| CourseNotes

AP Biology Chapter 6 Flashcards

5579840757	metabolic pathway	a specific molecule is altered in a series of defined steps which result in a product	0
5579847000	enzyme	a protein that catalyzes (speeds up) reactions	1
5579851974	anabolism	synthetic pathways: using energy to build complicated molecules	2
5579853695	catabolism (catabolic pathway)	breakdown pathways: breaking down molecules to release energy (ie respiration)	3
5579860352	potential energy	energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure	4
5579863662	kinetic energy	energy associated with the relative motion of objects (ie one moving thing can transfer energy by making another thing move)	5
5579871928	free energy	the energy in a system that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform (ie in a cell)	6
5579871929	entropy	a measure of the disorder (or randomness) of the world	7
5579875441	spontaneous process	energetically favorable: a process that can occur without an input of energy	8
5579884811	equilibrium	a state where forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate; no net flow of energy (0delta G)	9
5579886538	exergonic	a reaction that releases free energy (-delta G)	10
5579889263	endergonic	a reaction that absorbs free energy (+delta G)	11
5579901824	energy coupling	the act of using an exergonic reaction to drive an endergonic reaction	12
5579904417	phosphorylation	the act of adding a phosphate group to a molecule	13
5579910085	substrate	a molecule that is acted upon by an enzyme	14
5579920404	enzyme-substrate complex	an enzyme that has bonded to its substrate	15
5579924236	active site	the place where catalysis occurs; the place where the substrate actually binds to the enzyme (usually a groove or pocket)	16
5579932745	cofactors	non-proteins that help catalytic activity; they are inorganic like metals or organic like coenzymes	17
5579935339	noncompetetive inhibitor	these inhibit enzymes by attaching somewhere other than the active site and changing the shape of the enzyme (and thus the active site)	18
5579942639	competitive inhibitor	these inhibit enzymes by binding to the active site instead of the intended substrate	19
5579947755	allosteric regulation	a case in which a protein's function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a separate site (results in inhibition or stimulation)	20
5579953304	cooperativity	a case in which a substrate binds to an active site in a multisubunit enzyme and triggers the shape change in all other subunits	21

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AP Biology; Chapter 42 Flashcards

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8227994422	chemoautotrophs	obtain energy by oxidizing sulfur taken up by their sulfate rich environment, they use iron as a final electron acceptor in their reactions	0
8228033042	ecosystem	the sum of all the organisms living in a given area and the abiotic factors with which they interact, encompasses a vast area	1
8228043810	photosynthetic and chemosynthetic organisms	take up elements in inorganic form from the air, soil, and water and incorporate them into their biomass, some of which is consumed by animals	2
8228075737	cells	transform energy and matter, subject to the laws of thermodynamics	3
8228083448	ecosystem ecologists	study how energy and matter are transformed within a system and measure the amounts of both that cross the system's boundaries	4
8228101980	first law of thermodynamics	energy cannot be created or destroyed by only transferred or transformed	5
8228115245	second law of thermodynamics	every exchange of energy increases the entropy of the universe	6
8228838026	law of conservation of mass	a physical law stating that matter can change form but cannot be created or destroyed. In a closed system, the mass of the system is constant	7
8229037332	primary producers	an autotroph, usually a photosynthetic organism. Collectively, autotrophs make up the trophic level of an ecosystem that ultimately supports all other levels	8
8229055459	primary consumers	an herbivore; an organism that eats plants or other autotrophs	9
8229064692	secondary consumers	a carnivore that eats herbivores	10
8229070152	tertiary consumer	a carnivore that eats other carnivores	11
8229075584	detritivore	a consumer that derives its energy and nutrients from nonliving organic material such as corpses, fallen plant material, and the wastes of living organisms; a decomposer	12
8229093152	decomposer	an organism that absorbs nutrients from nonliving organic material such as corpses, fallen plant material, and the wastes of living organisms and converts them to inorganic forms; a detritivore	13
8229116315	detritus	dead organic matter	14
8229129613	primary production	the amount of light energy converted to chemical energy (organic compounds) by the autotrophs in an ecosystem during a given time period	15
8229158254	gross primary production (GPP)	the total primary production of an ecosystem; the amount of energy from light converted to the chemical energy of organic molecules per unit time	16
8229172933	net primary production (NPP)	the gross primary production of an ecosystem minus the energy used by the producers for respiration	17
8229218360	net ecosystem production (NEP)	the gross primary production of an ecosystem minus the energy used by all autotrophs and heterotrophs for respiration	18
8229239969	limiting nutrient	an element that must be added for production to increase in a particular area	19
8229264512	eutrophication	a process by which nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, become highly concentrated in a body of water, leading to increased growth of organisms such as algae or cyanbacteria	20
8229299070	secondary production	the amount of chemical energy in consumers' food that is converted to their own new biomass during a given time period	21
8229318812	production efficiency	the percentage of energy stored in assimilated food that is not used for respiration or eliminated as waste	22
8229336499	trophic efficiency	the percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next	23
8229348975	turnover time	the time required to replace the standing crop of a population or group of populations, calculated as the ratio of standing crop to population	24
8229365006	biogeochemical cycle	any of the various chemical cycles that involve both biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems	25
8229376769	water	availability influences the rates of ecosystem processes particularly primary production and decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems	26
8229390852	key processes of the water cycle	evaporation of liquid water by solar energy, condensation of water vapor into clouds, ,and precipitation. Transpiration by terrestrial plants also moves large volumes of water into the atmosphere. Surface and groundwater flow can return water to the oceans	27
8230912781	key processes of the carbon cycle	photosynthesis by plants and phytoplankton removes substantial amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide	28
8230932392	nitrogen fixation	the conversion of N2 to forms that can be used to synthesize organic nitrogen compounds	29
8230957497	key processes of the phosphorus cycle	weathering of rocks gradually adds phosphorus to soil	30
8231033014	bioremediation	the use of organisms to detoxify and restore polluted and degraded ecosystems	31
8231047035	biological augmentation	an approach to restoration ecology that uses organisms to add essential materials to a degraded ecosystem	32
8231087630	limitation of aquatic systems	light and nutrients	33
8231090602	limitation of terrestrial ecosystems	climatic factors such as temperature and moisture	34

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AP Biology Chapter 43 Flashcards

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5248865213	Immune System	The totality of the body's physical barriers, immune cells, molecules, and physiological responses that enable you to block, fight, and destroy pathogens	0
5248865214	Innate Immunity	All animals A defense that is active immediately upon infection and is the same whether or not the pathogen has been encountered before Nonspecific (less advanced, generic) Outer covering (skin/shell, chemical secretions, internal surfaces) Small preset group of receptor proteins bind to molecules/structures that are absent from animal bodies but common to viruses, bacteria, or other microbes Rapid Response	1
5248865215	Innate Immunity - Internal Defenses	Phagocytic cells, Natural Killer cells, Antimicrobial Proteins, Inflammatory Reponse, Complement Protein Cascade Can have B and T cells	2
5248865216	Adaptive Immunity	Vertebrates Only A defense that produces a a vast arsenal of receptors, each of which recognizes a feature typically found only on a particular part of a particular molecule in a particular pathogen Specific Slow development, slow response	3
5248865217	Adaptive Immunity - Internal Defenses	Antibodies Cytotoxic cells (B and T Cells)	4
5248865218	Innate immunity of Invertebrates	Exoskeleton - First line Lysozyme - Breaks down bacterial cell walls Hemocytes - Phagocytosis or production of chemicals Antimicrobial Peptide secretion (disrupt plasma membranes)	5
5248865219	Lysozyme	An enzyme that breaks down cell walls to protect insect digestive systems	6
5248865220	Phagocytosis	The cellular ingestion and digestion of bacteria and other foreign susbtances	7
5248865221	Innate Immunity of Certebrates	Coexist with adaptive immunity Barrier defenses, phagocytosis, antimicrobial peptides (found in both vertebrates and invertebrates) Unique aspects to vertebrates (natural killer cells, interferons, inflammatory response)	8
5248865222	Barrier Defenses	Block entry of many pathogens Skin Mucous membrane Mucous Ciliated cells Saliva, tears, mucous (inhibits colonization, hostile lysozymes) pH from stomach Oil and sweat (pH 3-5) prevent growth	9
5248865223	Cellular Innate Defenses	...	10
5248865224	Toll-Like Receptor (TLR)	A mammalian receptor that binds to fragments of molecules characteristic of a set of pathogens After detection, a phagocytic cell engulfs them (traps in a vacuole) Lysosome fuses and degrades components)	11
5248865225	Neutrophils	One main type of phagocytic cell in the mammalian body Attracted by signals from infected tissues Engulf and destroy infecting pathogens	12
5248865226	Macrophages	Second main type of phagocytic cell in the mammalian body Larger than neutrophils Migratory or localized	13
5248865227	Dendritic Cells	Populate tissues (ex. skin) that ocntact the environment) Stimulate adaptive immunity against pathogens they encounter and engulf	14
5248865228	Eosinophils	Found beneath mucosal surface Low phagocytic activity Important in defending against multicellular invaders (parasitic worms) Discharge destructive enzymes	15
5248865229	Natural Killer Cells	Unique to vertebrates Circulate body to detect abnormal array of surface proteins (virus-infected or cancerous cells)	16
5248865230	Interferons	Antimicrobial proteins that provide innate defenses by interfering with viral infection Infected cells secrete interferons, which induce nearby uninfected cells to produce substances and inhibit viral reproduction Some white blood cells secrete interferons to activate macrophages	17
5248865231	Complement System (Protein Cascade)	30 proteins that circulate blood plasma Inactive until activated by substances on the surface of many microbes Activation results in a cascade of biochemical reactions, lysis of invading cells Inflammation	18
5248865232	Inflammatory Response	Changes brought about by signaling molecules released upon injury or infection that causes swelling (increased blood flow)	19
5248865233	Histamine	Inflammatory signaling molecule Released at sites of damage, dilates blood vessels, permeates blood vessels	20
5248865234	Mast Cells	Found in connective tissue Stores histamine in granules (vesicles)	21
5248865235	Cytokines	Signaling molecules that enhance immune response by promoting blood flow to the site of infection/injury Produced by macrophages and neutrophils	22
5248865236	Inflammation	Cycles of signaling and response Activated complement proteins promote histamine release, attracting more phagocytic cells to enter infected tissues Enhanced blood flow delivers more antimicrobial peptides Pus accumulates (rich in white blood cells, dead pathogens, cell debris) Fever, meningitis, appendicitis, septic shock	23
5248865237	Evasion of Innate Immunity by pathogens	Outer capsule interferes with molecular recognition Resist breakdown by lysosomes Hides from innate defenses	24
5248865238	Lymphocytes	White blood cells T and B cells	25
5248865239	Thymus	An organ in the thoracic cavity above the heart Lymphocytes mature into T Cells	26
5248865240	B Cells	Lymphocytes that mature from bone marrow	27
5248865241	3rd Lymphocyte type	Natural Killer Remain in blood	28
5248865242	Antigen	Any substance that elicits a response from a B Cell or T Cell	29
5248865243	Antigen Receptor	A protein that binds to an antigen	30
5248865244	Epitote	An antigenic determinant The small, accessible portion of an antigen that binds to an antigen receptor Determines T/B cell specificity	31
5248865245	B-Cell Antigen Receptor	Each B cell antigen is Y-Shaped (four polypeptide chains - two identical heavy chains, two identical light chains, with disulfide bridges) Transmembrane region near one end of a heavy chain anchors the receptor in the cell's plasma membrane) Short tail region at the end of the heavy chain extends into cytoplasma Variable regions bind to antigens (constant regions make up the rest) Bind to intact epitotes of intact antigens circulating in body fluids	32
5248865246	Variable Regions	Amino Acid sequence varies extensively from one B cell to another Specific binding	33
5248865247	Antibody/Immunoglobulin (Ig)	A protein secreted when an antigen receptor binds to an antigen Y-Shaped organization May bind to antigens on surface of pathogens or free in body fluids	34
5248865248	T Cell Antigen Receptor	Two different polypeptide chains (Alpha and Beta chain) linked by a disulfide bridge Transmembrane region anchors the receptor to plasma membrane Outer tip - Variable region Only bind to fragments of antigens displayed on the surface of host cells	35
5248865249	MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex) Molecule	A host protein that displays the antigen gragment on the cell surface	36
5248865250	Antigen Presentation	The display of the antigen fragment in an exposed groove of the MHC protein Pathogen or part of a pathogen is taken in by a host cell Enzymes cleave the antigen into smaller peptides (antigen fragments) MHC binds to fragments MHC moves to surface and presents antigen	37
5248865251	B Cell and T Cell development	Diversit, self tolerance (lack of reactivity to self), cell proliferation, stronger secondary response	38
5248865252	Generation of B and T Cell Diversity	Each person makes more than 1 mil diff. B Cell antigen receptors and 10 mil. different T Cell antigen receptors Recombinase enzyme linkas a light chain V gene seg. to one J (joining) seg. to form a single exon Rnadomly links any one of 40 V to any one of 5 J	39
5248865253	Origin of Self Tolerance	Lymphocyte antigen receptors are tested for self-reactivity Those that are self reactive undergo apoptosis or rendered nonfunctional	40
5248865254	Proliferation of B and T Cells; Clonal Selection	Binding of antigen receptor to epitote activates lymphocyte B/T cell then undergoes multiple cell divisions to produce clones	41
5248865255	Effector Cells	Short lived cells that take effect immediately against the antigen or any pathogen producing that sntigen	42
5248865256	Memory Cells	Long-lived cells that can give rise to effector cells if the same antigen is encountered later in the animal's life	43
5248865257	Primary Immune Response	Peaks 10-17 days after initial exposure Selected B and T cells give rise to effector and memory forms	44
5248865258	Secondary Immune Response	Hallmark of adaptive immunity Peaks 2-7 days after exposure Faster, stronger, longer response Relies on reservoir of memory T and B cells generated following the initial exposure	45
5248865259	Humoral Immune Response	Occurs in blood/lymph Antibodies help neutralize or eliminate toxins and pathogens in blood/lymph	46
5248865260	Cell-Mediated immune response	Specialized T cells destroy infected host cells	47
5248865261	Helper T-Cell	Triggers both humoral and cell-mediated immune response Do not carry out the responses themselves Signals the production of antibodies To activate adaptive immune responses, a foreign molecule must be present that can bind specifically to the antigen receptor of the T Cell AND the antigen must be displayed on the surface of an antigen-presenting cell	48
5248865262	Antigen-Presenting Cell	A dendritic cell, macrophage, or B Cell	49
5248865263	What distinguishes an antigen-presenting cell?	Antigen-Presenting Cells can also be host cells Class I MHC - Body Cells Class I and Class II MHC - Antigen presenting cells Class II allows antigen presenting cells to be recognized	50
5248865264	Helper T/Antigen-Presenting Cell Interaction	Antigen receptors on Helper T surface bind to specific epitote of an antigen frag. Accessory protein on helper T Cell attaches to Class II MHC (keeps them joined) Signals from cytokines are exchanges (antigen-presenting cell secrete cytokines to stimulate Helpter T, causing the Helpter T to produce cytokines) Helper T Cell proliferates (forms Activated Helpter T Cells) to stimulate cytotoxic T Cells B Cells present antigents to already activated helper T cells, which activates B Cells themselves	51
5248865265	Cytotoxic T Cells	Cell-mediated immune response effector cells Requires signaling molecules from helper T and the interaction with a antigen-presenting cell to activate Frag. of foreign proteins produced in infected host cells associate with Class I MHC (recognized by cytotoxic T) Secrete proteins that disrupt membrane integrity and tirgger apoptosis Deprives pathogen of reproduction host and exposes them to antibodies	52
5248865266	Activation of B Cells	Activation by antigen is aided by cytokine (secreted by helper T) Stimulated by antigen and cytokines, B Cells proliferate into memory and effector/plasma cells (secrete antibodies)	53
5248865267	Antigen processing and display in B Cells	Presents only the antigen to which it specifically binds (magrophages/dendritic cells present fragments from a wide variety of protein antigens) Antigen binds to receptor on B Cell surface Receptor-mediated endocytosis, class II MHC protein then presents antigen frag to helpter T	54
5248865268	B Cell Activation	Cell-to-cell contact between B cell and Helper T Cell 1000's of plasma cells produced (these stop expressing a membrane bound antigen receptor) and produce/secrete antibodies (2000/sec for 4-5 days) Antigens recognized by B cells contain multiple epitotes (single antigen, variety of B cells activated)	55
5248865269	Antibody Function	Binds to entigens, marks pathogens for inactivation/destruction	56
5248865270	Antibody Function - Neutralization	Antibodies bind to viral surface proteins Prevent infection of host cell, or recruits natural killer Bind to toxins released in body and prevent entrance	57
5248865271	Antibody Function - Opsonization	Antibodies bound to antigens on bacteria present a readily recognized structure for macrophages or neutrophils Increase phagocytosis May link bacterial cells, virus particles, or other foreign substances into aggregates (each antibody has 2 binding sites) Positive feedback (antibodies increase phagocytosis, phagocytic cells present antigens, more B cells formed, more antibodies released)	58
5248865272	Antibody Function - Membrane Attack Complex	Complement protein binds to antigen-antibody complex on a foreign cell (or enveloped virus) Complement system activates next protein Activated complement protein cascade generates membrane attack complex (forms pores in membrane of foreign cells, ions/water rush in, lysis)	59
5248865273	Active Immunity	Defenses that arise when a pathogen infects the body and prompts a primary or secondary immune response	60
5248865274	Passive Immunity	Antibodies provided by mother guard against pathogens that have never infected the newborn	61
5248865275	Immunization/Vaccination	Introduction of antigens into the body used to induce adaptive immunity Antibodies from an immune animal are injected into nonimmune animal (artificial passive immunization)	62
5248865276	Monoclonial Antibodies	Antibodies prepared from a single blone of B cells grown in a culture	63
5248865277	Immune Rejection	Antigen receptors are not self-tolerant of a recipient's body cells (Immune system is health)	64
5248865278	Blood Groups	Type A - A Carbohydrate, Anti-B Type B - B Carbohydrate, Anti-A Type AB - Both A and B carbohydrate, no antibody Type O - Neither, Anti-A and Anti-B	65
5248865279	Tissue and Organ Transplants	MHC stimulate immune response Diversity of MHC	66
5248865280	Allergies	Exaggerated (hypersentive) responses to certain antigens (allergens)	67
5248865281	Autoimmune Disease	Immune system is active against particular molecules of the body Immune system is self-reactive Lupus - Antibodies vs histones and DNA (breakdown of body cells - skin rashes, fevers, arthritis, kidney dysfunction) Rheumatoid Arthritis - Damage and inflammation of joints/cartilage Type I Diabetes Mellitus - Insulin producing Beta cells of pancreas are destroyed by cytotoxic T Cells Multiple sclerosis - T cells infiltrate central nervous system and destroy myelin sheath	68
5248865282	Immunodeficiency	An immune system response to antigens that is defective or absent	69
5248865283	Aquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome	HIV virus	70
5248865284	Antigenic Variation	Changes in epitote expression Lessens recognition by immune system	71
5248865285	Latency	Viruses enter an inactive state No proteins made, no free virus particles, adaptive immunity is not triggered	72
5248865286	HIV	Infects helper T Cells, high mutation (antigenic variation)	73
5248865287	Cancer	Cancer frequency increases dramatically when adaptive immunity is inactivated	74

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AP Biology: A Tour of the Cell Flashcards

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7427988339	basic features of all cells include	- plasma membrane - cytoplasm - chromosomes - ribosomes	0
7427988340	defining characteristics of prokaryotic cells	- no membrane bound nucleus - DNA located in an area called nucleoid - no membrane bound organelles - small	1
7427988341	define nucleoid in prokaryotic cell	area where DNA is found in prokaryotic cells	2
7427988342	define pili in prokaryotic cell	used for attachment, conjunction on bacteria cells	3
7427988343	define ribosomes in prokaryotic cell	make proteins	4
7427988344	define plasma membrane in prokaryotic cell	membrane around cytoplasm	5
7427988345	define cell wall in prokaryotic cell	structure outside of cell membrane; made of peptidoglycan for many bacteria	6
7427988346	define capsule in prokaryotic cell	jelly like outer coating	7
7427988347	define flagella in prokaryotic cell	tail for movement	8
7427988348	3 main jobs for cells	1. make proteins (proteins control every cell function) 2. make energy (for daily life, for growth) 3. make more cells (growth, repair, renewable)	9
7427988349	Organelles involved in building proteins	nucleus, nuclear envelope, nucleolus, ribosomes, ER, and golgi apparatus	10
7427988350	function of nucleus in building proteins	protects and houses DNA	11
7427988351	function of nuclear membrane in building proteins	double membrane; fused in spots to create pores (allows large macromolecules to pass through)	12
7427988352	function of nucleolus in building proteins	ribosome production-builds ribosome subunits from RNA and proteins, exit through nuclear pores to cytoplasm to form functional ribosomes	13
7427988353	function of ribosomes in building proteins	protein production (rRNA and protein combine) free ribosomes-suspended in cytosol, synthesize proteins that function in cytosol bound ribosomes-attached to endoplasmic reticulum, synthesize proteins for export or for membranes	14
7427988354	function of endoplasmic reticulum in building proteins	processes proteins, manufactures membranes, synthesis and hydrolysis of many compounds	15
7427988355	function of SMOOTH ER	(no ribosomes) membrane production, many metabolic processes, synthesize lipids (oils, phospholipids, steroids, and sex hormones), hydrolyze glycogen into glucose in liver, detoxify drugs and poisons in liver	16
7427988356	function of ROUGH ER	(ribosomes) produce proteins for export out of the cell (protein secreting cells, packaged into vesicles for export)	17
7427988357	function of golgi apparatus in building proteins	finishes, sorts, tags, and ships cell products; adds carbohydrates to proteins called glycoproteins; ships products in vesicles (membrane sacs)	18
7427988358	cis face of golgi apparatus	receiving side of golgi	19
7427988359	trans face of golgi	shipping side of golgi	20
7427988360	protein assembly line	nucleus-ribosome-ER-golgi-vesicles	21
7427988361	what are the only kinds of cell lysosomes are in	animal cells	22
7427988362	function of lysosomes	digesting macromolecules and cleaning up broken down organelles	23
7427988363	structure of lysosomes	vesicle of digestive enzymes	24
7427988364	digestion in a cell consists of	lysosomes fusing with food vacuoles, polymers digested into monomers that pass to cytosol to become nutrients of the cell	25
7427988365	lysosomal enzymes have an optimal pH of	5	26
7427988366	define apoptosis	process where lysosomes break open and kill cell	27
7427988367	example of lysosomal storage disease	tay sachs	28
7427988368	similarities between mitochondria and chloroplasts	- transform energy (generate ATP) - double membranes - semiautonomous (move, changes shape, divide) - internal ribosomes, DNA, and enzymes	29
7427988369	function of mitochondria	cellular respiration: generate ATP from breakdown of sugars, fats, and other fuels, in the presence of oxygen breakdown larger molecules into to smaller to generate energy	30
7427988370	structure of mitochondria	- 2 membranes: smooth outer membrane, highly folded inner membrane (cristae) ~ increases surface area - fluid filled space between membranes - mitochondrial matrix - DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes	31
7427988371	cellular respiration equation	glucose + oxygen --> carbon dioxide + water + energy	32
7427988372	what class of structure are chloroplasts in	plastids	33
7427988373	what do amyloplasts do	store starch in roots and tubers	34
7427988374	what do chromoplasts do	store pigments for fruits and flowers	35
7427988375	what do chloroplasts do	store chlorophyll and function in photosynthesis. in leaves, other green structures, and in eukaryotic algae	36
7427988376	chloroplast structure	stroma, thylakoids (grana)	37
7427988377	what is the stroma of a chloroplast	internal fluid filled space (DNA, ribosomes, enzymes) Stroma=Space	38
7427988378	what are thylakoids of a chloroplast	membranous sacs where ATP is made; grana are stacks of thylakoids	39
7427988379	photosynthesis equation	carbon dioxide + water + energy (sunlight)--> glucose + oxygen	40
7427988380	functions of chloroplasts	photosynthesis: generate ATP and synthesize sugars (transform solar energy into chemical energy, produce sugars from carbon dioxide and water)	41
7427988381	why are mitochondria and chloroplast different from other organelles	- organelles not part of endomembrane system - grow and reproduce (semiautonomous) - proteins primarily from free ribosomes in cytosol and a few from their own ribosomes - own circular chromosome (directs synthesis of proteins produced by own internal ribosomes)	42
7427988382	what is the endosymbiosis theory	mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free living bacteria and engulfed by ancestral eukaryote	43
7427988383	define endosymbiont	cell that lives within another cell (host); one supplies energy, the other supplies raw materials and protection	44
7427988384	what are contractile vacuoles	in freshwater protists, pump excess water out of the cell	45
7427988385	what do food vacuoles fuse with	lysosomes	46
7427988386	central vacuoles are found in	mature plant cells	47
7427988387	functions of vacuoles in plants	- storage - stockpiling proteins or organic ions - depositing metabolic byproducts - storing defensive compounds against herbivores	48
7427988388	what are peroxisomes	digestive enzyme sacs that deal with hydrogen peroxide	49
7427988389	function of cytoskeleton	structural support: maintains shape of the cell, anchors organelles motility: cell locomotion (cilia, flagella, cyclosis)	50
7427988390	microtubule structure and function	made of tubulin proteins functions: cell shape, organelle motility, cell division	51
7427988391	where are microfilaments mostly used for	actin = muscle contraction	52
7427988392	define plasmodesmata	channels that perforate the plant cell walls	53
7427988393	define tight junction	membranes of neighboring cells to prevent leakage of extracellular fluids (buttons on shirt)--tissue	54
7427988394	gap junctions define	provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent animal cells	55

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AP Biology Chapter 42 Flashcards

Ecosystems and Energy

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6746454558	Ecosystem	consists of all the organisms living in a community, as well as the abiotic factors with which they interact	0
6746538438	Energy Flow	movement of energy through trophic levels FLOWS!	1
6746541529	1st Law of Thermodynamics	energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed - through feeding relationships!	2
6746543989	2nd Law of Thermodynamics	energy not utilized is lost as heat- ecosystems need continuous input from the sun!	3
6746550317	Chemical Cycling	movement of matter from one part of the ecosystem to another CYCLES!	4
6746562334	Trophic Levels	1. Primary Producers 2. Primary Consumers 3. Secondary Consumers 4. Tertiary Consumers 5. Detritivores	5
6746573488	Primary Producers	{autotrophs} "self feeders" use light energy to synthesize sugars via photosynthesis - the source of the energy available to an ecosystem!	6
6746588862	Heterotrophs	"other-feeders" organisms in trophic levels above plants that cannot make their own food and are therefore consumers	7
6746604670	Primary Consumers	Herbivores- eat the primary producers	8
6746606058	Secondary Consumers	Carnivores that eat the herbivores (primary)	9
6746606059	Tertiary Consumers	Carnivores that eat other carnivores (secondary)	10
6746607949	Omnivores	eat both producer and other consumers - can feed at multiple trophic levels	11
6746624570	Detritus	nonliving organic material "waste" example: remains of dead organisms, feces, fallen leaves, wood	12
6746629597	Decomposers/Detritivores	get energy from detritus **convert organic materials from all trophic levels to inorganic compounds in the soil that can be taken up by plants = nutrients cycling through an ecosystem! Prokaryotes and Fungi = important detritivores!	13
6769935371	Energy and Other Limiting Factors Control Primary Production in Ecosystems	- the energy budget of an ecosystem depends on its primary productivity - Primary Production: the amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by autotrophs - the total amount of photosynthetic production sets the "spending limit" for the entire ecosystem's energy budget	14
6769938088	Gross and Net Production	Gross Primary Production (GPP): the amount of energy from light converted to chemical energy of organic molecules (sugar) per unit time (ecosystem's total primary production) - 50-90% of GPP is lost to Ra by primary producers - organisms only use NPP - which limit the food webs Net Primary Production (NPP): GPP minus energy used by primary producers for "autotrophic respiration" (Ra) NPP = GPP - Ra NPP is expressed as - energy per unit area per unit time (J/m2 yr), or - biomass added per unit area per unit time (g/m2 yr)	15
6770081604	Secondary Production	the amount of chemical energy in consumer's food that is converted to new biomass during a given period of time	16
6770108288	Trophic Efficiency	percentage of production (energy stored in biomass) transferred from one trophic level to the next, usually ~ 10% - trophic efficiencies take into account energy lost through respiration and contained in feces, and the energy stored in unconsumed portions of the food source	17
6770169001	Biological Magnification	the concentration of toxins in higher levels of a food web example: DDT or substances that don't degrade / fat soluble	18
6779948370	Biological and Geochemical Processes Cycle Nutrient and Water in Ecosystems	life depends on recycling chemical elements - water, carbon, nitrogen cycle in both terrestrial and aquatic decomposers (detritivores) play a key role in the general pattern of chemical cycling	19
6779962972	Biogeochemical Cycles	nutrient cycles that contain both biotic and abiotic components - allows scientists to trace how nutrients flow through ecosystems and how humans may have altered the flow	20
6779964143	The Water Cycle	- water is essential to all organisms - liquid water is the primary phase used ocean = 97% of biosphere's water; 2% in glaciers and polar ice aps, 1% in lakes, rivers, and groundwater - water moves by the process of evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and movement through surface and groundwater	21
6779965555	The Carbon Cycle	carbon-based organic molecules are essential to all organisms - historically has been a close balance between the amount of CO2 removed by photosynthesis and added by cellular respiration - human burning of fossil fuels has added CO2 to atmosphere! - carbon reservoirs = fossil fuels, soils and sediments, solutes in oceans, plant and animal biomass, the atmosphere, and sedimentary rocks	22
6779966877	The Nitrogen Cycle	- nitrogen is a component of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids - important nutrient for plant growth! - most of the Earth's nitrogen in the atmosphere is in the form of N2 - not usable by plants! Only Ammonium & Nitrate can be utilized by plants! Nitrogen fixation: bacteria in soil converts (N2) into forms usable by plants (NH4+ or NO3-) Nitrification: ammonium (NH4+) is oxidized to nitrite and then nitrate (NO3-) by bacteria (for plants) Denitrification: bacteria converts NO3- back to N2 to the atmosphere	23
6779991806	Greenhouse Effects	the trapping of heat by the Earth's atmosphere - CO2 causes: industrialization, burning of fossil fuels, loss of forests - who is responsible for all this?! results: Earth will heat up, ice caps melt and sea levels will rise, climate shifts	24

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Cell Membrane -AP Biology - Cells Review Flashcards

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7628757098	Selectively permeability	it allows some things to come through and some not	0
7628757099	Osmosis	Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane	1
7628757100	turgid	swollen as from a fluid; bloated	2
7628757101	Amphipathic molecule	A molecule that has both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region.	3
7628757102	flaccid	This happens when water moves, but the amount within the cell is constant; no pressure builds.	4
7628757103	fluid mosaic model	The currently accepted model of cell membrane structure, which envisions the membrane as a mosaic of individually inserted protein molecules drifting laterally in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.	5
7628757104	Intergral proteins	Proteins that go all the way through the membrane	6
7628757105	plasmolysis	This happens when a cell shrinks inside its cell wall while the cell wall remains intact.	7
7628757107	facilitated diffusion	A process in which substances are transported across a plasma membrane with the concentration gradient with the aid of carrier (transport) proteins; does not require the use of energy.	8
7628757108	concentration gradient	difference in concentration of a substance on two sides of a membrane	9
7628757109	Active transport	Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference	10
7628757110	passive transport	Requires NO energy, Movement of molecules from high to low concentration, Moves with the concentration gradient	11
7628757111	sodium-potassium pump	a carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport (3) sodium ions out of a cell and (2) potassium ions into the cell	12
7628757112	hypertonic	(of a solution) having a higher osmotic pressure than a comparison solution	13
7628757113	hypotonic	Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution	14
7628757114	exocytosis	A process in which a cell releases substances to the extracellular environment by fusing a vesicular membrane with the plasma membrane, separating the membrane at the point of fusion and allowing the substance to be released.	15
7628757115	isotonic	Having the same solute concentration as another solution. (or same osmotic pressure)	16
7628757116	endocytosis	A process in which a cell engulfs extracellular material through an inward folding of its plasma membrane.	17
7628757117	gated channels	A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.	18
7628757121	peripheral proteins	attached to membrane surface	19
7628757122	channel proteins	passage for hydrophillic substances	20
7628757123	aquaporins	channel proteins; increase rate of H20 passage	21
7628757124	ion channels	ions; gated channels	22
7628757125	gated channels	open and close in response to stimuli EX: nerve and muscle cells	23
7628757126	carrier proteins	specific molecules bind, changing protein shape	24
7628757127	transport proteins	use ATP (active transport) EX: sodium-potassium pump	25
7628757128	recognition proteins	unique identification; glycoproteins EX: blood types	26
7628757129	receptor proteins	provide binding sites; activates specific cell response	27
7628757132	nucleus	contains DNA and nucleoli; site of cell division	28
7628757136	ribosome	2 RNA subunits + proteins; free v bound; location of protein synthesis	29
7628757137	smooth ER	w/o ribosomes; synthesis of lipids and steroids, metabolizes CHO, detoxification	30
7628757138	rough ER	w/ ribosomes; synthesis of proteins and glycoproteins, produces new membrane	31
7628757139	golgi apparatus	collect, modify, and package proteins, CHO and lipids	32
7628757140	lysosomes	(animal cells only) vesicles from Golgi with hydrolytic enzymes; break down material in cytosol for recycling; low pH	33
7628757141	peroxisomes	animals: breakdown H202, fatty acids, AAs; plants: modify by-products of photosynthesis	34
7628757142	mitochondria	carry out cellular respiration; two membranes allow separation of metabolic processes	35
7628757143	chloroplasts	(plant cells only) carry out photosynthesis; two membranes	36
7628757146	centrioles	(animal cells only) microtubule organizing centers; create spine apparatus in cell division	37
7628757147	transport vesicles	move materials btwn organelles	38
7628757148	food vacuoles	receive nutrients; usually merge with lysosomes	39
7628757149	contractile vacuoles	collect and pump water in cell	40
7628757150	central vacuoles	(plant cells only) contain most of plant cell interior; exert tugor when full for cell rigidity; functions specialized: 1) store starch, nutrients, waste, etc. 2) lysosome function 3) cell growth by absorbing H20 4) renders large SA-to-V ratio	41
7628757151	cell walls	(plant cells only) support	42
7628757152	cell junctions	anchor cells together for cellular exchange	43
7628757154	gap junctions	(animals) (communication) narrow tunnels; basically channel protein connecting 2 cells	44
7628757155	plasmodesmata	(plants) (communication) narrow tunnels; like gap junctions	45
7628757156	prokaryotes	plasma membrane, DNA, ribosomes, cytoplasm, cell wall	46
7628757162	diffusion	random mvmnt leads to net mvmnt from [high] to [low]	47
7628757163	osmosis	diffusion of water across selectively permeable mmbrn	48
7628757164	turgor pressure	osmosis into cell	49
7628757166	cell lysis	swelling of cell b/c excess turgor pressure	50
7628757172	phagocytosis	cellular eating; undissolved material enters cell; forms phagocytic vesicle	51
7628757173	pinocytosis	cellular drinking; dissolved material enters cell; forms liquid vesicle	52
7628757174	receptor-mediated endocytosis	specific molec. (ligands) binds to site, resulting in pinocytosis	53
7628757175	water potential	movement of water from where there is high potential to low potential; based upon solute and pressure components	54
7628757176	apoptosis	cell death	55
7628757178	ligand	signalling molecule	56
7628757179	synapse	space between two neurons	57
7628803734	The surface area-to-volume ratio of a cell a. remains constant throughout the life of the cell. b. increases if the cell grows larger without changing shape. c. decreases if the cell changes from a cuboidal to flattened shape. d. is larger in a large cuboidal-shaped cell than in a small cuboidal-shaped cell. e. increases if the cell develops folds in its cell membrane	Answer E	58
7628846813	The surface area-to-volume ratio of an object will be decreased most by a process that a. cuts it into smaller pieces. b. flattens it. c. stretches it. d. makes it spherical. e. makes it cube-shaped	Answer D	59
7628878738	What key feature distinguishes eukaryotes from prokaryotes? a. Ribosomal synthesis of cellular proteins b. Ability to convert light energy to chemical energy c. Use of nucleic acids for storing biological information d. Separation of cell functions into different compartments e. Multicellular organization	Answer D	60
7628904640	If a person becomes dehydrated and needs to acquire dissolved solutes rapidly, which cellular process would likely be accelerated? a. Osmosis b. Diffusion c. Receptor-mediated endocytosis d. Phagocytosis e. Pinocytosis	Answer E	61
7628919189	Which of the following is the correct order of the molecules that are activated by a single molecule of epinephrine in liver cells, from lowest number of molecules to highest number of molecules? a. cAMP, protein kinase A, phosphorylase kinase, glycogen phosphorylase b. Glycogen phosphorylase, phosphorylase kinase, protein kinase A, cAMP c. cAMP, phosphorylase kinase, glycogen phosphorylase, protein kinase A d. Glycogen phosphorylase, cAMP, protein kinase A, phosphorylase kinase e. Phosphorylase kinase, glycogen phosphorylase, cAMP, protein kinase A	Answer A	62
7628963262	How does a protein kinase cascade amplify an intercellular signal? a. Protein kinase molecules open cell junctions, amplifying the intercellular signal. b. The activated G protein binds and activates a second protein, amplifying the signal. c. Nitric oxide opens cell channels, which allows protein kinase molecules to move quickly from cell to cell. d. Second messengers create shortcuts that create multiple cascades. e. Sequential activation of protein kinases can lead to the activation of thousands of effector proteins.	Answer E	63
7629146577	As a result of diffusion, the concentration of many types of substances a. always remains greater inside a membrane. b. eventually becomes balanced on both sides of a membrane. c. always remains greater on the outside of a membrane. d. becomes imbalanced on both sides of a membrane.	Answer B	64

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Ap Biology Chapter 11 Flashcards

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5004955255	Microbes	The key to scientists understanding cell signaling (yeast)	0
5004972401	Signal transduction pathway	A series of steps by which a signal on a cell's surface is converted into a specific cellular response	1
5004977272	Prokaryotes	The first cell signaling occurred here and was modified by Eukaryotes	2
5004988102	Quorum sensing	Signaling molecules allows bacteria to detect population density	3
5004996059	Autoinducers	Bacteria signals	4
5005001505	Local regulators	Messenger molecules that travel only short distances in animal cells	5
5005005354	Hormones	Long distance signaling in plants and animals	6
5005008182	Earl W. Sutherland	He discovered how epinephrine acts on cells	7
5005013350	Ligand	a signal molecule	8
5005015982	Polar	Most signal molecules are	9
5005026655	G proteins	The on/off switch - If GDP is bound to the G protein then the G protein is inactive	10
5005038280	Receptor tyrosine kinases	Membrane receptors that attach phosphates to tyrosine	11
5005048853	G protein coupled receptors	A plasma membrane receptor that works with the help of a G protein	12
5005055527	60%	What percentage of medicine works with G proteins	13
5005061807	Ligand gated ion channels	A receptor that acts as a gate when the receptor changes shape (important in nerves)	14
5005073619	Intracellular receptors	Receptors in the cytoplasm	15
5005079264	Protein kinases	Enzymes that transfer phosphates from ATP to protein (known as phosphorylation)	16
5005088041	Protein phosphates	Proteins that remove phosphates from proteins (known as dephosphorylation)	17
5005100957	Second messengers	Small non-protein water soluble molecules or ions that spread throughout a cell by diffusion	18
5005111467	cAMP	One of the most widely used second messengers	19
5005118029	Adenylyl cyclase	An enzyme in the plasma membrane converts ATP to cAMP in response to an extracellular signal	20
5005125926	Calcium (ion Ca²)	Another major secondary messenger	21
5005136024	Inosital triphosphate (IP₃) and Diacylglycerol	Additional secondary messengers	22
5005151191	Transcription factor	One of the final molecules that can be activated	23
5005157134	Multi-step pathways (uses)	Amplifying the signal and contributing to the specificity of the responses	24
5005176299	Scaffolding proteins	Large relay proteins to which other relay proteins are attached to increase the signal transduction efficiency.	25
5005186440	Apoptosis	A programmed death of cells that are then chopped and packaged in vesicles to be digested by other cells	26
5005200134	Blebbing	An old broken down cell that was apoptosising	27
5005216978	Alzheimes and Parkinson's	Diseases related to apoptosis	28
5005222182	Caspases	The main porteases that carry out apoptosis	29

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AP Biology Chapter 27 Flashcards

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8912002673	halobacterium	Prokaryotes that thrive in salinities that dehydrate and kill other cells - pump potassium ions into the cells until the ionic concentration inside matches the concentration outside	0
8912002674	they are able to adapt to a broad range of habitats	Why are prokayotes some of the most abundant organisms on earth?	1
8912002675	0.5-5 micrometers	How large is the diameter of the typical prokayote?	2
8912002676	cell wall	This maintains cell shape, protects the cell, and prevents it from bursting in a hypotonic environment in prokaryotes	3
8912002677	cocci	Single spherical prokaryotes	4
8912002678	diplococci	Pairs of spherical prokaryotes	5
8912002679	streptococci	Chains of spherical prokaryotes	6
8912002680	staphylococci	Clusters of spherical prokaryotes	7
8912002681	bacilli	Rod-shaped prokaryotes (the single version is most common)	8
8912002682	streptobacilli	Chains of rod-shaped prokaryotes	9
8912002683	spirilla	Spiral prokaryotes that range from comma-like shapes to loose coils	10
8912002684	spirochetes	Spiral prokaryotes that are corkscrew-shaped	11
8912002685	it causes prokaryotes to lose water (and thus inhibits cell reproduction)	Why can salt be used to preserve foods?	12
8912002686	peptidoglycan	A polymer composed of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides - found in bacterial cell walls	13
8912002687	gram stain	A technique where scientists can classify many bacterial species into two groups based on differences in cell wall composition (stain, rinse, and stain determines staining response)	14
8912002688	gram-positive bacteria	Bacteria that had simpler walls with relatively large amounts of peptidoglycan - traps crystal violet	15
8912002689	gram-negative bacteria	Bacteria that have less peptidoglycan located between the outer membrane and plasma membrane and are structurally more complex - easily rise out crystal violet	16
8912002690	gram-negative (lipids in outer layer)	Which type of bacteria, gram-positive or gram-negative, are more likely to be toxic?	17
8912002691	gram-negative	Which type of bacteria, gram-positive or gram-negative, are more resistant to antibiotics?	18
8912002692	capsule	A dense and well-defined layer of polysaccharide or protein that surrounds the cell wall of many prokaryotes	19
8912002693	slime layer	Poorly organized layer of polysaccharide or protein that surrounds the cell wall of many prokaryotes	20
8912002694	to protect against dehydration or the host's immune system	What is the purpose of a capsule/slime layer?	21
8912002695	fimbriae	Hairlike appendages that some prokaryotes use to stick to their substrate or one another	22
8912002696	pili	Appendages that pull two cells together prior to DNA transfer from one cell to the other	23
8912002697	taxis	A directed movement toward or away from a stimulus	24
8912002698	chemotaxis	Prokaryotes that change their movement pattern in response to chemicals	25
8912002699	flagella	What probably evolved independently in bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes? (because of different proteins and rotational mechanisms)	26
8912002700	motor, hook, and filament	What are the three main parts of the bacterial flagellum?	27
8912002701	exaptation	A process in which existing structures take on new functions through descent with modification	28
8912002702	a circular chromosome with fewer proteins	What is the typical genome of a prokaryote?	29
8912002703	nucleoid	A region of cytoplasm that appears lighter than the surrounding cytoplasm in electron micrographs where the chromosome is located in prokaryotes	30
8912002704	plasmids	Smaller rings of independently replicating DNA molecules that usually only carry a few genes	31
8912002705	binary fission	Reproduction where a single prokaryotic cell divides into 2 cells, which then divide more - many prokaryotes can divide every 1-3 hours	32
8912002706	they are small, they reproduce by binary fission, and they have short generation times	What are three key features involved with reproduction in prokaryotes?	33
8912002707	endospores	Cells that lack an essential nutrient produce these - it is a resistant asexual spore that develops inside some bacteria cells (very tough)	34
8912002708	not in an evolutionary sense	Are prokaryotes inferior to humans?	35
8912002709	they reproduce so fast that even though new mutations are rare, they occur pretty often	Why is there so much genetic variation when prokaryotes reproduce asexually?	36
8912002710	genetic recombination	The combining of DNA from two sources	37
8912002711	horizontal gene transfer	The movement of genes from one organism to another when individuals are members of different species	38
8912002712	transformation	A process in which the genotype and possibly phenotype are altered by the uptake of foregin DNA	39
8912002713	recombinant	A cell that contains DNA derived from two different cells	40
8912002714	transduction	A process in which bacteriophages carry procaryotic genes from one host cell to another	41
8912002715	conjugation	A process where DNA is transferred between two prokaryotic cells (usually of the same species) that are temporarily joined - always one way	42
8912002716	F factor	A piece of DNA that controls a bacteria's ability to form pili and donate DNA during conjugation (could be a plasmid or within chromosome)	43
8912002717	F plasmid	The F factor in its plasmid form	44
8912002718	F+ cells	What are cells that have the F factor and function as DNA donors during conjugation called?	45
8912002719	Hfr cell	A cell with the F factor built into its chromosome	46
8912002720	R plasmids	Plasmids that carry resistance genes (resist antibiotics)	47
8912002721	phototrophs	Organisms that obtain energy from light	48
8912002722	chemotrophs	Organisms that obtain energy from chemicals	49
8912002723	autotrophs	Organisms that need only CO2 in some form as a carbon source	50
8912002724	heterotrophs	Organisms that need at least one organic nutrient	51
8912002725	obligate aerobes	Prokaryotes that need O2 for cellular respiration	52
8912002726	obligate anaerobes	Prokaryotes that are poisoned by O2	53
8912002727	anaerobic respiration	A process in which substances other than O2, such as nitrate ions or sulfate ions accept electrons at the "downhill" end of the electron transport chain and extract chemical energy	54
8912002728	facultative anaerobes	Prokaryotes that us O2 if it is present but also carry out fermentation or anaerobic respiration if needed	55
8912002729	nitrogen fixation	A process where atmosphereic nitrogen is converted to ammonia	56
8912002730	heterocysts	A few speciailized cells in a filament that carry out nitrogen fixation	57
8912002731	biofilms	Surface-coating colonies of different prokaryotic species - allow nutrients to reach cells in the interior and wastes to be expelled	58
8912002732	extremophiles	Archaea that live in environments so extreme that few other organisms can survive there	59
8912002733	extreme halophiles	Extremophiles that live in highly saline environments	60
8912002734	extreme thermophiles	Extremophiles that thrive in very hot environments	61
8912002735	DNA does not remain in a double helix and proteins denature	Why do the cells of most organisms die at hot temperatures?	62
8912002736	methanogens	Archaea that release methane as a byproduct of their unique ways of obtaining energy	63
8912002737	energy and methane waste	What is released when methanogens use CO2 to oxidize H2?	64
8912002738	proteobacteria	Diverse group of gram-negative bacteria that includes 5 subgroups	65
8912002739	alpha proteobacteria	A subgroup of proteobacteria that includes bacteria that are closely associated with eukaryotic hosts	66
8912002740	beta proteobacteria	A subgroup of proteobacteria that is nutrionally diverse and contains soil bacteria	67
8912002741	epsilon proteobacteria	A subgroup of proteobacteria that is mostly pathogenic to humans and other animals	68
8912002742	chlamydias	Parasites that can only survive within animal cells, are gram-negative, and cause a lot of common diseases	69
8912002743	cyanobacteria	Photoautotrophs with plantlike, oxygen-generating photosynthesis	70
8912002744	decomposers	Chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes that break down dead organisms as well as waste products	71
8912002745	symbiosis	An ecological relationship in which two species live in close contant with each other	72
8912002746	mutualism	An ecological interaction between two species in which both benefit	73
8912002747	commensalism	An ecological relationship in which one species benefits while the other is not harmed or helped in any significant way	74
8912002748	parasitism	An ecological relationship in which a parasite eats the cell contents, tissues, or body fluids of its hosts (harm but usually don't kill)	75
8912002749	pathogens	Parasites that cause disease	76
8912002750	exotoxins	Poisionous proteins secreted by certain bacteria and other organisms	77
8912002751	endotoxins	Lipopolysaccharide components of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria that are released only when the bacteria die and their cell walls break down	78
8912002752	bioremediation	The use of organisms to remove pollutants from soil, air, or water	79

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AP Biology Unit 4.1: Discovery of DNA Flashcards

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9000378439	DNA	nucleic acid that makes up your genetic code; located in the nucleus of cell	0
9000378440	Genes	segments of DNA that code for proteins, thus determining our various traits and allowing us to pass on heritable traits from generation to generation	1
9000378441	Frederick Griffith	British medical officer who studied the bacterium that causes pneumonia; discovered bacterial transformation via an experiment that involved injecting mice with smooth S cells, rough R cells, heat-killed S cells, and heat-killed S cells with living R cells.	2
9000378442	R-strain bacteria	Strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae that does not cause pneumonia (you'll be R RIGHT if infected by this one)	3
9000378443	S-strain bacteria	Strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae that causes pneumonia (it would be SO BAD to be infected by this one)	4
9000378444	Transforming principle	Name that Griffith gave to the factor that turned harmless R-strain bacteria into virulent S-strain bacteria when dad S-strain bacteria were mixed with living R-strain bacteria.	5
9000378445	Bacterial transformation	The ability of bacteria to take up DNA from another bacterial cell and incorporate it into their own genome. Discovered by Griffith in his experiments on the bacterium that causes pneumonia.	6
9000378446	Oswald Avery	Verified Griffith's experiment. He used specific enzymes to see which macromolecule, if destroyed, would not cause death in the mouse. Found that DNA that had been broken down would not cause death.	7
9000378447	Hershey and Chase	The two scientists who wanted to determine which part of a bacteriophage virus entered a bacterial cell: the DNA or the protein coat. They made the proteins radioactive, and the radioactivity was NOT injected into the cell. They made the DNA radioactive, and the radioactivity WAS injected into the cell.	8
9000378448	Bacteriophage	A virus that infects bacteria	9
9000378449	1953	Year that Watson and Crick published the structure of DNA.	10
9000378450	James Watson and Francis Crick	Scientists that are given credit for establishing the structure of the DNA molecule as a double-helix.	11
9000378451	Rosalind Franklin	British scientist who used a technique called X-ray diffraction to get information about the structure of the DNA molecule; Watson and Crick used her photo without her permission to develop their model of the structure of DNA.	12
9000378452	Maurice Wilkins	Worked alongside Rosalind Franklin on taking photographs of DNA using X-ray diffraction; showed Franklin' image to Watson and Crick without her permission.	13
9000378453	Double Helix	The twisted ladder structure of DNA.	14
9000378454	X-Ray Crystallography	A technique that depends on the diffraction of an X-ray beam by the individual atoms of a crystallized molecule to study the three-dimensional structure of the molecule; used by Franklin to study the structure of DNA	15

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AP Biology Unit 1 Water Flashcards

A review of all of the Campbell 7th Edition terms for the new 2013 AP Biology Curriculum

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4849523732	nonpolar	No partial charges. Do not mix with water.	0
4849523733	electronegativity	Attraction of an atom for electrons in a covalent bond.	1
4849523734	cohesion	Water molecules sticking to each other.	2
4849523735	adhesion	Water molecules sticking to other surfaces.	3
4849523736	solute	Something dissolved in a solution.	4
4849523737	solvent	Dissolving agent of a solution.	5
4849523738	capillary action	A process powered by adhesion that causes water molecules to move upward through a narrow tube such as the stem of a plant.	6
4849523739	Heat capacity/specific heat	the amount of thermal energy that must be absorbed or lost to change the temperature of a substance or object by 1oC	7
4849523740	surface tension	An inward force that tends to minimize the surface area of a liquid; it causes the surface to behave as if it were a thin skin	8
4849523741	heat of vaporization	The amount of energy required for the liquid at its boiling point to become a gas	9
4849523742	heat of fusion	the amount of energy required to change a substance from the solid phase to the liquid phase at its melting point	10
4849523743	thermal conductivity	the rate at which a substance transfers thermal energy	11
4849523744	hydrophobic	insoluble in water	12
4849523745	hydrophilic	having a tendency to mix with, dissolve in, or be wetted by water.	13
4849523746	covalent bonds	Bonds created by sharing electrons with other atoms.	14
4849523747	ionic bonds	Bonds between atoms that form by transferring electrons	15
4849523748	hydrogen bonds	Very weak bonds; occurs when a hydrogen atom in one molecule is attracted to the electrostatic atom in another molecule	16
4849523749	polar covalent bond	A covalent bond between atoms that differ in electronegativity. The shared electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom, making it slightly negative and the other atom slightly positive.	17
4849523750	ions	Charged atoms	18
4849523751	cations	Positively charged ions	19
4849523752	anions	Negatively charged ions	20
4849523753	acid	A substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.	21
4849523754	base	A substance that decreases the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.	22
4849523755	alkaline	a basic substance; chemically, a substance that absorbs hydrogen ions or releases hydroxyl ions; in reference to natural water, a measure of the base content of the water.	23
4849523756	pH scale	measurement system used to indicate the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution; ranges from 0 to 14. O is most acidic + and 14 is most basic + or alkaline.	24
4849523757	buffer	A solution that minimizes changes in pH when extraneous acids or bases are added to the solution.	25
4849523758	transpiration	The process by which water is lost through a plant's leaves	26
4849523759	evaporative cooling	The process in which the surface of an object becomes cooler during evaporation, owing to a change of the molecules with the greatest kinetic energy from the liquid to the gaseous state.	27
4849523760	temperature	A measure of the average energy of motion of the particles of a substance.	28
4849523761	hydration shell	The sphere of water molecules around each dissolved ion	29
4849523762	molarity	A common measure of solute concentration, referring to the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.	30
4849523763	hydrogen ions	H+, acids	31
4849523764	hydroxide ions	OH-, bases	32
4849523765	ocean acidification	increase in acidity (decrease in pH) of ocean water due to increased uptake of CO2 from atmosphere forming carbonic acid (H2CO3)	33
4849523766	acid precipitation	Conversion of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides to acids that return to earth as rain,snow, or fog.	34
4849523767	data	Facts, figures, and other evidence gathered through observations.	35
4849523768	inductive reasoning	A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations.	36
4849523769	hypothesis	A proposed, scientifically testable explanation for an observed phenomenon.	37
4849523770	theory	A broad explanation of natural events that is supported by strong evidence.	38
4849523771	Law	An observation that happens every time under a certain set of conditions	39
4849523772	deductive reasoning	reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.)	40
4849523773	controlled experiment	An experiment in which only one variable is manipulated at a time.	41
4849523774	independent variable	The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.	42
4849523775	dependent variable	The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.	43