugar in the absence of oxygen. The products are organic acids, gases, or alcohol	8
10276658385	glycolysis	a process by which glucose, a sugar, is broken down into smaller molecules	9
10276678824	Krebs cycle	the sequence of reactions by which most living cells generate energy during the process of aerobic respiration. It takes place in the mitochondria, consuming oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water as waste products, and converting ADP to energy-rich ATP.	10
10276658386	lactic acid fermentation	the chemical breakdown of carbohydrates that produces lactic acid as the main end product	11
10276658387	NAD+	electron carrier involved in glycolysis	12
10276658388	oxidation	(in a redox reaction) Losing electrons, losing H, gaining O	13
10276658391	proton-motive force	The potential energy stored in the form of a proton electrochemical gradient, generated by the pumping of hydrogen ions (H+) across a biological membrane during chemiosmosis.	14
10276658392	redox reaction	A chemical reaction involving the complete or partial transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another	15
10276658393	reducing agent	The electron donor in a redox reaction.	16
10276658394	reduction	(in a redox reaction) Gaining electrons, gaining H, losing O	17
10276658395	substrate-level phosphorylation	the formation of ATP by the direct transfer of a phosphate group from a substrate to ADP	18

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AP Biology Chemistry of Life Flashcards

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7230966466	What are characteristics of organic compounds?	they must contain Carbon and Hydrogen, they have covalent bonds and are usually large.	0
7230966467	What are characteristics of inorganic compounds?	They do not contain both carbon and hydrogen, they are usually small and ionic.	1
7230966468	What is the difference between cohesion and adhesion?	Cohesion refers to the attraction water molecules have for other water molecules due to hydrogen bonds, while adhesion refers to the attraction water molecules have toward other substances, such as glass.	2
7230966469	Neutralization	When an acid is added to a base. Salt and water are produced as a result.	3
7230966470	What does the pH scale measure?	The concentration of H+ ions.	4
7230966471	What do acids donate to bases?	H+ ions.	5
7230966472	Why is pH important for living things?	Because proteins (especially enzymes) change their shape if pH is not correct.	6
7230966473	What are buffers?	Chemicals that maintain a constant pH and act as acids in a base (donate H+ ions) and act as bases in an acid (accept H+ ions). ex: Bicarbonate	7
7230966474	Examples of inorganic compounds	Salts and water	8
7230966475	Examples of organic compounds	Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids	9
7230966476	Functional Group-Alcohol	-OH	10
7230966477	Functional Group-Methyl	-CH3 (only non polar organic functional group)	11
7230966478	Functional Group-Amino	-NH2 (basic)	12
7230966479	Functional Group-Carboxyl	-COOH (Acidic)	13
7230966480	Functional Group-Phosphate	H2PO4	14
7230966481	Functional Group-Carbonyl	-C=O (double bond) Important in carbohydrates and energy reactions	15
7230966482	What is an aldehyde?	When the carbonyl is bonded to the #1 carbon in the carbohydrate.	16
7230966483	What is a ketone?	When the carbonyl is bonded to another carbon in the carbohydrate, other than the #1 carbon.	17
7230966484	What is the function of carbohydrates?	Short term energy storage	18
7230966485	What are structural isomers?	Compounds that have the same formula but different functional groups, ex:glucose and fructose.	19
7230966486	What are enatiomers?	Something that is a mirror image of another, ex: dextra (right) levo (left).	20
7230966487	What are the differences between alpha and beta glucose?	Alpha is where the -OH goes down and Beta is when the -OH goes up. Our bodies can only digest alpha glucose because enzymes cannot recognize the beta glucose (cellulose), therefore we do not digest beta.	21
7230966488	Maltose	Disaccharide formed from 2 glucose molecules- produced when starch breaks down	22
7230966489	Lactose	Disaccharide formed from glucose and galactose- found in milk	23
7230966490	Sucrose	Disaccharide formed from glucose and fructose (ketone)	24
7230966491	What are polymers?	A useful chemical made by many repeating units. Ex: starch, glycogen, cellulose	25
7230966492	What are polysaccharides?	Large polymers, "many sugars".	26
7230966493	Hydrolysis	Adding water to split a molecule.	27
7230966494	Dehydration Synthesis	Building sugars.	28
7230966495	What are the functions of carbohydrates?	Structure: cellulose (cell walls) or Chitin (antrhopods & fungi- makes exoskeleton) Energy Storage: starch (in plants) and glycogen (in animals)	29
7230966496	Starch	Contains 2 polymers, amylose and amylopectin.	30
7230966497	Glycogen	Same as amylopectin but larger and more branched- found in animals.	31
7230966498	What are Lipids?	Fats and oils. Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Long hydrocarbon tails. Made of fatty acids and glycerol. Do NOT form polymers. Less weight than carbs but more calories.	32
7230966499	What are the function of lipids?	Long term energy storage, concentrated energy.	33
7230966500	What are the "family groups" of lipids?	-Fats oils waxes -Phospholipids -Steroids	34
7230966501	Fats	-come from animals -usually saturated (only single bonds) -made of glycerol & fatty acid	35
7230966502	Esterification	Process in which fats are built	36
7230966503	Saturated Fats	-All carbons bonded to hydrogen -no C=C (double bonds) -solid at room temp. -contributes to cardiovascular disease (atherosclerosis) -long straight chains -mostly animal fats	37
7230966504	Unsaturated Fats	-contains at least one C=C double bond -plant and fish fats -vegetable oils -liquid at room temp because of kinks made from double bonds	38
7230966505	Phospholipids	Made of glycerol, 2 fatty acids and PO4(neg. charged). Found in cell membrane.	39
7230966506	Steroids	-all contain 4 fused carbon rings -different steroids created by attaching different functional groups to rings -different structure creates different structure ex: cholesterol, estrogen, testosterone	40
7230966507	Cholesterol	-found in all animal cell membranes -precursor of all other steroids -high levels contribute to cardiovascular disease	41
7230966508	Saponification	Alkaline (basic) hydrolysis of a fat- yields the salt of fatty acids (soap). Since soap has a hydrophobic end (fatty acid tails) and a hydrophillic end (salt part) they remove dirt (grease) and dissolve water.	42
7230966509	Hydrogenation	Converts oils (vegetable) into a more solid form by adding H2 to unsaturated oils	43
7230966510	Trans Fats	In the process of hydrogenation trans fats might be formed, they increase bad cholesterol, leading to heart disease	44
7230966511	Functions of proteins	Multipurpose Molecules -contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sometimes phosphorous or sulfur -enzymes -structure: keratin, collage, silk -carriers/transport: hemoglobin, aquaporins -receptors in membrane -defense:antibodies -movement: actin and myosin in muscle -storage: bean seed proteins: milk/casein, eggs/albuim	45
7230966512	Polypeptide	Protein polymer	46
7444324531	Nucleotide with Adenine		47

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AP Biology Unit 4.2 - DNA Structure Flashcards

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9000374256	DNA	A double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins.	0
9000374257	Chromatin	Uncondensed complex of DNA and histone proteins found during interphase of the cell cycle.	1
9000374258	Chromosome	Condensed complex of DNA and histone proteins found during mitosis of the cell cycle.	2
9000374259	Gene	A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific protein/trait	3
9000374260	Nucleic Acid	Class of biological macromolecules composed of the elements C, H, N, O, and P that carries genetic information. (DNA and RNA are examples)	4
9000374261	Deoxyribonucleic Acid	DNA stands for	5
9000374262	Ribonucleic Acid	RNA stands for	6
9000374263	Double-Helix	The shape of DNA; two strands of nucleotides wound about each other	7
9000374264	Sugar-Phosphate Backbone	The alternating chain of sugar and phosphate to which the DNA and RNA nitrogenous bases are attached; forms the sides of the DNA "ladder"	8
9000374265	Nucleotide	A building block of DNA, consisting of a five-carbon sugar, a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group.	9
9000374266	Deoxyribose	A five-carbon sugar that is a component of DNA nucleotides	10
9000374267	Ribose	A five-carbon sugar present in RNA	11
9000374268	Nitrogenous Bases	Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil: a component of DNA nucleotides	12
9000374269	Purines	Nitrogenous bases with a double-ring structure (adenine and guanine).	13
9000374270	Adenine	The base that pairs with Thymine in DNA	14
9000374271	Guanine	The base that pairs with Cytosine in DNA	15
9000374272	Pyrimidines	Nitrogenous bases with a single-ring structure (cytosine, thymine, and uracil).	16
9000374273	Cytosine	The base that pairs with Guanine in DNA	17
9000374274	Thymine	The base that pairs with Adenine in DNA	18
9000374275	Uracil	Nitrogen base that pairs with adenine in RNA (replaces thymine).	19

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AP Biology Unit 4.4: Protein Synthesis Flashcards

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9297011563	Gene	A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific protein or group of proteins; determines our traits	0
9297011564	Protein	An organic compound that is made of one or more chains of amino acids and that is a principal structural and functional component of all cells	1
9297011565	Amino Acid	The building blocks of proteins	2
9297011566	Nucleotide	A building block of DNA, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group.	3
9297011567	Nitrogenous Base	Part of a nucleotide; examples include cytosine, guanine, adenine, thymine (DNA only) and uracil (RNA only)	4
9297011568	Ribosome	Cytoplasmic organelles at which proteins are synthesized.	5
9297011569	DNA	A nucleic acid found in the nucleus of all living cells, which carries the organism's hereditary information in the form of genes.	6
9297011570	RNA	A type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); single-stranded.	7
9297011571	Messenger RNA	RNA molecule that carries copies of instructions for the assembly of amino acids into proteins from DNA to the cytoplasm of the cell.	8
9297011572	Ribosomal RNA	Type of RNA that combines with proteins to form ribosomes.	9
9297011573	Transfer RNA	Type of RNA molecule that transfers amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis.	10
9297011574	Transcription	Process whereby the DNA sequence in a gene is copied into mRNA by RNA polymerase.	11
9297011575	Translation	Process whereby genetic information coded in messenger RNA directs the formation of a specific protein at a ribosome in the cytoplasm.	12
9297011577	RNA Polymerase	Enzyme that links together the growing chain of RNA nucleotides during transcription using a DNA strand as a template	13
9297011578	Codon	A three-nucleotide sequence on mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid, start, or termination signal; the basic unit of the genetic code.	14
9297011579	Methionine	Amino acid coded for by the codon AUG; also used as a start signal for translation.	15
9297011580	Start Codon	On mRNA, the specific three-nucleotide sequence (AUG) to which an initiator tRNA molecule binds, starting translation of genetic information into a protein.	16
9297011581	Stop Codon	Codon that signals to ribosomes to stop translation.	17
9297011582	Anticodon	A triplet of nucleotide bases in transfer RNA that identifies the amino acid carried and binds to a complementary codon in messenger RNA during protein synthesis at a ribosome.	18
9297017809	Promoter	Specific region of a gene where RNA polymerase can bind and begin transcription	19
9297020264	Template Strand	The strand of DNA that the RNA polymerase uses as a guide to build complementary mRNA	20
9297021938	Transcription Initiation Complex	The completed assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase bound to a promoter.	21
9297027406	Transcription Factor	Proteins that mediate the binding of RNA polymerase to a promoter and the initiation of transcription	22
9297034630	5' Cap	Modified guanine nucleotide added to the 5' end of a pre-mRNA molecule.	23
9297040998	Poly(A) Tail	String of adenine nucleotides added to the 3' end of a eukaryotic mRNA after transcription.	24
9297044210	Exonuclease	An enzyme that cleaves nucleotides from either the 3' or the 5' ends of DNA or RNA	25
9297046876	RNA Splicing	The removal of noncoding portions (introns) of the RNA molecule after initial synthesis.	26
9297048787	Intron	Sequence of a eukaryotic gene's DNA that is not translated into a protein; removed during RNA processing	27
9297051969	Exon	Sequence of a gene's DNA that are transcribed into protein structures	28