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Ap Biology Chapter 55 Flashcards

5712355276	Ecosystem	Consists of all the organisms living in a community, as well as the abiotic factors with which they interact	0
5712375435	Law of conservation of mass	States that matter cannot be created or destroyed	1
5712388447	Detritivores	Decomposers that consume nonliving organic matter	2
5712401896	Primary production	In an ecosystem is the amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by autotrophs during a given time period	3
5712420794	Gross primary production	Total primary production	4
5712426182	Net primary production	GPP minus energy used by primary producers for respiration	5
5712440073	Standing crop	The total biomass of photosynthesis autotrophs at a given time	6
5712454880	Limiting nutrient	The element that must be added for production to increase in an area	7
5712471194	Eutrophication	A process by which nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, become highly concentrated in a body of water, leading to increased growth of organisms such as algae or cyanobacteria.	8
5712483979	Actual evapotranspiration	The water annually transpired by plants and evaporated from a landscape	9
5712497961	Secondary production	An ecosystem is the amount of chemical energy in food converted to new biomass during a given period of time	10
5712514999	Productions efficiency	The fraction of energy stored in food that is not used for respiration	11
5712525457	Trophic efficiency	The percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next 5%-20%	12
5712542322	Turnover time	A ratio of the standing crop biomass to production	13
5712558114	Biogeochemical cycles	Nutrient circuits in ecosystems involve biotic and abiotic components	14
5712573411	Green world hypothesis	Proposes several factors that keep herbivores in check	15
5712640467	Hubbard Brook Experiment Forest	Has been used to study nutrient cycling in a forest ecosystem since 1963	16
5712654423	Critical load	The amount that plants absorb without damaging the ecosystem	17

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AP Biology Unit 2 Vocabulary Flashcards

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7371379306	aqua	water	0
7371379307	phag	eat	1
7371383092	amphi	dual	2
7371384303	pori	small opening	3
7371386083	co	together	4
7371386990	trans	across	5
7371388392	genic	producing	6
7371389507	hyper	exceeding	7
7371390770	hypo	lower	8
7371392593	tonus	tension	9
7371394003	pino	drink	10
7371395285	allo	different	11
7371396815	ana	up	12
7371397777	cata	down	13
7371407699	facilitated diffusion	diffusion through transport proteins in the plasma membrane	14
7371408570	diffusion	passive movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration	15
7371411917	osmosis	diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane	16
7371424452	concentration gradient	a region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or decreases	17
7371426767	fluid mosaic model	a plasma membrane is a mosaic of protein molecules drifting in a fluid phospholipid bilayer	18
7371431500	first law of thermodynamics	energy can be transferred or transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed	19
7371492912	second law of thermodynamics	every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy (disorder) of the universe (transformation of usable energy to heat)	20
7371494552	ligand	a molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, usually a larger one	21
7371496791	catabolic pathway	a metabolic pathway that releases energy by breaking down complex molecules into smaller ones	22
7371498439	anabolic pathway	a metabolic pathway that consumes energy to synthesize a complex molecule from simpler molecules	23
7371503078	tonicity	the ability of a solution surrounding a cell to cause that cell to gain or lose water	24
7371504308	isotonic	a solution that causes no net movement of water into or out of a cell	25
7371506812	hypertonic	a solution that will cause a cell to lose water	26
7371508406	hypotonic	a solution that will cause a cell to take up water	27
7371510313	plasmolysis	when a cell shrinks in hypertonic solution	28
7371512107	cytolysis	when a cell bursts in a hypotonic solution	29
7371513643	exergonic reaction	a spontaneous chemical reaction that releases free energy	30
7371524134	endergonic reaction	a nonspontaneous chemical reaction that absorbs free energy	31
7371525154	phosphorylation	the addition of a phosphate group (ADP is phosphorylated into ATP)	32
7371526433	activation energy	the amount of energy that reactants must absorb before a chemical reaction will start	33
7371665151	substrate enters active site of enzyme		34
7371670959	enzyme/ substrate complex forms		35
7371673714	substrate is converted to products	image 3	36
7371694374	products leave the active site of the enzyme	picture 5	37
7371750556	exocytosis	moving molecules out of the cell through the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane	38
7371752513	endocytosis	the uptake of molecules through the formation of vesicles from the plasma membrane	39
7371765449	phagocytosis	endocytosis involving large particles or molecules	40
7371769062	pinocytosis	endocytosis involving fluid with dissolved solutes	41
7371770684	enthalpy	the total heat in a system	42
7371770719	entropy	a measure of disorder	43
7371775115	allosteric regulation	the binding of a regulatory molecule to a protein at one site that affects the function of a protein at another site	44
7371776993	feedback inhibition/loop	a method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme in that pathway	45
7371782542	glycoprotein	protein with carbohydrate attached	46
7371794691	glycoprotein		47
7371797598	glycolipid	lipid with carbohydrate attached	48
7371799165	glycolipid		49
7371826510	peripheral membrane protein	blue thing?	50
7371834921	integral membrane protein	yellow things?	51
7371839546	cytoskeletal filaments	wavy things outside membrane	52
7371854756	cholesterol	yellow things?	53
7371858731	protein channel	purple thing?	54
7371864637	phospholipid bilayer		55
7371872304	sodium-potassium pump	transport protein that actively transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell	56
7371874005	electrogenic pump	active transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane while pumping ions	57
7371875883	proton pump	active transport protein that uses ATP to move hydrogen ions out of a cell against the concentration gradient	58
7371878938	cotransport	coupling of the "downhill" diffusion of one substance to the "uphill" transport of another against its concentration gradient	59
7371880788	aquaporins	channel protein that is used in osmosis	60
7371882609	membrane potential	difference in electrical charge across a cell's plasma membrane due to the differential distribution of ions	61
7441910991	turgor pressure	pressure of water on the plasma membrane in plant cells	62
7441929078	active transport	from low concentration to high concentration, opposite concentration gradient, requires energy	63
7441933129	passive transport	movement of ions and other atomic or molecular substances across cell membranes without need of energy input	64
7668102507	aero	air	65
7668105937	an	not	66
7668108631	auto	self	67
7668108632	chemi	chemical	68
7668110458	chloro	green	69
7668112324	hetero	other	70
7668112325	meso	middle	71
7668114014	photo	light	72
7668114015	phyll	leaf	73
7668116263	troph	food	74
7668119352	fermentation	process of breaking down glucose (through glycolysis) into ethyl alcohol or lactic acid; produces limited ATP due to the lack of oxygen	75
7668121107	aerobic respiration	catabolic pathway where glucose is broken down completely into carbon dioxide and water in the presence of oxygen; produces 30-32 ATP	76
7668124189	redox reactions	chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons from one reactant to another	77
7668126366	chemiosmosis	using a hydrogen ion gradient to drive the production of ATP	78
7668130238	facultative anaerobes	organism that produces ATP through aerobic respiration, and switches to fermentation when oxygen is not present	79
7668134373	obligate anaerobes	organisms that only carry out fermentation; some may be poisoned by the presence of oxygen	80
7668136223	mesophyll	leaf cells specialized for photosynthesis	81
7668147800	stomata	microscopic pore surrounded by guard cells on the underside of leaves and stems; used in gas exchange	82
7668149430	chlorophyll	a green pigment found in membranes within chloroplasts of plants and algae, and in the membranes of some prokaryotes	83
7668151578	carbon fixation	incorporation of carbon dioxide into an organic compound; done by autotrophs	84
7668153228	carotenoids	an accessory pigment (yellow or orange) that absorbs light of different wavelengths that chlorophyll cannot	85
7668158108	photosystem	light capturing unit in the thylakoid that contains chlorophyll in its reaction center	86
7668162905	cristae	infolding of the inner membrane of the mitochondrion; where oxidative phosphorylation takes place	87
7668166790	matrix	space inside the inner membrane; where the citric acid cycle takes place	88
7668166791	stroma	dense fluid inside the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoids; where the light independent reactions take place	89
7668170239	thylakoid	flattened membrane stack inside a chloroplast; where the light dependent reactions take place, including photophosphorylation	90
7668173971	intermembrane space	small space to quickly accumulate protons (C)	91
7668186015	inner membrane	contains ETC and ATP synthase for oxidative phosphorylation (B)	92
7668200548	matrix of a mitochondria	has appropriate enzymes and a suitable pH for the krebs cycle (blue)	93
7668217498	cristae	highly folded so as to increase SA:Volume ratio	94
7668238145	outer membrane of a mitochondria	contains transport proteins for shuttling pyruvates in mitochondrion	95
7668256812	double membrane	evidence for endosymbiosis, independent origin	96
7668276499	stroma	has appropriate enzymes and a suitable pH for the Calvin Cycle	97
7668288349	thylakoid	has ETC and ATP synthase for phosphorylation	98
7668288350	granum	flat membrane sacs increase SA:Volume ratio and small internal volumes quickly accumulate ions	99
7668290812	lamella	connects and separates thylakoid stacks (grana)	100
7668335736	oxidation	losses electrons, becomes more positive, loses H or gains O, NADH to NAD+, H2) to O2, photophosphorylation	101
7668354364	reduction	gains electrons, becomes less positive, gains H or loses O, NAD+ to NADH, O2 to H2O, oxidative phosphorylation	102
7668373443	oxidation	complete or partial loss of electrons from a substance in a redox reaction	103
7668373444	reduction	complete or partial transfer of electrons to a substance in a redox reaction	104
7668379405	oxidative phosphorylation	the production of ATP using energy from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain coupled with chemiosmosis	105
7668382405	substrate-level phosphorylation	direct transfer of a phosphate group from an intermediate substrate to ADP	106
7668384829	photophosphorylation	process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate during the light reactions of photosynthsis	107

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AP BIOLOGY(Genetics) Flashcards

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8517291381	bacteriaphages	viruses that infect bacteria	0
8517302338	Nucleotides	The monomer of nucleic acids (Nitrogenous bases)	1
8517303554	Nitrogenous bases	Adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine	2
8517308593	covalent bonds	the bonds that hold together nucleotides	3
8517310942	sugar groups	5 carbon atoms (carbon atoms are bonded with hydrogen atoms)	4
8517309480	Phosphate groups	has a p atom and 4 oxygen atoms	5
8517315168	Pyrimindines	(single ringed base) Cytosine, and Thymine	6
8517316018	Purines	(double ringed base) Adenine, and Guanine "Pure as Gold"	7
8615293696	cell division	the way cell undergo reproduction.	8
8615312744	Prokaryotes	they reproduce through asexual reproduction.	9
8615318388	Eukaryotes	Undergoes sexual reproduction.	10
8615320134	sexual reproduction	requires the fusion of gametes (sperm and egg) with the use of reproductive organs such as the testes and ovaries. Each gamete has exactly half the necessary chromosomes to make for a specific eukaryotic offspring.(I.E humans, 23 chromosomes egg, 23 chromosomes sperm.)	11
8615363679	Gametes	sperm( male sex cell) and egg or ovum (female sex cell)	12
8615380688	Asexual Reproduction	the creation of a genetically identical offspring and it requires only one parent.	13
8615440650	Mitosis	maintains cell population in multicellular organisms and is responsible for asexual reproduction.	14
8615446257	Binary Fission	How mitosis works within asexual reproduction Steps to binary fission 1) Duplication of chromosomes and the separation of copies 2)Continued elongation of the cell and movement of the copies 3)Division into two daughter cells (sister chromatids separate	15
8615492154	Chromatin	entire complex consisting of equal amounts of RNA and protein	16
8615504330	Sister Chromatid	joined copies of an original chromosome they are attached together by proteins in a region known as the centromere.	17
8615629177			18

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AP Biology Chapter 19 Flashcards

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4987647204	Evolution	- Descent with modification. - Process consists of the mechanisms that produce the observed pattern of change.	0
4987647205	Aristotle	- Believed life forms can be arranged on the scala naturae, increasing in complexity. - Believed that organisms were fixed.	1
4987647206	Lamarck	1. Use & disuse- parts of the body that are used extensively become larger and stronger, while those that are not used deteriorate. - Ex. A giraffe stretching its neck to reach leaves on higher branches. 2. Inheritance of acquired characteristics- An organism can pass down these modifications to its offspring. - Evolution occurs because organisms have an innate drive to become more complex.	2
4987647207	Darwin	- Voyage around the world on the HMS Beagle - He observed geologic change and concluded that physical evidence did not support the traditional view that the earth was only a few thousand years old. - He found that organisms on the Galapagos Islands were similar to those on the South American mainland.	3
4987647208	Natural Selection	- The process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates that other individuals because of those traits. - Can amplify or diminish only heritable traits that differ among the individuals in a population.	4
4987647209	Descent with modification	- Unity of life- All organisms are descended from a common ancestor. - Descendents acquired diverse adaptations because of living in different environments. - Life= tree with branches from a common trunk, each fork represents most recent c. ancestor.	5
4987647210	Thomas Malthus	- Human suffering- disease, famine, and war resulted from the human population's potential to increase faster than food supplies and other resources.	6
4987647211	Survival of the fittest	- Organisms that are best adapted to their environment will have offspring and pass down their traits.	7
4987647212	Homology	- Similarity resulting from common ancestry.	8
4987647213	Homologous structures	- Structures that represent variations on a structural theme in a group of animas that was present in their common ancestor. - Ex. Arms, forelegs, flippers and wings of different mammals.	9
4987647214	Vestigial Structures	- Remnants of features that served a function in the organism's ancestors. - Ex. some snake skeletons retain vestiges of the pelvis and leg bones of walking ancestors.	10
4987647215	Comparative biochemistry	- All forms of life use the same genetic language of DNA and RNA- genetic code is essentially universal. - Likely that all species descended from common ancestors that used this code.	11
4987647216	The Fossil Record	- Documents the pattern of evolution- past organisms differed from present-day organisms & shows that many species have become extinct. - Shows that descent with modification produced increasingly large differences among related groups of organisms, ultimately resulting in the diversity of life.	12
4987647217	Biogeography	- The scientific study of the geographic distributions of species.	13

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AP Biology (Campbell) Chapter 9 - Cellular Respiration Flashcards

Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

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6285623292	Fermentation	anaerobic process that produces little ATP, includes glycolysis, and restores NAD+	0
6285623293	Aerobic Respiration	the catabolic pathway which requires oxygen and occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria	1
6285623294	Anaerobic Respiration	the catabolic pathway which does not require oxygen and occurs only in the cytoplasm	2
6285623295	Oxidation	loss of electrons from atoms of a substance	3
6285623296	Reduction	addition of electrons to atoms of a substance	4
6285623297	Reducing Agent	electron donor in a redox reaction	5
6285623298	Oxidizing Agent	electron acceptor in a redox reaction	6
6285623299	NAD+	electron carrier used in cellular respiration to transfer electrons from Kreb's cycle to ETC	7
6285623300	Electron Transport Chain (ETC)	(1) transfer of electrons from glucose via NADH/FADH2 to transmembrane proteins and subsequently using their high energy to pump protons to intermembrane space in mitochondria or thylakoid space in chloroplasts	8
6285623301	Citric Acid (Kreb's) Cycle	(B) 2nd step of cellular respiration that breaks down AcetylCoA to 2 carbon dioxide, 1 ATP, 3NADH, and 1 FADH2 molecules in mitochondrial matrix (aerobic)	9
6285623302	Glycolysis	(A) 1st step of cellular respiration that splits glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid and 2 ATPs (anaerobic, catabolic/exergonic)	10
6285623303	Pi (not π)	inorganic phosphate	11
6285623304	Oxidative Phosphorylation	(3) synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi at ATP synthase using energy from glucose electrons which are ultimately transferred to oxygen (final electron acceptor) using ETC in mitochondrial (aerobic)	12
6285623305	Substrate Level Phosphorylation	synthesis of ATP by transferring a phosphate group directly to ADP using an enzyme	13
6285623306	Chemiosmosis	(3) movement of protons down their concentration gradient coupled to ATP synthesis	14
6285623307	Proton Motive Force	potential energy stored in form of an electrochemical gradient generated by pumping hydrogen ions across membranes during ETC	15
6285623308	Alcohol Fermentation	conversion of pyruvate to carbon dioxide and 2-carbon compound in absence of oxygen to regenerate NAD+ needed for glycolysis (in yeast)	16
6285623309	Lactic Acid Fermentation	conversion of pyruvate to 3-carbon compound in absence of oxygen to regenerate NAD+ needed for glycolysis (in our muscles)	17
6285623310	Obligate Anaerobes	organisms that can only survive WITHOUT oxygen	18
6285623311	Redox	electron transfer reactions that occur together and in which one chemical is oxidized and the other reduced	19
6285623312	Formation of acetyl CoA	metabolic link between glycolysis and aerobic respiration	20
6285623313	Cellular Respiration	exergonic process that includes 3 steps and releases energy (ATP) by breaking down glucose and other molecules in presence of oxygen	21
6285623314	Cytochromes	iron-containing proteins that play key role in electron transport chains in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and cell membranes of prokaryotes	22
6285623315	ATP Synthase	enzyme in mitochondrial cristae and chloroplast thylakoids that uses energy of proton gradient to add a phosphate group to ADP and so form ATP	23
6285623316	Facultative Anaerobes	organisms that can survive with OR without oxygen	24
6285623317	Kinases/Phosphatases	enzymes that transfer phosphate groups	25

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AP Biology Chapter 5 Flashcards

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4782541464	Fluid Mosaic Model		0
4782544212	phospholipid bilayer	proteins embedded in it, some have carbs attached; can all move laterally	1
4782556418	saturated lipids	more fluid at warm, tend to freeze at cold (solid)	2
4782556419	unsaturated lipids	more fluid at cold due to the kinks (double bonds), prevents freezing	3
4782566383	cholesterol	b/w lipids, prevents tight packing, only in animals, prevents from moving laterally	4
4782574210	emergent properties	New properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases.	5
4782579323	amphipathic	have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions	6
4783282266	integral proteins	penetrate through membrane	7
4783284176	peripheral proteins	inside cell, not part of membrane structure	8
4783287500	Carbohydrates:	cell-to-cell recognition, glycoproteins and glycolipids	9
4783289643	semi-permeable	molecule needs to move through the hydrophobic core of membrane to cross the membrane (easy for small hydrophobic molecules e.g. non-polar, CO2, O2, hydrocarbons) (hard for ions, polar, hydrophilic)	10
4783293514	passive transport	move down the concentration gradient, no energy needed	11
4783295811	Diffusion	move from high concentration to low concentration	12
4783298198	Osmosis	movement of WATER, moves toward higher SOLUTE concentration, water will move from hypotonic solution to hypertonic solution	13
4783300199	hypotonic solution	low conc of solutes, high conc of free water molecules	14
4783301968	hypertonic solution	high conc of solutes, low conc of free water molecules	15
4783304521	isotonic solution	equal conc of solutes	16
4783308820	Animal Cells need to be in isotonic	burst if in hypotonic, shrivel if in hypertonic	17
4783309995	Plant cells need to be in hypotonic	the roots need oxygen for cell respiration, so too much water can make them suffocate; hypotonic--> turgid/firm; isontonic--> flaccid/wilted; hypertonic--> plasmolysis/shrinks	18
4783318343	Contractile Vacuole	Paramecium - lives in fresh water (hypotonic) so he is a hypertonic, needs a way to not explode from intaking so much water - vacuoles contract and water comes through, fills up, and leaves through canals and gets shot out	19
4783328244	Facilitated Diffusion	passive, via transport proteins in the membrane (very specific for what they transport)	20
4783337516	Channel Proteins	tunnel for molecules to go through	21
4783337822	Carrier Proteins	changes shape as it moves the molecules across the membrane	22
4783340417	Active Transport	move up the concentration gradient, energy needed (ATP), transport protein needed	23
4783345400	Example of active transport: sodium- potassium pump	creates a membrane potential, electrogenic-creates a voltage gradient across a membrane or a difference in positive and negative charges (salty banana) inside of cell is more negative because 2 potassium going in and 3 sodium going out	24
4783354913	membrane potential	voltage across the membrane, difference in positive and negative between inside and outside	25
4783356982	electrogenic pump	helps create and maintain the membrane potential	26
4783363504	electrochemical gradient (for passive transport)	combination of concentration gradient and electrochemical gradient (pos/neg), molecules always diffuse down their electrochemical gradient; depends between each circumstance, could have different pulls and concentrations each time	27
4786111280	cotransport	the positive will tend to go towards the cell becasue the inside is negative; membrane protein that moves 2 solutes - e.g. the proton pump pumps in protons and sucrose	28
4786121992	exocytosis	transports large molecules outside of the cell via a transport vesicle, energy needed, vesicles migrate to plasma membrane and the vesicles spit out the contents outside of the cell	29
4786138757	endocytosis	transports large molecules into the cell, plasma membrane forms vesicles, requires energy Phagocytosis: taking in particles (eating) Pinocytosis: taking in liquids Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis: taking in specific molecules that attach to receptors on the cell membrane (e.g. cholesterol)	30
4786161414	Reception of Signal by Target Cell	- specific binding - target cells: will have certain receptors in them - ligand (chemical signal binding to a receptor molecule) - most are cell membrane proteins	31
4786176197	Transduction of Signal	receptor shape is changed by the action of binding of the chemical signal - binding causes changes to occur in the cell that bring about a response	32
4786179666	Response	specific cellular response is triggered	33
4786183115	G-Protein-Coupled Receptors	- plasma membrane proteins with receptors on them - cell signaling pathway - signaling molecule comes from outside of the cell, chemical signal binds to the G Protein receptor, receptor changes shape and binds to G Protein - binding causes G Protein to exchange GDP for GTP (active) - G Protein moves along inside of the plasma membrane and binds to another membrane protein, and enzyme, and activates it - signals the enzyme and then backs off, enzyme sends a cellular response	34
4786271592	Ion Channel Receptors	- uses no ATP because it moves from high conc to low conc - have a "gate" that can open and close the channel - when ligand binds, the channel opens or closes allowing the flow or stopping the flow of ions - binds signal to receptor	35
4786297040	Intracellular Receptors	- lipid hormones (only these can get through plasma membrane) - inside the cell in the cytosol or in the nucleus - binds to the receptor inside the cell, they both go together into the nucleus and bind to the DNA which makes RNA and proteins	36
4787203887	Signal Transduction Pathways	- involves lots of P switching, or moving of molecules that act as messengers - protein phosphorylation cascade (keeps going over and over again) - increases number of activated proteins - P comes off the ATP and activates the next protein (chain)	37
4787207662	kinase	add phosphate to the reaction	38
4787211033	phosphatase	remove phosphate	39
4787226976	Second Messengers	- tiny non-protein molecules or ions that spread throughout the cell - cyclic AMP (cAMP) is converted from ATP and becomes a second messenger, activates other proteins to cause the response - can spread the signal through the cell more quickly because they are small and lots of them	40
4787241391	Cellular Responses	- signal is cell-specific - depends on proteins (receptors, relay proteins, enzymes etc) to carry out the response - different cell types have different proteins because they have turned on or off different sets of genes - must end the signal or turn off the response so the cell can be ready to accept a new signal (e.g. takes phosphates away, GTP goes off and GDP comes back on, etc.)	41

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AP Biology: Chapter 43 Flashcards

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6417806184	IMMUNE SYSTEM	The defensive lines of your body used to fight off pathogens.	0
6417818428	INNATE IMMUNITY	Defense that is active immediately upon infection, unaffected by whether the pathogen has been encountered before.	1
6417823902	ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY	Incredibly specific cells in the body (called T cells and B cells) have special weapons designed for specific pathogens. When a pathogen is encountered, the final defense against it is the specific T cell with receptors aligned to that pathogen's antigens multiplying and destroying the pathogen. After the first encounter, memory cells will be active to much more quickly and more powerfully respond to the pathogen. This means a second encounter may mean you don't even get sick.	2
6419625160	LYSOZYME	An enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls.	3
6419626147	PHAGOCYTOSIS	The process of one cell consuming another.	4
6419633496	TOLL-LIKE RECEPTOR	These receptors are similar to Toll receptors in insects as their target pathogens are defined by a certain characteristic. (ex. TLR3 is the receptor for double-stranded RNA)	5
6419645241	NEUTROPHIL	These cells go through phagocytosis. They circulate in the blood, being attracted by signals from infected tissue. They engulf and destroy the infection.	6
6419649758	MACROPHAGE	These cells are called "big eaters" because they eat practically anything. They usually reside in pathogen-prone areas like the spleen, though some may travel throughout the body.	7
6419663067	DENDRITIC CELL	These phagocytes reside in areas that contact the environment (mainly skin). They also stimulate adaptive immunity.	8
6419668781	EOSINOPHIL	These phagocytes are not necessarily cell destroyers, but they release destructive enzymes that combat multicellular invaders like parasitic worms.	9
6419672905	NATURAL KILLER CELL	These cells patrol the body, detecting abnormal surface proteins on virus and cancer cells. They are not phagocytes as they do not eat pathogens; instead, they force the cells to go through apoptosis (programmed cell death) by releasing perforin.	10
6419682247	INTERFERON	Cells that have been infected by viruses secrete interferons, proteins that cause surrounding uninfected cells to limit the spread of the virus.	11
6419723104	COMPLEMENT SYSTEM	Consisting of about 30 proteins in blood plasma, this system can destroy large numbers of pathogens using a biochemical cascade of reactions that can cause lysis of invading cells.	12
6419733114	INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE	Pain and swelling caused by signaling molecules alerting your immune system to an infection or injury.	13
6419737107	HISTAMINE	A signaling molecule that causes blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable.	14
6419741858	MAST CELL	Cells that store histamine in their vesicles.	15
6419743281	CYTOKINE	Signaling molecules that enhance the immune response. They increase blood flow to the site of infection/injury.	16
6419749928	LYMPHOCYTE	A type of white blood cell that includes T and B cells.	17
6419753480	THYMUS	An organ in the thoracic cavity above the heart.	18
6419756626	T CELL	Lymphocytes that travel from the bone marrow to the thymus to mature.	19
6419760646	B CELL	Lymphocytes that remain in the bone marrow to mature.	20
6419768081	ANTIGEN	Any substance that elicits a response from a T cell or B cell.	21
6419770484	ANTIGEN RECEPTOR	When a specific B/T cell binds to its specific pathogen via an antigen receptor, recognition occurs and the immune system mounts its final response.	22
6419782490	EPITOPE	The small portion of an antigen that binds to a antigen receptor.	23
6419787611	B CELL ANTIGEN RECEPTOR	A Y-shaped molecule that consists of four polypeptide chains: 2 heavy chains and 2 light chains.	24
6419799214	ANTIBODY	Similar to the B cell antigen receptors, they are secreted instead of attached to the cell. These antibodies clump viruses or bacteria together, restricting their movement.	25
6419816563	MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX (MHC) MOLECULE	The protein that presents the antigen fragment on the surface of a cell.	26
6419840997	EFFECTOR CELL	Short-lived cells created as clones of T cells and B cells that fight the pathogen. These include plasma cells from B cells and memory T cells.	27

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Evolution AP Biology Vocabulary Part 1 Flashcards

A review of all the vocabulary

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5096222083	natural selection	A population can change over time if individuals with more fit traits leave more offspring than less fit individuals.	0
5096222084	evolutionary adaptation	An accumulation of inherited characteristics that enhance organisms' ability to survive and reproduce in specific environments.	1
5096222085	artificial selection	Humans modifying species for desired traits through selective breeding.	2
5096222086	decent with modification	Darwin's way of referring to evolution.	3
5096222087	fitness	Individuals whose inherited traits confer an advantage have a better chance of surviving in a given environment and will leave more offspring.	4
5096222088	homology	Similarity resulting from common ancestry.	5
5096222089	homologous structures	Same structure, different function. Comes from common ancestor.	6
5096222091	vestigial structures	Are little or no importance to organism, but remain from an ancestor.	7
5096222092	biogeography	Geographic distribution of species.	8
5096222093	microevolution	Change in genetic makeup of a population from generation to generation.	9
5096222094	macroevolution	Evolutionary change above the species level.	10
5096222095	population	Group of individuals of the same species living in the same area.	11
5096222096	population genetics	Study of allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of evolutionary processes.	12
5096222097	gene pool	All the genes in a given population at a given time.	13
5096222098	allele frequency	Proportion of an allele in a gene pool.	14
5096222100	mutation	Changes in the nucleotide sequence in DNA.	15
5096222101	sexual recombination	Crossing over and shuffling of genes during meiosis.	16
5096222102	genetic drift	Change in allele frequencies due to chance.	17
5096222103	bottleneck effect	When a population has been dramatically reduced, and the gene pool is no longer reflective of the original population's.	18
5096222104	founder effect	When a small number of individuals colonize a new area; the new gene pool is not reflective of original population.	19
5096222105	gene flow	When a population gains or loses alleles., movement of alleles into or out of a population due to the migration of individuals to or from the population.	20
5096222106	genetic variation	Heritable variations in a population.	21
5096222107	discrete characteristics	Characteristics that are classified on an either-or basis, determined by a single gene locus.	22
5096222108	quantitative characteristics	Characteristics that vary along a continuum, usually due to influence of two or more genes.	23
5096222109	geographic variation	Difference in variation between population subgroups in different areas.	24
5096222111	relative fitness	Fitness of a particular genotype.	25
5096222112	directional selection	Shift toward a favorable variation.	26
5096222113	disruptive selection	Shift toward the extremes.	27
5096222114	stabilizing selection	Shift that favors the mean.	28
5096222115	heterozygous advantage	Maintains recessive alleles in a population,	29
5096222116	sexual selection	Natural selection for mating success.	30

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AP Biology: Chapter 3 take 2 Flashcards

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4891621390	adenosine triphosphate (ATP)	an adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate that releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This energy is used to drive endergonic reactions in cells	0
4891621391	amino group	a chemical group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms; can act as a base in solution, accepting of a hydrogen ion and acquiring a charge of 1+	1
4891621392	carbonyl group	a chemical group present in aldehydes and ketones and consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom	2
4891621393	carboxyl group	a chemical group present in organic acids and consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group	3
4891621394	enantiomer	chiral molecules that are mirror images of one another	4
4891621395	functional group	a specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and involved in chemical reactions	5
4891621396	cis trans isomer	molecules that are locked into their spatial positions with respect to one another due to a double bond or a ring structure	6
4891621397	hydrocarbon	an organic molecule consisting of only carbon and hydrogen	7
4891621398	hydroxyl group	a chemical group consisting of an oxygen atom joined to a hydrogen atom; molecules possessing this group are soluble in water and are called alcohols	8
4891621399	isomer	are compounds with the same chemical formula but different structures	9
4891621400	organic chemistry	the branch of chemistry, originally limited to substances found only in living organisms, dealing with the compounds of carbon	10
4891621401	phosphate group	a chemical group consisting of a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms; important in energy transfer	11
4891621402	structural isomer	an isomer in which the atoms are arranged in a completely different order	12
4891621403	sulfhydryl group	a chemical group consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom	13
4891621404	alpha (a) helix	a coiled region consisting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific pattern of hydrogen bonding between atoms of the polypeptide backbone	14
4891621405	amino acid	an organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl and an amino group	15
4891621406	antiparallel	referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix	16
4891621407	beta (b) pleated sheet	one form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain folds back and forth	17
4891621408	carbohydrate	a sugar or one of its dimers or polymers	18
4891621409	catalyst	a chemical agent that selectively increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction	19
4891621410	cellulose	a structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by beta glycosidic linkages	20
4891621412	chitin	a structural polysaccharide consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods	21
4891621413	cholesterol	a steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steriods	22
4891621414	condensation reaction	condensation is a chemical reaction in which one molecule is formed and one small molecule is lost	23
4891621415	dehydration reaction	a chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule	24
4891621416	denaturation in proteins	a process in which a protein loses its native shape due to the disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions, thereby becoming biologically inactive	25
4891621417	denaturation in DNA	the separation of the two strands of the double helix	26
4891621418	deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)	a nucleic acid molecule, usually a double-stranded helix, in which each polynucleotide strand consists of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases A, C, G, and T	27
4891621419	deoxyribose	the sugar component of DNA nucleotides, having one fewer hydroxyl group than ribose	28
4891621420	disaccharide	a double sugar consisting of two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage formed by a dehydration reaction	29
4891621421	disulfide bridge	a strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer	30
4891621422	double helix	the form of native DNA	31
4891621423	enzyme	a macromolecule serving as a catalyst	32
4891621424	fat	a lipid consisting of three fatty aids linked to one glycerol molecule	33
4891621425	fatty acid	a carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain	34
4891621426	gene	a discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA	35
4891621427	glycogen	an extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals	36
4891621428	glycosidic linkage	a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction	37
4891621429	hydrolysis	a chemical reaction that breaks bonds between two molecules by the addition of water	38
4891621430	hydrophobic interaction	a type of weak chemical interaction caused when molecules that do not mix with water coalesce to exclude water	39
4891621431	lipid	any of a group of large biological molecules	40
4891621432	macromolecule	a giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a dehydration reaction	41
4891621433	monomer	the subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer	42
4891621434	monosaccharide	the simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides	43
4891621435	nucleic acid	a polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers	44
4891621436	nucleotide	the building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and one or more phosphate groups	45
4891621437	peptide bond	the covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acids and the amino group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction	46
4891621438	phospholipid	a lipid made up of glycerol joined by two fatty acids and a phosphate group	47
4891621439	polymer	a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds	48
4891621440	polynucleotide	a polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers in a chain	49
4891621441	polypeptide	a polymer of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds	50
4891621442	polysaccharide	a polymer of many monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions	51
4891621443	primary structure	the level of protein structure referring to the specific linear sequence of amino acids	52
4891621444	protein	a biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three-dimensional structure	53
4891621447	quaternary structure	the particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide	54
4891621448	ribonucleic acid (RNA)	a type of nucleic acid consisting of a polynucleotide made up of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases A, C, G, and U	55
4891621449	ribose	the sugar component of RNA nucleotides	56
4891621450	saturated fatty acid	a fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds	57
4891621451	secondary structure	regions of repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bonding between constituents of the backbone	58
4891621452	starch	a storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by alpha glycosidic linkages	59
4891621453	steroid	a type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings with various chemical groups	60
4891621454	tertiary structure	the overall shape of a protein molecule due to interactions of amino acid side chains	61
4891621455	triacylglycerol	a lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to	62
4891621456	unsaturated fatty acid	a fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon tail	63
4891621457	X-ray crystallography	a technique used to study the three dimensional structure of molecules	64

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AP Biology Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell Flashcards

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7310070778	Light microscope	Visible light is passed through the specimen and then through glass lenses. The lenses reflect the light in such a way that the image of the specimen is magnified as it is projected into the eye or camera.	0
7310070779	Organelles	The membrane-enclosed structures within eukaryotic cells.	1
7310070780	Electron Microscope	2 types, SEM and TEM.	2
7310070781	Transmission Electron Microscope	Used to study the internal structure of cells. This microscope profiles a thin section of specimen. The specimen has ben stained with atoms of heavy metals, enhancing electron density of some parts of the cell.	3
7310070782	Scanning Electron Microscope	Used for detailed study of the topography of a specimen. This microscope produces a 3-D image of the specimen.	4
7310070783	Cell Fractionation	Broken cells are placed in a tube that is spun in a centrifuge. The force causes large cell components to settle at the bottom of the tube, forming a pellet.	5
7310070784	Cytosol	Semifluid, jellylike substance in which subcellular components are suspended.	6
7310070785	Eukaryotic Cell	most of the DNA is bound in an organelle called the nucleus, which is bounded by a double membrane.	7
7310070786	Prokaryotic cell	DNA is concentrated in the nucleoid	8
7310070787	Cytoplasm	Eukaryotic cells: region between nucleus and plasma membrane	9
7310070788	Plasma Membrane	a selective barrier that allows passage of enough oxygen, nutrients, and wastes to service the entire cell; membrane enclosing the cell	10
7310070789	Flagellum	A long, hairlike structure that grows out of a cell and enables the cell to move. It is composed of a cluster of microtubules within an extension of the plasma membrane.	11
7310070790	Centrosome	A region where the cells microtubules are initiated; contains a pair of centrioles	12
7310070791	Cytoskeleton	A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement	13
7310070792	Microfilaments	Long, thin fibers that function in the movement and support of the cell	14
7310070793	Intermediate filaments	Cytoskeletal filaments with a diameter in between that of the microtubule and the microfilament. Intermediate filaments are composed of many different proteins and tend to play structural roles in cells.	15
7310070794	Microtubules	Hollow rods constructed from a globular protein called tubulin	16
7310070795	Microvilli	Projections that increase the cell's surface area	17
7310070796	Peroxisome	Organelle with various specialized metabolic functions; produces hydrogen peroxide as a by-product, then converts it to water.	18
7310070797	Mitochondrion	Organelle where cellular respiration occurs and most ATP is generated; contains its own genes	19
7310070798	Lysosome	Digestive organelle where macromolecules are hydrolyzed	20
7310070799	Golgi Apparatus	active in synthesis, modification, sorting, and secretion of cell products	21
7310070800	Endoplasmic Reticulum	Network of membranous sacs and tubes; active in membrane synthesis and other synthetic and metabolic processes; has rough (ribosome studded) and smooth regions	22
7310070801	Rough ER	studded with ribosomes on outer surface of the membrane and appears rough through the electron microscope;	23
7310070802	Smooth ER	outer surface lacks ribosomes; synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxification of drugs and poisons, and storage of calcium ions.	24
7310070803	Nucleus	Contains most of the genes in the eukaryotic cell	25
7310070804	Nuclear Envelope	Double membrane enclosing the nucleus; perforated by pores; continuous with ER	26
7310070805	Nucleolus	nonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes; a nucleus has one or more nucleoli	27
7310070806	Chromation	material consisting of DNA and proteins; visible in a dividing cell as individual condensed chromosomes	28
7310070807	Central Vacuole	Prominent organelle in older plant cells; functions include storage, breakdown of waste products, hydrolysis of macromolecules; enlargement of vacuole is a major mechanism of plant growth.	29
7310070808	Chloroplast	Photosynthetic organelle; converts energy of sunlight to chemical energy stored in sugar molecules	30
7310070809	Plasmodesmata	channels through cell walls that connect the cytoplasms of adjacent cells	31
7310070810	Cell Wall	outer layer that maintains cell's shape and protects cell from mechanical damage; made of cellulose, other polysaccharides, and protein	32
7310070811	Nuclear lamina	netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope.	33
7310070812	Chromosomes	structures that carry genetic information	34
7310070813	Endomembrane System	includes nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosmoes, vesicles, vacuoles, plasma membrane; carries out protein synthesis, protein transport into membranes and organelles or out of the cell, metabolism and movement of lipids, detoxification of poisons;	35
7310070814	Phagocytosis	engulfing smaller organisms or food particles	36
7310070815	Food Vacuoles	formed by phagocytosis	37
7310070816	Contractile vacuoles	pump excess water out of cell	38
7310070817	Cristae	The infoldings of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion.	39
7310070818	Mitochondrial Matrix	The second compartment in closed by inner membrane	40
7310070819	Thylakoids	Flattened, interconnected sacs	41
7310070820	Granum	staked thylakoids like poker chips	42
7310070821	Stroma	Fluid outside thylakoids	43
7310070822	Plastids	The family of closely related plant organelles which the chloroplast is part of	44
7310070823	Motor proteins	Proteins that change the cell's location and the parts of the cell	45
7310070824	Basal Body	The microtubule assembly of a cilium or flagellum	46
7310070825	Dyneins	Large motor proteins attached to outer microtubule doblet	47
7310070826	Actin	What microfilaments are built from	48
7310070827	Primary Cell Wall	Relatively thin and flexible wall	49
7310070828	Middle lamella	thin layer rich in pectins	50
7310070829	Pectin	a sticky polysaccharide	51
7310070830	Secondary Cell Wall	strong durable matrix	52
7310070831	Proteoglycans	Collagen fiber network	53
7310070832	Fibronectin	an ECM glycoprotein	54
7310070833	Integrins	surface receptor proteins that are built into the plasma memberane	55
7310070834	Endosymbiont Theory	An early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed an oxygen-using non-photosynthetic prokaryotic cell. Eventually, the engulfed cell formed a relationship with the host cell in which it was enclosed, becoming endosymbiont. Over the course of evolution, the host cell and its endosymbiont merged into a single organism; (eukaryotic cell with mitochondrion); (eukaryotic cell with chloroplast).	56
7310070835	Ribosomes	Complexes that make proteins; free in cytosol or bound to rough ER or nucular envelope	57
7310070836	Parts of Prokaryotic Cells	Pili, Cytoplasm, Flagella (some cells), Plasma Membrane Ribosome (very small),Nucleoid Region,Cell Wall (not of cellulose)	58
7310070837	Chlorella	photosynthetic only; does not ingest food, contain cilia for movement, reproduces quickly, unicellular.	59
7310070838	Evidence for Endosymbiosis theory	1. Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain circular DNA (similar to bacterial DNA) 2. Mitochondria, chloroplasts and nuclei have double membranes 3. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are about the same size as bacteria cells 4. Infolding is known to occur in prokaryotic cells and probably gave rise to endoplasmic reticulum 5. Mitochondria are analagous in structure and function to purple bacteria as chloroplasts are to green/photosynthetic bacteria	60
7310070839	Cell Surface:Volume Ratio and Cell Size	1. Surface area:volume ratio falls with increasing cell size i.e. volume grows faster than surface area 2. Smaller cells are able to exchange materials between cytoplasm and environment because more of cells interior has access to external environment. 3. More chemical rxs can happen in bigger cells because there is more cytoplasm but less exchange of material	61
7310070840	Animal and Plant Cells	Both contain:Cytoplasm, Plasma membrane, Organelles. Plants: Composed of Cellulose, Site of photo., Large, fluid filled, No centrosome, Starch. Animals: No cell wall, No chloroplast, No central vac., centrosome, Glycogen.	62
7310070841	Tissues	groups of cells working together to perform a function i.e. heart muscle tissue, brain cells	63
7310070842	Organs	group of tissues working together i.e. heart, brain	64
7310070843	Gene	small piece of DNA that codes for a protein	65
7310070844	Totipotency	the potential of each cell to specialize in any number of differential ways	66
7310070845	Glycoprotein	A macromolecule consisting of one or more polypeptides linked to short chains	67
7310070846	Ribosome	A cell organelle consisting of RNA. Constructed at the nucleus. Site of protein synthesis.	68
7310070847	Stem cells	Cells that are capable of differentiating and turning into a number of different types of cells. Two types; Embryonic - cells from the blastocyst. Somatic - body cell stem cells	69
7310070848	Uses of stem cells	Replace damaged or diseased tissue from diseases such as multiple sclerosis or Alzheimer's. Treatment of Stargardt's disease, retinal cells can be made from embryonic stem cells	70
7310070849	Stargardt's Disease	an inherited condition in which the cells in the center of the retina are gradually destroyed causing blindness.	71
7310070850	Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research	Early research focused on embryonic stem cells, but these can only be obtained from discarded embryos from in vitro fertilization. Somatic stem cells less controversial because no "death" of organism involved.	72