| CourseNotes

AP Biology Chapter 25 Flashcards

8431821327	Analogy	Similarity between two species that is due to convergent evolution rather than to descent from a common ancestor with the same trait	0
8431821328	Binomial	The two-part latinized name of a species, consisting of genus and specific epithet	1
8431821329	Clade	Each evolutionary branch in a cladogram	2
8431821330	Cladistics	The analysis of how species may be grouped into clades	3
8431821331	Cladogram	A diagram depicting patterns of shared characteristics among species	4
8431821332	Class	the taxonomic category above order	5
8431821333	Domain	A taxonomic category above the kingdom level. The three domains are Archaea, Bacteria, and Eularya	6
8431821334	Family	the taxonomic category above genus	7
8431821335	Fossil Records	The chronicle of evolution over millions of years of geologic time engraved in the order in which fossils appear in rock strata	8
8431821336	Genus	A taxonomic category above the species level, designated by the first word of a species' two-part scientific name	9
8431821337	Homology	Similarity in characteristics resulting from a shared ancestor	10
8431821338	Homoplasy	Similar structure or molecular sequence that has evolved independently in two species	11
8431821339	In-group	In a cladistic study of evolutionary relationships among taxa of organisms, the group of taxa that is actually being analyzed	12
8431821340	Kingdom	A taxonomic category, the second broadest after domain	13
8431821341	Maximum likelihood	A principle that states that when considering multiple phylogentic hypotheses, one should take into account the one that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events, given certain rules about how DNA changes over time	14
8431821342	Maximum parsimony	A principle that states that when considering multiple explanations for an observation, one should first investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts	15
8431821343	Molecular clock	An evolutionary timing method based on the observation that at least some regions of genomes evolve at constant rates	16
8431821344	Molecular systematics	The comparison of nucleic acids or other molecules in different species to infer relatedness	17
8431821345	Monophyletic	Pertaining to a grouping of species consisting of an ancestral species and all of its descendants; a clade	18
8431821346	Neutral theory	The hypothesis that much evolutionary change in genes and proteins has no effect on fitness and therefore is not influences by natural selection	19
8431821347	Order	The taxonomic category above family	20
8431821348	Orthologous genes	Homologous genes that are passed in a straight line from one generation to the next, but have ended up in different gene pools because of speciation	21
8431821349	Out-group	A species or group of species that is closely related to the group of species that is closely related to the group of species being studied but clearly not as closely related as any study-group members are to each other	22
8431821350	Paralogous genes	Homologous genes that are found in the same genome due to gene duplication	23
8431821351	Paraphyletic	Pertaining to a grouping of species that consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of its decendants	24
8431821352	Phylogenetic tree	A branching diagram that represents a hypothesis about evolutionary relationships	25
8431821353	Phylogeny	The evolutionary history of a species or group of related species	26
8431821354	Phylogram	A phylogenetic tree in which the lengths of the branches reflect the number of genetic changes that have taken place in a particular DNA or RNA sequence in the various lineages	27
8431821355	Phylum	the taxonomic category above class	28
8431821356	Polyphyletic	Pertaining to a grouping of species derived from two or more different ancestral forms	29
8431821357	Shared derived character	An evolutionary novelty that evolved within a particular clade	30
8431821358	Shared primitive character	A character displayed in species outside a particular taxon	31
8431821359	Specific epithet	The second part of binomial, referring to one species within a genus	32
8431821360	Systematics	The analytical study of the diversity and relationships of organisms, both present day and extinct	33
8431821361	Taxon	The named taxonomic unit at any given level of classification	34
8431821362	Taxonomy	Ordered division of organisms into categories based on a set of characteristics used to assess similarities and differences, leading to a classification scheme; the branch of biology concerned with naming and classifying the diverse forms of life	35
8431821363	Ultrametric tree	A phylogenetic tree in which the lengths of the branches reflect measurements of geologic time	36

Powered by Quizlet.com

AP Biology Chapter 27 Flashcards

ch 27 for ap bio (bacteria)

Terms : Hide Images

9220125158	peptidoglycan	A polymer composed of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides. This molecular fabric encloses the entire bacterium and anchors other molecules that extend from its surface.	0
9220125159	Gram stain	A technique that allows scientists to categorize many bacterial species according to differences in cell wall composition.	1
9220125160	Gram-positive	These bacteria tend to have simpler walls with a relatively large amount of peptidoglycan.	2
9220125161	Gram-negative	These bacteria tend to have less peptidoglycan, are more structurally complex, with an outer membrane that contains lipopolysaccharides (carbohydrates bonded to lipids).	3
9220125162	capsule	A dense and well-defined sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein that surrounds the cell wall of many prokaryotes.	4
9220125163	fimbriae	hair-like appendages that allow prokaryotes to stick to their substrate or to one another.	5
9220125164	pili	Appendages that pull two cells together prior to DNA transfer from one cell to the other; tend to be longer and less numerous than fimbriae.	6
9220125165	nucleoid	A region of cytoplasm containing the prokaryote's genetic material; not enclosed by a membrane.	7
9220125166	plasmids	Smaller rings of independently replicating DNA molecules that only carry a few genes, found in prokaryotic cells, in addition to its single chromosome.	8
9220125167	transformation	The genotype and possibly phenotype of a prokaryotic cell are altered by the uptake of foreign DNA from its surroundings.	9
9220125168	transduction	Phages carry prokaryotic genes from one host cell to another.	10
9220125169	conjugation	DNA is transferred between two prokaryotic cells (usually of the same species) that are temporarily joined. In bacteria, the DNA transfer is always one-way: One cell donates the DNA, and the other receives it.	11

Powered by Quizlet.com

AP Biology Chapter 25 Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

7446014666	protocells	droplets with membranes that maintained an internal chemistry different from that of their surroundings, nonliving structures that are believed to have evolved into prokaryotes	0
7446014667	Oparin and Haldane	hypothesized early earth atmosphere composed of ammonia, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, water vapor, and methane; thought at high temperatures organic compounds could form -> when earth cooled compounds could be found in water + lightning/UV radiation -> chemical reaction -> proteins	1
7446014668	Miller and Urey	tested earlier scientist hypothesis in experiments that simulated conditions on early Earth in a closed system and produced a variety of amino acids.	2
7446014669	self-replicating RNA	A current leading hypothesis about the first system of inheritance in the earliest life forms involves_____.	3
7446014670	Ribozymes	catalytic RNA molecules that function as enzymes and can splice RNA	4
7446014671	Fossil record	a historical sequence of life indicated by fossils found in layers of the Earth's crust	5
7446014672	Paleontologists	scientists who study the fossil record.	6
7446014673	Relative Dating	Method of determining the age of a fossil by comparing its placement with that of fossils in other layers of rock. Oldest fossils are found in deepest strata.	7
7446014674	Radiometric Dating	a method of determining the absolute age of an object by comparing the relative percentages of a radioactive (parent) isotope and a stable (daughter) isotope	8
7446014675	Half-life	Length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay	9
7446014676	Prokaryotes	a microscopic single-celled organism that has neither a distinct nucleus with a membrane nor other specialized organelles. Include the bacteria and cyanobacteria. Earliest living organisms	10
7446014677	Aerobic	Containing oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process that requires oxygen.	11
7446014678	Anaerobic	Lacking oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process that lacks oxygen and may be poisoned by it	12
7446014679	Eukaryotes	Unicellular nonbacterial organisms bounded by a cell membrane and contains cytoplasm. cytoplasm contains organelles.appeared about 2.1 billion years ago.	13
7446014680	Endosymbiotic hypothesis	Explains the origin of eukaryotes from prokaryotes. The theory that mitochondria and plastids, including chloroplasts, originated as prokaryotic cells engulfed by an ancestral eukaryotic cell. The engulfed cell and its host cell then evolved into a single organism.	14
7446014681	Multicellular eukaryotes	organisms with many cells and true nucleus and membrane bound organelles. evolved about 1.2 billion years ago.	15
7446014682	Colonization of land	Plants, fungi and animals begin to appear. about 500 million years ago	16
7446014683	Continental drift	the gradual movement and formation of continents (as described by plate tectonics). Can help explain unique biogeography.	17
7446014684	Mass extintions	brief periods of times where a large number of species disappeared. global event from global environmental changes ( dinosaurs)	18
7446014685	Adaptive radiation	Divergent evolution in which ancestral species evolve into an array of species to fit a number of diverse habitats. Common after mass extinctions.	19
7446014686	Evo-devo	Evolutionary developmental biology; a field of biology that compares developmental processes of different multicellular organisms to understand how these processes have evolved and how changes can modify existing organismal features or lead to new ones.	20
7446014687	Exaptations	Structures that evolve in one context but become co-opted for another function. Feathers may originally have been beneficial for thermoregulation.	21
7446014688	Heterochrony	is an evolutionary change in the rate or timing of developmental events. For example, an organism's shape depends in part on the relative growth rates of different body parts during development. Changes to these rates can alter the adult form substantially. Ex increase for bat finger bones lead to flight. decrease for whale hind leg bones leads to loss of hind legs.	22
7446014689	Homeotic genes	Any of the master regulatory genes that control placement and spatial organization of body parts in organisms	23
7446014690	Hox genes	a group of related genes that control the body plan of an embryo along the anterior-posterior (head-tail) axis	24

Powered by Quizlet.com

AP Biology (Campbell) Chapter 7 Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

5703463524	plasma membrane	creates compartments within cells and barrier between intra- & extracellular	0
5703463525	selectively permeable	rules of chemistry determine movement across membrane.	1
5703463526	phospholipids	membrane lipid structure	2
5703463527	lipids and proteins	main macromolecules in membranes	3
5703463528	amphipatic molecules	have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions	4
5703463529	fluid mosaic model	The arrangement of phospholipids and proteins in biological membranes is described by the...	5
5703463530	freeze-fracture	preparation technique that splits a membrane along the middle of the phospholipid bilayer	6
5703463531	transmembrane proteins	the integral protein completely spans the membrane as...	7
5703463532	integral proteins	proteins that penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer	8
5703463533	peripheral proteins	proteins that are not embedded in the lipid bilayer	9
5703463534	cell-cell recognition	the ability of a cell to disitnguish one type of neighboring cell from another.	10
5703463535	transport proteins	proteins that control movement of molecules across plasma membrane	11
5703463536	channel proteins	transport proteins that have a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions use as a tunnel though the membrane.	12
5703463537	aquaporins	channel proteins that facilitate the passage of water	13
5703463538	carrier proteins	transport proteins that bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane.	14
5703463539	diffusion	movement of molecules of any substance to spread out in available space	15
5703463540	concentration gradient	difference in concentration within or between 2 areas	16
5703463541	passive transport	transport that requires hydrolysis of ATP to take place	17
5703463542	osmosis	the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane	18
5703463544	isotonic (animal cell)	if a cell with no cell wall is immersed in an enviroment where there is no net movement of water across the plasma membrane. Stays the same.	19
5703463545	hypertonic (animal cell)	when the cell is immersed in a solution where it loses water to its environment, shrivels and probably dies.	20
5703463546	hypotonic (animal cell)	when a cell is immersed in a solution, water enters the cell faster than it leaves, it swells and lyses (explodes) like an overfilled water balloon.	21
5703463547	osmoregulation	adaptations that control of water balance across plasma membranes	22
5703463548	paramecium	is a protist that is hypertonic to the pond water in which it lives.	23
5703463549	turgid	when the plant cell is very firm, which is a healthy state for most plant cells.	24
5703463550	hypotonic (plant cell)	when a plant cell is immersed in a __________ solution the cell contents swell due to osmosis until the elastic cell wall exerts turgor pressure on the cell that opposes further water outake.	25
5703463551	isotonic (plant cell)	when a plant cell is immersed in a _______ solution; there is no net movement. The cell becomes flaccid and the plant may wilt.	26
5703463552	flaccid	limp, not firm or strong (If a plant is not watered enough, its leaves become droopy and flaccid.)	27
5703463553	hypertonic (plant cells)	the plant cell loses water, its volume shrinks. The plasma membrane pulls away from the wall, this is plasmolysis. It is lethal to the cell.	28
5703463554	plasmolysis	This happens when a cell shrinks inside its cell wall while the cell wall remains intact. The plasma membrane pulls away from the wall.	29
5703463555	facilitated diffusion	the passive movement of molecules down their concentration gradient with the help of transport proteins.	30
5703463556	ion channels (gated channels)	Channels that open or close depending on the presence or abscence of an electrical, chemical, or physical stimulus.	31
5703463557	active transport	transport that requires the cell to expend metabolic energy and enables a cell to maintain internal concentrations of small molecules. Requires ATP hydrolysis.	32
5703463558	ATP	supplies energy for most active transport	33
5703463559	sodium-potassium pump	transport protein that, translocating the bound solute across the membrane. Exchanges sodium ions (Na) for potassium ions (K) across the plasma membrane of animal cells.	34
5703463560	membrane potential	voltage across a membrane. Ranges form -50 to -200 millivolts. The inside of the cell is negative to the outside.	35
5703463561	electrochemical gradient	2 combined forces drive the diffusion of ions across the membrane.	36
5703463562	electrogenic pumps	special transport proteins that generate the voltage gradient across a membrane. Ex. sodium potassium pump and proton pumps.	37
5703463563	sodium-potassium pump	major electrogenic pump in animals. Restores the electrochemical gradient by setting up a concentration gradient. It pumps 2 K ions for every 3 Na ions that it moves out, it generates a voltage.	38
5703463564	proton pumps	the major electrogenic pump. Transports protons out of the cell and transfers positive charge form the cytoplasm to the extracellular solution.	39
5703463565	exocytosis	transport vesicle budded from the Golgi apparatus is moved by the cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane. When the 2 membranes come in contact, the bilayers fuse spill the contents.	40
5703463566	endocytosis	a cell brings in biological molecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane. 3 types: phagocytosis, pinocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis.	41
5703463567	phagocytosis	a cell engulfs a particle in a vacuole. The vacuole fuses with a lysosome to digest the particle.	42
5703463568	pinocytosis	molecules are taken up when extracellular fluid is "gulped" into tiny vesicles.	43
5703463569	receptor-mediated endocytosis	endocytosis that enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific materials that may be in low concentrations in the environment.	44

Powered by Quizlet.com

Campbell AP Biology--CHAPTER 3 Flashcards

terms along with vital information covering Campbell's 6th edition Biology textbook

Terms : Hide Images

7510768057	polar covalent	type of bond in water? Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen and the electrons of the polar bonds spend more time near oxygen thus, making oxygen more negativity charged and hydrogen more positively charged	0
7510768058	Cohesion	holding a substance together	1
7510768059	Adhesion	clinging of a substance to another	2
7510768060	Capillary action	the attraction of the surface of a liquid to the surface of a solid, which causes the liquid to rise or fall Capillary action is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without assistance. It occurs because of intermolecular forces between the liquid and surrounding solid surfaces. If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of surface tension (which is caused by cohesion within the liquid) and adhesive forces between the liquid and container wall act to propel the liquid. When adhesion > cohesion, capillary action occurs.	3
7510768061	Surface Tension	A measure of how difficult it is to break/stretch a surface	4
7510768062	Kinetic Energy	energy of motion	5
7510768063	Heat	total kinetic energy due to molecular motion	6
7510768064	Calorie	amount of heat it takes to move 1 gram of substance 1 degree Celsius higher	7
7510768065	Temperature	intensity of heat due to average kinetic energy	8
7510768066	Specific heat	amount of heat needed to be absorbed /lost to change the temperature by 1 degree Celsius water has a high _____.	9
7510768067	water	1 calorie/1 gram/I degree Celsius is the specific heat of ____.	10
7510768068	Evaporative cooling	remains of a liquid cool down	11
7510768069	vaporization	amount of heat needed to turn liquid into gas	12
7510768070	evaporation	process of liquid becoming gas	13
7510768071	How does the density of water contribute to aquatic life?	if ice sank, ponds/oceans/lakes would freeze solid, killing the life (during the summer only top would thaw) instead the floating ice insulates liquid water from below preventing it from freezing and killing animals	14
7510768072	solution	liquid completely homogeneous of two or more substances	15
7510768073	solvent	dissolving agent	16
7510768074	solute	substance dissolved	17
7510768075	aqueous solution	water is solvent	18
7510768076	hydration shell	sphere of water molecules around dissolved ions	19
7510768077	hydrophobic	water hating substances	20
7510768078	hydrophilic	water loving substances	21
7510768079	mole	the molecular weightof a substance expressed in grams (6.02 x 10^23)	22
7510768080	molarity	concentration measured by number of mols/liter of solution	23
7510768081	hydrogen ion	H+	24
7510768082	hydroxide ion	OH-	25
7510768083	hydronium ion	H30+	26
7510768084	acids	increase H+ concentration	27
7510768085	bases	reduce H+ concentration	28
7510768086	pH scale	measures concentration of H+ (scale from 1-14)	29
7510768087	buffers	substance that minimizes changes in H+/OH- concentration	30
7510768088	acid precipitation	presence of sulfur oxides/nitrogen oxides and gaseous compounds react with air and goes into lakes, oceans, and soil, affecting animal life	31

Powered by Quizlet.com

AP Biology Chapter 12 Mitosis Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

8242761537	anaphase	fourth stage of mitosis, in which the chromatids of each chromosome have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell	0
8242761538	anchorage dependence	the requirement that to divide, a cell must be attached to the substratum	1
8242761539	benign tumor	a mass of abnormal cells that remains at the site of origin	2
8242761540	binary fission	the type of cell division by which prokaryotes reproduce; each dividing daughter cell receives a copy of the single parental chromosome	3
8242761541	cell cycle	an ordered sequence of events in the life of a eukaryotic cell, from its origin in the division of a parent cell until its own division into two; composed of M, G1, S, G2	4
8242761542	cell cycle control system	a cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle	5
8242761543	cell division	reproduction of a cell	6
8242761544	cell plate	a double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall form during cytokinesis	7
8242761545	centromere	the centralized region joining two chromatids	8
8242761546	centrosome	material present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells, important during cell division; the microtubule organizing center	9
8242761547	checkpoint	a critical control point in the cell cycle where stop and go-ahead signals regulate the cycle	10
8242761548	chromatin	complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome; when a cell is not diving chromatin exists as a mass of very long, thin fibers that are not visible with a light microscope	11
8242761549	chromosome	a threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus; each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins	12
8242761550	cleavage furrow	the first sign of cleavage in an animal cell;a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate	13
8242761551	cyclin	a regulatory protein whose concentration fluctuates cyclically	14
8242761552	cytokinesis	the division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells immediately following mitosis	15
8242761553	density-dependent inhibition	the phenomenon observed in normal animal cells that causes them to stop dividing when they come into contact with one another	16
8242761554	G0 phase	a nondividing state in which a cell has left the cell cycle	17
8242761555	G1 phase	The first gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.	18
8242761556	G2 phase	the second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occur	19
8242761557	gamete	a haploid cell, such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to form a diploid cell	20
8242761558	genome	the complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism.	21
8242761559	interphase	the period in the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing. During interphase, cellular metabolic activity is high, chromosomes and organelles are duplicated, and cell size may increase. 90% of the cell cycle	22
8242761560	M phase	mitotic phase; the phase of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis	23
8242761561	malignant tumor	a cancerous tumor that is invasive enough to impair the functions of one or more organs	24
8242761562	metaphase	the third stage of mitosis, in which the spindle is complete and the chromosomes, attached to the microtubules at their kinetochores, are all aligned at the metaphase plate	25
8242761563	metastasis	the spread of cancer cells to locations distant from their original site	26
8242761564	mitosis	a process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into 5 stages; prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Mitosis conserves chromosome number by equally allocating replicated chromosomes to each of the daughter nuclei	27
8242761565	mitotic (M) phase	the phase of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis	28
8242761566	mitotic spindle	an assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis	29
8242761567	MPF	maturation-promoting factor (M-phase promoting factor); a protein complex required for a cell to progress from late interphase to mitosis. The active form consists of cyclin and a protein kinase	30
8242761568	prophase	the first stage of mitosis, in which the chromatin is condensing and the mitotic spindle begin to form, but the nucleu and nucleolus are still intact	31
8242761569	S phase	the synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated	32
8242761570	sister chromatids	replicated forms of chromosomes joined together by the centromere and eventually separating during mitosis or meiosis II	33
8242761571	somatic cell	any cell in multicellular organisms except a sperm or egg cell	34
8242761572	telophase	the fifth and final stage of mitosis, in which daughter cells are forming and cytokinesis has typically begun	35

Powered by Quizlet.com

Chapter 4 - AP Biology Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

7274085348	Organic Chemistry	The study of carbon compounds	0
7274085349	Hydrocarbons	An organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen.	1
7274085350	Isomer	One of several organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and therefore different properties.	2
7274085351	Structural Isomer	Compounds with the same molecular formula but different covalent arrangement of atoms.	3
7274085352	Geometric (cis-trans) Isomer	Isomers with the same covalent partnerships but different spatial arrangements of atoms around a carbon=carbon double bond.	4
7274085353	Enantiomer	Molecules that are mirror images of each other.	5
7274085354	Functional Groups	A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and usually involved in chemical reactions.	6
7274085355	Hydroxyl Group	A chemical group consisting of an oxygen atom joined to a hydrogen atom. Molecules possessing this group are soluble in water and are called alcohols.	7
7274085356	Amino Group	A chemical group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms can act as a base in solution, accepting a hydrogen ion and acquiring a charge of 1⁺	8
7274085357	Carboxyl Group	A chemical group consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group	9
7274085358	Phosphate Group	A chemical group consisting of a phosphate atom bonded to four oxygen atoms; important in energy transfer.	10
7274085359	Sulfhydryl Group	A chemical group consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom.	11
7274085360	Alcohol	Organic compounds containing hydroxyl groups	12
7274085361	Carbonyl Group	A functional group present in aldehydes and ketones consisting of a carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen atom.	13
7274085362	Aldehyde	An organic molecule with a carbonyl group located at the end of the carbon chain.	14
7274085363	Ketone	An organic molecule with a carbonyl group located in the middle of the carbon chain.	15
7274085364	Carboxylic Acid	An organic compound containing a carboxyl group.	16
7274085365	Amine	An organic compound containing an amino group.	17
7274085366	Thiol	An organic compound containing a sulfhydryl group.	18
7274085367	Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)	An adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate that releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This energy is used to drive reactions in cells.	19

Powered by Quizlet.com

Biology in Focus (AP) Chapter 35 Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

9876553462	pathogen	an organism or virus that causes disease	0
9876553463	immune system	an animal body's system of defenses against agents that cause disease	1
9876553464	innate immunity	a form of defense common to all animals that is active immediately upon exposure to pathogens and that is the same whether or not the pathogen has been encountered previously	2
9876553465	adaptive immunity	a vertebrate-specific defense that is mediated by B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells) and that exhibits specificity, memory, and self-nonself recognition; also called acquired immunity	3
9876553466	lysozyme	an enzyme that destroys bacterial cell walls; in mammals, found in sweat, tears, and saliva	4
9876553467	phagocytosis	a type of endocytosis in which large particulate substances or small organisms are taken up by a cell. It is carried out by some protists and by certain immune cells of animals (in mammals, mainly macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells)	5
9876553468	toll-like receptor (TLR)	a membrane receptor on a phagocytic white blood cell that recognizes fragments of molecules common to a set of pathogens	6
9876553469	neutrophil	the most abundant type of white blood cell. Neutrophils are phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few days	7
9876553470	macrophage	a phagocytic cell present in many tissues that functions in innate immunity by destroying microbes and in acquired immunity as an antigen-presenting cell	8
9876553471	natural killer cell	a type of white blood cell that can kill tumor cells and virus-infected cells as part of innate immunity	9
9876553472	interferon	a protein that has antiviral or immune regulatory functions. Interferon-alpha and interferon-beta, secreted by virus-infected cells, help nearby cells resist viral infection; interferon-gamma, secreted by T cells, helps activate macrophages	10
9876553473	complement system	a group of about 30 blood proteins that may amplify the inflammatory response, enhance phagocytosis, or directly lyse extracellular pathogens	11
9876553474	inflammatory response	an innate immune defense triggered by physical injury or infection of tissue involving the release of substances that promote swelling, enhance the infiltration of white blood cells, and aid in tissue repair and destruction of invading pathogens	12
9876553475	histamine	a substance released by mast cells that causes blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable in inflammatory and allergic responses	13
9876553476	mast cell	a vertebrate body cell that produces histamine and other molecules that trigger inflammation in response to infection and in allergic reactions	14
9876553477	cytokine	any of a group of small proteins secreted by a number of cell types, including macrophages and helper T cells, that regulate the function of other cells	15
9876553478	lymphocyte	a type of white blood cell that mediates immune responses. The two main classes are B cells and T cells	16
9876553479	thymus	a small organ in the thoracic cavity o vertebrates where maturation of T cells is completed	17
9876553480	T cells	the class of lymphocytes that mature in the thymus; they include both effector cells for the cell-mediated immune response and helper cells required for both branches of adaptive immunity	18
9876553481	B cells	the lymphocytes that complete their development in the bone marrow and become effector cells for the humoral immune response	19
9876553482	antigen	a substance that elicits an immune response by binding to receptors of B cells, antibodies or T cells	20
9876553483	antigen receptor	the general term for a surface protein, located on B cells and T cells, that binds to antigens, initiating adaptive immune responses. The antigen receptors on B cells are called B cell receptors, and the antigen receptors on T cells are called T cell receptors	21
9876553484	epitope	a small, accessible region of an antigen to which an antigen receptor or antibody binds; also called an antigenic determinant	22
9876553485	heavy chain	one of the two types of polypeptide chains that make up an antibody molecule and B cell receptor; consists of a variable region, which contributes to the antigen-binding site, and a constant region	23
9876553486	light chain	one of the two types of polypeptide chains that make up an antibody molecule and B cell receptor; consists of a variable region, which contributes to the antigen-binding site, and a constant region	24
9876553487	antibody	a protein secreted by plasma cells (differentiated B cells) that binds to a particular antigen; also called immunoglobulin. All antibodies have the same Y-shaped structure and in their monomer form consist of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains	25
9876553488	major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule	a host protein that functions in antigen resentation. Foreign MHC molecules on transplanted tissue can trigger T cell responses that may lead to rejection of the transplant	26
9876553489	antigen presentation	the process by which an MHC molecule binds to a fragment of an intracellular protein antigen and carries it to the cell surface, where it is displayed and can be recognized by a T cell	27
9876553490	effector cell	a lymphocyte that has undergone clonal selection and is capable of mediating an adaptive immune response	28
9876553491	plasma cell	the antibody-secreting effector cell of humoral immunity. Plasma cells arise from antigen-stimulated B cells	29
9876553492	memory cell	one of a clone of long-lived lymphocyes, formed during the primary immune response, that remains in a lymphoid organ until activated by exposure to the same antigen that triggered its formation. Activated memory cells mount the secondary immune response	30
9876553493	clonal selection	the process by which an antigen selectively binds to and activates only those lymphocytes bearing receptors specific for the antigen. The selected lymphocytes proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector cells and a clone of memory cells specific for the stimulating antigen	31
9876553494	primary immune response	the initial adaptive immune response to an antigen, which appears after a lag of about 10-17 days	32
9876553495	secondary immune response	the adaptive immune response elicited on second or subsequent exposures to a particular antigen. The secondary immune response is more rapid, of greater magnitude, and of longer duration than the primary immune response	33
9876553496	humoral immune response	the branch of adaptive immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies, which defend against bacteria and viruses in body fluids	34
9876553497	cell-mediated immune response	the branch of adaptive immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend against infected cells	35
9876553498	helper T cell	a type of T cell that, when activated, secretes cytokines that promote the response of B cells (humoral response) and cytotoxic T cells (cell-mediated response) to antigens	36
9876553499	antigen-presenting cell	a cell that upon ingesting pathogens or internalizing pathogen proteins generates peptide fragments that are bound by class II MHC molecules and subsequently displayed on the cell surface to T cells. Macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells are the primary antigen-presenting cells	37
9876553500	cytotoxic T cell	a type of lymphocyte that, when activated, kills infected cells as well as certain cancer cells and transplanted cells	38
9876553501	active immunity	long-lasting immunity conferred by the action of B cells and T cells and the resulting B and T memory cells specific for a pathogen. Active immunity can develop as a result of natural infection or immunization	39
9876553502	passive immunity	short-term immunity conferred by the transfer of antibodies, as occurs in the transfer of maternal antibodies to a fetus or nursing infant	40
9876553503	immunization	the process of generating a state of immunity by artificial means. In active immunization, also called vaccination, an inactive or weakened form of a pathogen is administered, inducing B and T cell responses and immunological memory. In passive immunization, antibodies specific for a particular microbe are administered, conferring immediate but temporary protection	41
9876553504	monoclonal antibody	any of a preparation of antibodies that have been produced by a single clone of cultured cells and thus are all specific for the same epitope	42
9876553505	allergen	an antigen that triggers an exaggerated immune response	43
9876553506	autoimmune disease	an immunological disorder in which the immune system turns against self	44
9876553507	human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)	the infectious agent that causes AIDS. HIV is a retrovirus	45

Powered by Quizlet.com

AP Biology Unit 1 - Chapter 5 Macromolecules Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

8088864246	macromolecule	a giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a dehydration reaction.	0
8088864247	Four classes of biological macromolecules	Proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids	1
8088864248	polymer	a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds.	2
8088864249	monomer	the subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer.	3
8088864250	dehydration synthesis	a chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule.	4
8088864251	hydrolysis	a chemical reaction that breaks bonds between two molecules by the addition of water; functions in dis-assembly of polymers to monomers.	5
8088864252	protein	a biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three-dimensional structure.	6
8088864253	Functions of proteins	structural support, catalyst, transport, defense, movement, regulation	7
8088864254	amino acid	an organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl and an amino group. The monomers of polypeptides. There are 20 different forms. Distinguished by side chains.	8
8088864255	peptide bond	the covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction.	9
8088864256	Primary structure	the level of protein structure referring to the specific linear sequence of amino acids.	10
8088864257	secondary structure	regions of repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bonding between constituents of the backbone (not the side chains). Helix or pleated sheet.	11
8088864258	B pleated sheet	protein structure with two or more segments of the polypeptide chain link side by side (called B strands) connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of the two parallel segments of the polypeptide backbone.	12
8088864259	tertiary structure	the overall shape of a protein molecule due to interactions of amino acid side chains, including hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges.	13
8088864260	amino acid side chains	types of bonds/interactions in __________ : hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds and disulfide bridges	14
8088864261	quaternary structure	the particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide.	15
8088864262	denaturation	loss of a proteins normal 3D structure; can possibly be caused by pH and temperature which affect the ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds & hydrophilic interactions	16
8088864263	enzyme	a macromolecule serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction. most of them are proteins.	17
8088864264	carbohydrate	a sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides). Primarily C, H and O.	18
8088864265	What are the functions of carbohydrates	function as energy source & structure	19
8088864266	monosaccharide	the simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also called simple sugars, they have formulas that are generally some multiple of CH2O (1:2:1).	20
8088864267	disaccharide	a double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage formed by a dehydration reaction.	21
8088864268	glycosidic linkage	a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.	22
8088864269	polysaccharide	a polymer of many monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions.	23
8088864270	starch	a storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by x glycosidic linkages. Used for energy storage.	24
8088864271	glycogen	an extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.	25
8088864272	cellulose	a structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by B glycosidic linkages. A type of plant starch.	26
8088864273	lipids	any of a group of large biological molecules, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that mix poorly, if at all, with water (hydrophobic). No true monomers.	27
8088864274	What are the three types of lipids?	fats/oils, phospholipids & steroids	28
8088864275	fat/oil	a lipid consisting of three fatty acids lined to one glycerol molecule; also called a triacylglycerol or triglyceride. Function as energy storage.	29
8088864276	saturated	a fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that are attached to the carbon skeleton.	30
8088864277	unsaturated	a faty acid that has one or more double bonds betwen carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.	31
8088864278	fatty acid	a carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain. Vary in length and __________ linked to a glycerol molecule form a fat molecule, also called triglyceride.	32
8088864279	triglyceride	a lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule	33
8088864280	chitin	a structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods.	34
8088864281	trans fat	an unsaturated fat, formed artificially during hydrogenation of oils, containing one or more trans double bonds.	35
8088864282	phospholipid	a lipid made up of glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group. The hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids act as nonpolar hydrophobic tails, while the rest of the molecule acts s a polar, hydrophilic head. They form bilayers that function as biological membrane.	36
8088864283	phospholipid bilayer	function as membranes	37
8088864284	steroid	a type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings with various chemical groups attached. Function as part of membranes or hormones.	38
8088864285	catalyst	a chemical agent that selectively increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.	39
8088864286	hydrophobic	a type of weak chemical interaction caused when molecules that do not mix with water coalesce to exclude water.	40
8088864287	disulfide bridges	a strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer.	41
8088864288	polypeptide	a polymer of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.	42
8088864289	nucleic acid	a polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. the two types are DNA and RNA.	43
8088864290	nucleic acid	functions as storage, transmission & use of genetic material	44
8088864291	nucleotide	the building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and one or more phosphate groups.	45
8088864292	phosphodiester linkage	bond between nucleotides in nucleotide chain to form polynucleotide	46
8088864293	polynucleotide	a polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers in a chain. The nucleotides can be those of DNA or RNA.	47
8088864294	pyrimidine	one of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-membered ring. cytosine (c), thymine (T), and uracil (U)	48
8088864295	purines	one of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring. adenine (a) and guanine (G).	49
8088864296	RNA	transmission of information, consists of monomers with a ribose sugar and nitrogenous bases cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A) & uracil (U). Single stranded.	50
8088864297	DNA	a nucleic acid molecule, usually a double-stranded helix, in which each polynucleotide strand consists of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T); capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins.	51
8088864298	deoxyribose	the sugar component of DNA nucleotides, having one fewer hydroxyl group than ribose, the sugar component of RNA nucleotides.	52
8088864299	ribose	the sugar component of RNA nucleotides.	53
8088864300	double helix	the form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape.	54
8088864301	antiparallel	referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix (they run in opposite 5' -3' directions).	55

Powered by Quizlet.com

Campbell AP Biology--CHAPTER 3 Flashcards

terms along with vital information covering Campbell's 6th edition Biology textbook

Terms : Hide Images

7300442994	polar covalent	type of bond in water? Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen and the electrons of the polar bonds spend more time near oxygen thus, making oxygen more negativity charged and hydrogen more positively charged	0
7300442996	Cohesion	holding a substance together	1
7300442997	Adhesion	clinging of a substance to another	2
7300442998	Capillary action	the attraction of the surface of a liquid to the surface of a solid, which causes the liquid to rise or fall Capillary action is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without assistance. It occurs because of intermolecular forces between the liquid and surrounding solid surfaces. If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of surface tension (which is caused by cohesion within the liquid) and adhesive forces between the liquid and container wall act to propel the liquid. When adhesion > cohesion, capillary action occurs.	3
7300442999	Surface Tension	A measure of how difficult it is to break/stretch a surface	4
7300443000	Kinetic Energy	energy of motion	5
7300443001	Heat	total kinetic energy due to molecular motion	6
7300443002	Calorie	amount of heat it takes to move 1 gram of substance 1 degree Celsius higher	7
7300443003	Temperature	intensity of heat due to average kinetic energy	8
7300443004	Specific heat	amount of heat needed to be absorbed /lost to change the temperature by 1 degree Celsius water has a high _____.	9
7300443005	water	1 calorie/1 gram/I degree Celsius is the specific heat of ____.	10
7300443007	Evaporative cooling	remains of a liquid cool down	11
7300443008	vaporization	amount of heat needed to turn liquid into gas	12
7300443009	evaporation	process of liquid becoming gas	13
7300443012	How does the density of water contribute to aquatic life?	if ice sank, ponds/oceans/lakes would freeze solid, killing the life (during the summer only top would thaw) instead the floating ice insulates liquid water from below preventing it from freezing and killing animals	14
7300443013	solution	liquid completely homogeneous of two or more substances	15
7300443014	solvent	dissolving agent	16
7300443015	solute	substance dissolved	17
7300443016	aqueous solution	water is solvent	18
7300443017	hydration shell	sphere of water molecules around dissolved ions	19
7300443018	hydrophobic	water hating substances	20
7300534294	hydrophilic	water loving substances	21
7300443020	mole	the molecular weightof a substance expressed in grams (6.02 x 10^23)	22
7300443021	molarity	concentration measured by number of mols/liter of solution	23
7300443022	hydrogen ion	H+	24
7300443023	hydroxide ion	OH-	25
7300443024	hydronium ion	H30+	26
7300443025	acids	increase H+ concentration	27
7300443026	bases	reduce H+ concentration	28
7300443029	pH scale	measures concentration of H+ (scale from 1-14)	29
7300443030	buffers	substance that minimizes changes in H+/OH- concentration	30
7300443031	acid precipitation	presence of sulfur oxides/nitrogen oxides and gaseous compounds react with air and goes into lakes, oceans, and soil, affecting animal life	31

Class Notes

Social Science

Math

Science

Fine Arts

Test Prep

Textbook Notes

Members Only

Forum

Blogs

Textbook Request

AP Biology Chapter 25 Flashcards

AP Biology Chapter 27 Flashcards

AP Biology Chapter 25 Flashcards

AP Biology (Campbell) Chapter 7 Flashcards

Campbell AP Biology--CHAPTER 3 Flashcards

AP Biology Chapter 12 Mitosis Flashcards

Chapter 4 - AP Biology Flashcards

Biology in Focus (AP) Chapter 35 Flashcards

AP Biology Unit 1 - Chapter 5 Macromolecules Flashcards

Campbell AP Biology--CHAPTER 3 Flashcards

Pages

Need Help?

Need Notes?

About Course-Notes.Org

You are here

Pages

Need Help?

Need Notes?

About Course-Notes.Org