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AP Biology - Chapter 28 Flashcards

7254695923	Stem	Vascular plant organ that consistes of alternating nodes and internodes that support the leaves and reproductive structures.	0
7254695924	Leaves	Main photosynthetic organ of vascular plants.	1
7401966170	Blade	the flattened portion of a typical leaf.	2
7401968420	Petiole	The stalk of the leaf, joins leaf at the node of the stem.	3
7401968421	Roots	An organ in vascular plants that anchors the plant and enables it to absorb minerals and water through the soil.	4
7401971574	Taproot	A main vertical root that develops from and embryonic root and gives rise to lateral roots.	5
7401971575	Fibrous Roots	numerous branching roots that are about the same size and grow from a central point	6
7401973966	Nodes	A point along the stem of the plant that leaves are attached to.	7
7401973967	Organs	A specialized center of body function composed of several different types of tissues.	8
7401976303	Primary growth	Growth produced by apical meristems, lengthening stems and roots.	9
7401976304	Apical bud	Bud at the tip of a plant stem. (terminal bud)	10
7401978989	Axillary buds	Structure that has the potential to form a lateral shoot or branch. Appears between the angle of a leaf and stem.	11
7401978990	Dermal tissue	the outer protective layer covering plants.	12
7401982732	Vascular tissue	Plant tissue consisting of cells joined into tubes that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body.	13
7401982733	Ground tissue	Plant tissues that are neither vascular or dermal, and have a variety of functions, ex. storage, photosynthesis and support	14
7401985232	Parenchyma cells	A relatively unspecialized cell that carries out most of the metabolism, synthesizes and stores organic products, and develops into a more differentiated cell type.	15
7401985233	Collenchyma cells	Flexible plant cell type that occurs in strands or cylinders that support young parts of the plants without restraining growth	16
7401995998	Sclerenchyma cells	A rigid, supportive cell usually lacking a protoplast and possessing thick secondary walls strengthened by lignin at maturity.	17
7402000635	Tracheids	A long tapered water-conducting cell found in the xylem of nearly all vascular plants.	18
7402000636	Vessel elements	Short, wide, water conducting tube found in the xylem of most angiosperms and a few nonflowering vascular plants. Dead at maturity, aligned end to end to for vessels.	19
7402003914	Sieve-tube elements	A living cell that conducts sugars and other organic nutrients in the phloem of angiosperms, called a sieve-tube member where they connect end to end to form the sieve-tubes.	20
7402007473	Apical meristems	Plant tissue on the tips of buds and root and shoots. Dividing cells that enable the plant to grow in length	21
7402007474	Root cap	A cone of cells at the tip of the plant root that protects the apical meristem.	22
7402033587	Internode	A segment of a plant stem between the points where leaves are attached.	23
7402033588	Vascular cambium	A cylinder of meristematic tissue in woody plants that adds layers of secondary vascular tissue called secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem.	24
7402062306	Secondary growth	Growth produced by lateral meristems, thickening the roots and shoots of woody plants.	25
7402062307	Cork cambium	Cylinder of meristematic tissue in woody plants that replaces the epidermis with thicker and tougher cork cells.	26
7402036894	Periderm	The protective coat that replaces the epidermis in woody plants during secondary growth, formed from the cork and cork cambium.	27
7402036895	Bark	Tissues outside the vascular cambium, consists mainly of secondary phloem and layers of periderm.	28
7402043765	Meristematic tissue	Plant tissues that remains embryonic as long as the plant lives. Allows indeterminate growth	29

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Immunity - AP Biology Flashcards

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6586952097	Immune System	The totality of the body's physical barriers, immune cells, molecules, and physiological responses that enable you to block, fight, and destroy pathogens	0
6586952098	Innate Immunity	All animals A defense that is active immediately upon infection and is the same whether or not the pathogen has been encountered before Nonspecific (less advanced, generic) Outer covering (skin/shell, chemical secretions, internal surfaces) Small preset group of receptor proteins bind to molecules/structures that are absent from animal bodies but common to viruses, bacteria, or other microbes Rapid Response	1
6586952099	Innate Immunity - Internal Defenses	Phagocytic cells, Natural Killer cells, Antimicrobial Proteins, Inflammatory Reponse, Complement Protein Cascade Can have B and T cells	2
6586952100	Adaptive Immunity	Vertebrates Only A defense that produces a a vast arsenal of receptors, each of which recognizes a feature typically found only on a particular part of a particular molecule in a particular pathogen Specific Slow development, slow response	3
6586952101	Adaptive Immunity - Internal Defenses	Antibodies Cytotoxic cells (B and T Cells)	4
6586952102	Lysozyme	An enzyme that breaks down cell walls to protect insect digestive systems	5
6586952103	Phagocytosis	The cellular ingestion and digestion of bacteria and other foreign susbtances	6
6586952104	Barrier Defenses	Block entry of many pathogens Skin Mucous membrane Mucous Ciliated cells Saliva, tears, mucous (inhibits colonization, hostile lysozymes) pH from stomach Oil and sweat (pH 3-5) prevent growth	7
6586952105	Toll-Like Receptor (TLR)	A mammalian receptor that binds to fragments of molecules characteristic of a set of pathogens After detection, a phagocytic cell engulfs them (traps in a vacuole) Lysosome fuses and degrades components)	8
6586952106	Neutrophils	One main type of phagocytic cell in the mammalian body Attracted by signals from infected tissues Engulf and destroy infecting pathogens	9
6586952107	Macrophages	Second main type of phagocytic cell in the mammalian body Larger than neutrophils Migratory or localized	10
6586952108	Dendritic Cells	Populate tissues (ex. skin) that ocntact the environment) Stimulate adaptive immunity against pathogens they encounter and engulf	11
6586952109	Natural Killer Cells	Unique to vertebrates Circulate body to detect abnormal array of surface proteins (virus-infected or cancerous cells)	12
6586952110	Interferons	Antimicrobial proteins that provide innate defenses by interfering with viral infection Infected cells secrete interferons, which induce nearby uninfected cells to produce substances and inhibit viral reproduction Some white blood cells secrete interferons to activate macrophages	13
6586952111	Complement System (Protein Cascade)	30 proteins that circulate blood plasma Inactive until activated by substances on the surface of many microbes Activation results in a cascade of biochemical reactions, lysis of invading cells Inflammation	14
6586952112	Inflammatory Response	Changes brought about by signaling molecules released upon injury or infection that causes swelling (increased blood flow)	15
6586952113	Histamine	Inflammatory signaling molecule Released at sites of damage, dilates blood vessels, permeates blood vessels	16
6586952114	Mast Cells	Found in connective tissue Stores histamine in granules (vesicles)	17
6586952115	Cytokines	Signaling molecules that enhance immune response by promoting blood flow to the site of infection/injury Produced by macrophages and neutrophils	18
6586952116	Inflammation	Cycles of signaling and response Activated complement proteins promote histamine release, attracting more phagocytic cells to enter infected tissues Enhanced blood flow delivers more antimicrobial peptides Pus accumulates (rich in white blood cells, dead pathogens, cell debris) Fever, meningitis, appendicitis, septic shock	19
6586952117	Evasion of Innate Immunity by pathogens	Outer capsule interferes with molecular recognition Resist breakdown by lysosomes Hides from innate defenses	20
6586952118	Lymphocytes	White blood cells T and B cells	21
6586952119	Thymus	An organ in the thoracic cavity above the heart Lymphocytes mature into T Cells	22
6586952120	B Cells	Lymphocytes that mature from bone marrow	23
6586952121	3rd Lymphocyte type	Natural Killer Remain in blood	24
6586952122	Antigen	Any substance that elicits a response from a B Cell or T Cell	25
6586952123	Antigen Receptor	A protein that binds to an antigen	26
6586952124	Epitote	An antigenic determinant The small, accessible portion of an antigen that binds to an antigen receptor Determines T/B cell specificity	27
6586952125	B-Cell Antigen Receptor	Each B cell antigen is Y-Shaped (four polypeptide chains - two identical heavy chains, two identical light chains, with disulfide bridges) Transmembrane region near one end of a heavy chain anchors the receptor in the cell's plasma membrane) Short tail region at the end of the heavy chain extends into cytoplasma Variable regions bind to antigens (constant regions make up the rest) Bind to intact epitotes of intact antigens circulating in body fluids	28
6586952126	Variable Regions	Amino Acid sequence varies extensively from one B cell to another Specific binding	29
6586952127	Antibody/Immunoglobulin (Ig)	A protein secreted when an antigen receptor binds to an antigen Y-Shaped organization May bind to antigens on surface of pathogens or free in body fluids	30
6586952128	T Cell Antigen Receptor	Two different polypeptide chains (Alpha and Beta chain) linked by a disulfide bridge Transmembrane region anchors the receptor to plasma membrane Outer tip - Variable region Only bind to fragments of antigens displayed on the surface of host cells	31
6586952129	MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex) Molecule	A host protein that displays the antigen gragment on the cell surface	32
6586952130	Antigen Presentation	The display of the antigen fragment in an exposed groove of the MHC protein Pathogen or part of a pathogen is taken in by a host cell Enzymes cleave the antigen into smaller peptides (antigen fragments) MHC binds to fragments MHC moves to surface and presents antigen	33
6586952131	B Cell and T Cell development	Diversit, self tolerance (lack of reactivity to self), cell proliferation, stronger secondary response	34
6586952132	Generation of B and T Cell Diversity	Each person makes more than 1 mil diff. B Cell antigen receptors and 10 mil. different T Cell antigen receptors Recombinase enzyme linkas a light chain V gene seg. to one J (joining) seg. to form a single exon Rnadomly links any one of 40 V to any one of 5 J	35
6586952133	Origin of Self Tolerance	Lymphocyte antigen receptors are tested for self-reactivity Those that are self reactive undergo apoptosis or rendered nonfunctional	36
6586952134	Proliferation of B and T Cells; Clonal Selection	Binding of antigen receptor to epitote activates lymphocyte B/T cell then undergoes multiple cell divisions to produce clones	37
6586952135	Effector Cells	Short lived cells that take effect immediately against the antigen or any pathogen producing that sntigen	38
6586952136	Memory Cells	Long-lived cells that can give rise to effector cells if the same antigen is encountered later in the animal's life	39
6586952137	Primary Immune Response	Peaks 10-17 days after initial exposure Selected B and T cells give rise to effector and memory forms	40
6586952138	Secondary Immune Response	Hallmark of adaptive immunity Peaks 2-7 days after exposure Faster, stronger, longer response Relies on reservoir of memory T and B cells generated following the initial exposure	41
6586952139	Humoral Immune Response	Occurs in blood/lymph Antibodies help neutralize or eliminate toxins and pathogens in blood/lymph	42
6586952140	Cell-Mediated immune response	Specialized T cells destroy infected host cells	43
6586952141	Helper T-Cell	Triggers both humoral and cell-mediated immune response Do not carry out the responses themselves Signals the production of antibodies To activate adaptive immune responses, a foreign molecule must be present that can bind specifically to the antigen receptor of the T Cell AND the antigen must be displayed on the surface of an antigen-presenting cell	44
6586952142	Antigen-Presenting Cell	A dendritic cell, macrophage, or B Cell	45
6586952143	What distinguishes an antigen-presenting cell?	Antigen-Presenting Cells can also be host cells Class I MHC - Body Cells Class I and Class II MHC - Antigen presenting cells Class II allows antigen presenting cells to be recognized	46
6586952144	Helper T/Antigen-Presenting Cell Interaction	Antigen receptors on Helper T surface bind to specific epitote of an antigen frag. Accessory protein on helper T Cell attaches to Class II MHC (keeps them joined) Signals from cytokines are exchanges (antigen-presenting cell secrete cytokines to stimulate Helpter T, causing the Helpter T to produce cytokines) Helper T Cell proliferates (forms Activated Helpter T Cells) to stimulate cytotoxic T Cells B Cells present antigents to already activated helper T cells, which activates B Cells themselves	47
6586952145	Cytotoxic T Cells	Cell-mediated immune response effector cells Requires signaling molecules from helper T and the interaction with a antigen-presenting cell to activate Frag. of foreign proteins produced in infected host cells associate with Class I MHC (recognized by cytotoxic T) Secrete proteins that disrupt membrane integrity and tirgger apoptosis Deprives pathogen of reproduction host and exposes them to antibodies	48
6586952146	Activation of B Cells	Activation by antigen is aided by cytokine (secreted by helper T) Stimulated by antigen and cytokines, B Cells proliferate into memory and effector/plasma cells (secrete antibodies)	49
6586952147	Antigen processing and display in B Cells	Presents only the antigen to which it specifically binds (magrophages/dendritic cells present fragments from a wide variety of protein antigens) Antigen binds to receptor on B Cell surface Receptor-mediated endocytosis, class II MHC protein then presents antigen frag to helpter T	50
6586952148	B Cell Activation	Cell-to-cell contact between B cell and Helper T Cell 1000's of plasma cells produced (these stop expressing a membrane bound antigen receptor) and produce/secrete antibodies (2000/sec for 4-5 days) Antigens recognized by B cells contain multiple epitotes (single antigen, variety of B cells activated)	51
6586952149	Antibody Function	Binds to entigens, marks pathogens for inactivation/destruction	52
6586952150	Antibody Function - Neutralization	Antibodies bind to viral surface proteins Prevent infection of host cell, or recruits natural killer Bind to toxins released in body and prevent entrance	53
6586952151	Antibody Function - Opsonization	Antibodies bound to antigens on bacteria present a readily recognized structure for macrophages or neutrophils Increase phagocytosis May link bacterial cells, virus particles, or other foreign substances into aggregates (each antibody has 2 binding sites) Positive feedback (antibodies increase phagocytosis, phagocytic cells present antigens, more B cells formed, more antibodies released)	54
6586952152	Antibody Function - Membrane Attack Complex	Complement protein binds to antigen-antibody complex on a foreign cell (or enveloped virus) Complement system activates next protein Activated complement protein cascade generates membrane attack complex (forms pores in membrane of foreign cells, ions/water rush in, lysis)	55
6586952153	Active Immunity	Defenses that arise when a pathogen infects the body and prompts a primary or secondary immune response	56
6586952154	Passive Immunity	Antibodies provided by mother guard against pathogens that have never infected the newborn	57
6586952155	Immunization/Vaccination	Introduction of antigens into the body used to induce adaptive immunity Antibodies from an immune animal are injected into nonimmune animal (artificial passive immunization)	58
6586952156	Monoclonial Antibodies	Antibodies prepared from a single blone of B cells grown in a culture	59
6586952157	Immune Rejection	Antigen receptors are not self-tolerant of a recipient's body cells (Immune system is health)	60
6586952158	Blood Groups	Type A - A Carbohydrate, Anti-B Type B - B Carbohydrate, Anti-A Type AB - Both A and B carbohydrate, no antibody Type O - Neither, Anti-A and Anti-B	61
6586952159	Tissue and Organ Transplants	MHC stimulate immune response Diversity of MHC	62
6586952160	Allergies	Exaggerated (hypersentive) responses to certain antigens (allergens)	63
6586952161	Autoimmune Disease	Immune system is active against particular molecules of the body Immune system is self-reactive Lupus - Antibodies vs histones and DNA (breakdown of body cells - skin rashes, fevers, arthritis, kidney dysfunction) Rheumatoid Arthritis - Damage and inflammation of joints/cartilage Type I Diabetes Mellitus - Insulin producing Beta cells of pancreas are destroyed by cytotoxic T Cells Multiple sclerosis - T cells infiltrate central nervous system and destroy myelin sheath	64
6586952162	Immunodeficiency	An immune system response to antigens that is defective or absent	65
6586952163	Aquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome	HIV virus	66
6586952164	Antigenic Variation	Changes in epitote expression Lessens recognition by immune system	67
6586952165	Latency	Viruses enter an inactive state No proteins made, no free virus particles, adaptive immunity is not triggered	68
6586952166	HIV	Infects helper T Cells, high mutation (antigenic variation)	69
6586952167	Cancer	Cancer frequency increases dramatically when adaptive immunity is inactivated	70

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Campbell AP Biology--CHAPTER 1 Flashcards

Terms and Concepts

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7636774023	Biology is...	the study of life	0
7636774024	Properties of Life (7)	Order Evolutionary Adaption Response to the environment Regulation Energy processing Growth and Development Reproduction	1
7636774025	Levels of Biological Organization (10)	Biosphere Ecosystems Communities Populations Organisms Organs and organ systems Tissues Cells Organelles Molecules	2
7636774026	Biosphere	most regions of land, bodies of water, and atmosphere to an altitude of several kilometers	3
7636774027	Ecosystems	All living things in a particular area along with all the nonliving components such as soil, water, atmospheric gases and light	4
7636774028	Communities	many kinds of trees, plants, animals, fungi/mushrooms. "species"	5
7636774029	Populations	all individuals of a species living within the bounds of a specified area	6
7636774030	Organisms	Individual living things	7
7636774031	Organs	a system of tissues; these can coordinate together to make a bigger system with a particular function.	8
7636774032	Tissues	A group of cells tissues make up organs	9
7636774033	Cells	fundamental unit of structure and function.	10
7636774034	Organelles	Ex) Chloroplasts are organelles of plants. Photosynthesis	11
7636774035	Molecules	a chemical structure consisting of two of more small chemical units called atoms.	12
7636774036	Producers	plants and other photosynthetic organisms that convert light energy to chemical energy	13
7636774037	Consumers	organisms that feed on producers and other consumers	14
7636774038	deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)	the substance for genes, the units of inheritance that transmit information from the parents to the offspring.	15
7636774039	DNA	two long chains arranged into a double helix each link of the chain is made up of 4 chemical building blocks called nucleotides	16
7636774040	proteins	genes are instructions for making __	17
7636774041	Genome	the entire "library" of genetic instructions that an organism inherits	18
7636774042	prokaryotic Cells	Bacteria and Archaea DNA is not separated from the rest of the cell No nucleus	19
7636774043	eukaryotic Cells	Plants and animals Nucleus and Cytoplasm	20
7636774044	Human Genome Project	sequenced many genomes.	21
7636774045	negative feedback	accumulation of an end product of a process slows the process the cell's breakdown of sugar generates ATP. an excess amount would trigger an enzyme to slow it down	22
7636774046	Classification order (smallest to largest)	Species Genus Family Order Class Phylum Kingdom Domain	23
7636774047	Taxonomy	the branch of biology that names and classifies species, formalizes this ordering of species into a series of groups of increasing breadth.	24
7636774048	Domain	The 3 ___ of life: Bacteria, Archaea Eukarya	25
7636774049	Domain Bacteria and Archaea	prokaryotes unicellular and microscopic	26
7636774050	Domain Eukarya	microorganisms (protozoans) includes kingdoms: plantae, fungi, and animalia	27
7636774051	Charles Darwin	On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection Descent with modification and Natural Selection Galapagos studying finches	28
7636774052	natural selection	the natural environment "selects" for the propagation of certain traits,	29
7636774053	inquiry	a search for information and explanations, often focusing on specific questions.	30
7636774054	Data	items of information on which scientific inquiry is based. Qualitative and Quantitative	31
7636774055	Inductive reasoning	derive generalizations based on a large number of specific observations	32
7636774056	hypothesis	a tentative answer to a well-framed question (explanation on trial) "if...then..." statements must be falsifiable and testable	33
7636774057	deductive reasoning	from the general to the specific.	34
7636774058	experimental group	the group that is being manipulated. the group being experimented on	35
7636774059	control group	the group that stays the same as a reference.	36
7636774060	theory	a broader scope than a hypothesis able to spin off specific hypotheses supported by a much more massive body of evidence	37
7636774061	Themes of Biology	The Cell Heritable information Emergent properties of biological systems regulation Interaction with Environment Energy and life Unity and Diversity Evolution Structure and Function Scientific Inquiry Science, Technology, and Society	38

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AP Biology Chapter 6 Flashcards

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7689697067	light microscope	to magnify the image to see the nucleus and the cell membrane; the other organelles are too small to be seen	0
7689774874	magnification	the enlargement of the specimen	1
7689783354	electron microscope	bombards the specimen with electrons to see the cells organelles briefly	2
7689793440	resolution	the clarity of the microscope	3
7689805788	prokaryotes	-bacteria and archaea -no membrane or nucleus	4
7736981394	nucleolid	-where DNA is concentrated -seen as a darkened spot inside the cell -not separated from cytosol	5
7737026327	eukaryotes	-has a true nucleus with a nuclear envelope -is larger than prokaryote	6
7737316689	organelles	internal structures of the cell	7
7737349893	cytoplasm	the space between the nucleus and the cell membrane	8
7737816143	cytosol	-the semi-fluid portion of the cytoplasm -made up of 80% water with suspended particles	9
7737838095	plasma membrane	allows oxygen and nutrients in, and lets waste out (semi permeable) -made of phospholipids and proteins -has hydrophilic heads and 2 hydrophobic tails	10
7737870692	nuclear envelope	-double membrane surrounding the nucleus -is perforated for RNA -the inner and outer membrane is fused at the pores	11
7737889966	nuclear lamina	a fiber network that surrounds the nucleus and helps maintain its shape	12
7737308005	chromosome	-found in the nucleus -help organize DNA -made of chromatin	13
7737962114	chromatin	protein that makes chromosomes	14
7738286544	ribosomes	-made of ribosomal RNA protein -they make proteins	15
7738341392	bound ribosomes	attached to the nucleus of the ER	16
7738394359	free ribosomes	-suspended in the cytoplasm -makes the most proteins	17
7738476445	endoplasmic reticulum	there are two types: smooth and rough	18
7738485333	smooth ER	-metabolism of carbohydrates -detoxification of poisons -synthesis of lipids, phospholipids, steroids, and sex hormones	19
7738505523	rough (transitional) ER	synthesis of glycoproteins and secretory proteins	20
7738541048	secretory proteins	-(in rough ER) wraps the protein in a membrane vessel -the vessel is plasma membrane and used for transport	21
7738564036	golgi apparatus (body)	-transport vessel from the ER -works as a factory: it packages and ships -made of flattened membrane -has Cis and Trans	22
7738590465	cis	-the top near the ER (the closest to it) -this is where material will enter the golgi	23
7738603729	trans	-this is the bottom of the ER (opposite end) -the farthest from it -packages vessels of plasma membrane leave from here	24
7738619511	lysosomes	-cell defense system -works by engulfing to break down and recycle material or waste -uses hydrologic enzymes -used by hydrolysis to digest macromolecules -can hydrolyze proteins, polysaccharides fats, and nucleic acids -made by the rough ER -carry out phagocytosis	25
7738773211	vacuoles	empty membrane bound sacs	26
7738778093	food vacuole	uses phagocytosis to hold food and nutrients	27
7738793475	contractile vacuoles	-pumps out excess water out of the cell -provides a form of movement for some cells	28
7738809783	central vacuole	-a large vacuole found in only plants -has tonoplasts -formed by smaller vacuoles produced by the ER and the golgi -can hold a reserve of proteins -can force the cell to grow by taking in water	29
7738869662	tonoplasts	membrane that surrounds the central vacuole	30
7738896075	mitochondria	-performs cellular respiration -generates ATP by using sugars and fats -found in eukaryotic cells -the amount of mitochondria is based on the cells demand for energy	31
7738929971	membrane of mitochondria	-has two layers of phospholipids with proteins embedded in them -outer membrane is smooth -inner has folds called CRISTAE	32
7738953066	cristae	-increases the surface area -aids in the productivity of cellular respiration -increases the production of ATP	33
7738976950	mitochondria matrix	contains enzymes, ribosomes, and mitochondrial DNA	34
7738992881	chloroplasts	-contains plastids (for storing starch) -chlorophyll (pigmentation) -photosynthetic organelles	35
7739005181	thylakoids	flattened membrane in the chloroplasts	36
7739021000	granum/grana	stack of thylakoids	37
7739040670	amyloplasts	colorless (chlorophyll) plastid	38
7739058382	chromoplasts	yellow and orange (chlorophyll) plastid	39
7739083233	peroxisomes	-use oxidation to produce peroxide -detoxify alcohol	40
7739107476	cytoskeleton	the network if fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm that works to -give mechanical support -maintain shape -provide locomotion -separate chromosomes in mitosis and meioisis -holds cell together -involved in cell reproduction and muscle movements	41
7739137312	microfilaments	(of the cytoskeleton) -made of monomers; are polymers -forms a band beneath the plasma membrane which provides mechanical strength -generates cytoplasmic streaming and locomotion -provides a force of muscular contractions	42
7739178297	intermediate filaments	4 types: 1) keratin: found in epithelial cells, hair, and nails 2) nuclear laminas: forms a meshwork that stabilizes 3) neurofilaments: strengthen the axons of neurons 4) rimentins: provides mechanical strength	43
7739214638	microtubules	-grow at each end, shrink by the release of Tubulin dimmers -participate in many cell activities, mainly motion	44
7739236544	cilia	(made of microtubules) back and forth motion -tiny appendages	45
7739256652	flagella	tail-like movement	46
7739266541	ECM	-extra cellular matrix -things outside of the cell -found in animals cells -functions in support, adhesion, movement, and regulation -made of glycoproteins -can regulate the cells behavior as far as fluids -influences the activity of the genes in the nucleus	47
7739290798	collagen	-found in the ECM -half of the total protein in our body -it forms strong fibers outside the cell	48
7739301544	basal body	-anchors the flagellum -similar to the centriole	49
7739322356	dyneins	-large proteins -connect microtubules: strengthening -called little minions to help movement	50
7739345993	proteoglycans	network in which the collagen fibers are embedded	51
7739364370	fibronectins	attach some cells to the ECM	52
7739385935	intergrins	-receptor proteins that are built into the plasma membranes -spans the membrane -in the middle of the phospholipid bilayer	53
7739480896	intercellular junctions	help integrate cells into higher levels of structure and function	54
7739487841	tight junction	-prevents leakage of enzymes, fluid, or chemical signals between cells -membrane of different cells is fused together	55
7739501977	desmosomes	functions as an anchor to tie down each sell to form sheets of cell (tissue)	56
7739517342	gap junctions	-allows a current for passage of material between cells -allows cells to exchange material -allows cells to send signals/communicate -allows cells to act as one	57

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AP Biology - Unit 1 - Chemistry of Life Flashcards

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7174677828	Acid	compound that donates a proton (H+) when dissolved in a solution.	0
7174677829	Adhesion	force of attraction between different kinds of molecules	1
7174677830	Antiparallel	The opposite arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix. The opposite arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix.	2
7174677831	Archaea	Microorganisms that live in extreme environments. (resemble bacteria but are not bacteria)	3
7174677832	Atom	The smallest particle of an element	4
7174677833	Atomic Mass	Number of protons and neutrons	5
7174677834	Atomic Nucleus	An atom's dense central core, containing protons and neutrons. An atom's dense central core, containing protons and neutrons.	6
7174677835	Atomic Number		7
7174677836	ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)	main energy source that cells use for most of their work, energy currency for life	8
7174677837	Base	A substance that decreases the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.	9
7174677838	Buffer	mixtures that can react with acids or bases to keep the pH within a particular range	10
7174677839	Calorie	Amount of energy needed to raise temperature 1 gram of water 1 degree C	11
7174677840	Catalyst	substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction	12
7174677841	Celsius	the metric temperature scale in which water freezes at 0 degrees and boils at 100 degrees.	13
7174677842	Chemical Bond	the attractive force that holds atoms or ions together	14
7174677843	Chemical Equilibrium	the rate of formation of products equals the rate of formation of reactants	15
7174677844	Chemical Reaction	A change in which one or more substances are converted into new substances.	16
7174677845	Chitin	Polysaccharide found in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal cell walls.	17
7174677846	Cis/Trans Isomer	Cis-trans isomers are stereoisomers, that is, pairs of molecules which have the same formula but whose functional groups are rotated into a different orientation in three-dimensional space.	18
7174677847	Cohesion	Attraction between molecules of the same substance	19
7174677848	Compound	A substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds	20
7174677849	Controlled Experiment	An experiment in which only one variable is manipulated at a time.	21
7174677850	Covalent Bond		22
7174677851	Deoxyribonucleic Acid	(DNA) nucleic acid that contains the sugar deoxyribose	23
7174677852	Double Bond	a covalent bond produced by the sharing of two pairs of electrons between two atoms	24
7174677853	Double Helix	The shape of a DNA molecule	25
7174677854	Energy	the ability to do work the capacity to cause change	26
7174677855	Enzyme	protein catalyst that speeds up the rate of specific biological reactions	27
7174677856	Essential Element	A chemical element required for an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce	28
7174677857	Eukaryotic Cell	cell that has a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. cell that has a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.	29
7174677858	Evaporative Cooling	A property of water whereby a body becomes cooler as water evaporates from it.	30
7174677859	Evolution	The process through which species change over time	31
7174677860	Fat	A class of energy-giving nutrients; also the main form of energy storage in the body	32
7174677861	Fatty Acid	hydrocarbon chain often bonded to glycerol in a lipid	33
7174677862	Functional Group	An atom or group of atoms that determine the functions or properties of the compound	34
7174677863	Genomics	study of whole genomes, including genes and their functions	35
7174677864	Geometric Isomer	isomer that differs in the placement of groups around a double bond; cis/trans isomerism	36
7174677865	Glycogen	animal starch Extremely branched polymer of glucose.	37
7174677866	Glycosidic Linkage	A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.	38
7174677867	Heat	the transfer of thermal energy	39
7174677868	Homeostasis	A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state	40
7174677869	Hydrocarbon	Compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen	41
7174677870	Hydrogen Bond	a weak interaction involving a hydrogen atom and a fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen atom	42
7174677871	Hydrolysis	the chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water.	43
7174677872	Hypothesis	A testable prediction, often implied by a theory	44
7174677873	Inquiry	an official investigation or formal series of questions	45
7174677874	Ion	An atom or group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge.	46
7174677875	Ionic Bond	A chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions.	47
7174677880	Isomer	Compounds that have the same chemical formula but different three-dimensional structures	48
7174677881	Isotope	Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons	49
7174677882	Joule	SI unit of energy	50
7174677883	Kinetic Energy	the energy an object has due to its motion	51
7174677884	Law	a summary of many experimental results and observations; a law tells how things work	52
7174677885	Lipid	macromolecule made mostly from carbon and hydrogen atoms; includes fats, oils, and waxes	53
7174677886	Matter	Anything that has mass and takes up space	54
7174677887	Model Organism	Mice, fruit flies, worms - organisms we use to understand biology because they are easy to maintain and have short generation times	55
7174677888	Molarity	the number of moles of solute in one liter of solution	56
7174677889	Mole	6.02x10^23 The SI unit for measuring the amount of a substance	57
7174677890	Molecular Mass	The sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule; sometimes called molecular weight.	58
7174677891	Monomer	a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer.	59
7174677892	Monosaccharide	A single sugar molecule such as glucose or fructose, the simplest type of sugar.	60
7174677893	Natural Selection	A natural process resulting in the evolution of organisms best adapted to the environment.	61
7174677894	Negative Feedback	A response to changing conditions that acts to dampen or stop a system's reaction.	62
7174677895	Neutron	A subatomic particle that has no charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom	63
7174677896	Nonpolar Covalent Bond	a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared equally by the two atoms	64
7174677897	Nucleic Acid	polymer of nucleotides; the genetic material of organisms.	65
7174677898	Nucleotide	monomer of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)	66
7174677899	Orbital	A region of space around the nucleus where an electron is likely to be found.	67
7174677900	Organic Chemistry	the study of carbon compounds	68
7174677901	Peptide Bond	The covalent bond between two amino acid units, formed by a dehydration reaction.	69
7174677902	Phospholipid	a lipid that contains phosphorus and that is a structural component in cell membranes	70
7174677903	Polar Covalent Bond	A covalent bond in which electrons are not shared equally	71
7174677904	Polymer	A covalent compound made up of many small, repeating units linked together in a chain.	72
7174677905	Polypeptide	A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.	73
7174677906	Polysaccharide	A carbohydrate polymer of many monosaccharides linked by dehydration reactions	74
7174677907	Positive Feedback	A control mechanism that amplifies rather than reduces the stimulus	75
7174677908	Potential Energy	energy that results from the position or shape of an object	76
7174677909	Prokaryotic Cell	cell lacking a nucleus and most other organelles (bacteria and archeae)	77
7174677910	Protein	A three dimensional polymer made of monomers of amino acids.	78
7174677911	Purine	double-ring nitrogenous base Adenine and Guanine	79
7174677912	Pyrimidine	single-ring nitrogenous base Cytosine and Thymine and Uracil	80
7174677913	Reactant	a substance that takes part in and undergoes change during a reaction.	81
7174677914	Ribonucleic Acid	RNA Nucleotide monomers that contain the sugar ribose	82
7174677915	Ribose	sugar in RNA	83
7174677916	Saturated Fatty Acid	Those where all carbons are filled with maximum number of hydrogen atoms	84
7174677917	Science	An organized way of gathering and analyzing evidence about the natural world.	85
7174677918	Sickle-Cell Anemia	Condition where red blood cells assume an abnormal sickle shape	86
7174677920	Single Bond	a covalent bond in which two atoms share one pair of electrons	87
7174677921	Solute	the substance that is dissolved	88
7174677922	Solution	A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances	89
7174677923	Solvent	In a solution, the substance in which the solute dissolves.	90
7174677924	Specific Heat	the amount of heat necessary to increase the temperature of a substance	91
7174677925	Steroid	large family of chemical substances found in many drugs, hormones, and body components	92
7174677926	Structural Isomers	differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms	93
7174677927	Surface Tension	A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid that results from the cohesion of water molecules at the surface of a container of water	94
7174677928	Temperature	A measure of the average energy of motion of the particles of a substance.	95
7174677929	Theory	a well-tested explanation for a broad set of observations	96
7174677930	Trace Element	found in very small amounts in the body ex- calcium, iron, iodine	97
7174677931	Triacylglycerol	three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule.	98
7174677932	Triple Bond	A chemical bond formed when atoms share three pairs of electrons	99
7174677933	Unsaturated Fatty Acid	a fatty acid that lacks some hydrogen atoms and has one or more points of unsaturation	100
7174677934	Valence Electron	Electrons in the outermost energy shell of an atom	101

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AP Biology: Unit 1 Flashcards

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4815937705	Why are water molecules polar?	uneven distribution of electrons between hydrogen and oxygen	0
4815942451	What are the 4 properties of water?	cohesive behavior, ability to moderate temperature, expansion upon freezing, & universal solvent	1
4815948742	Cohesive behavior	the linking of like molecules; water molecules stick together causing water to have a high surface tension	2
4815953220	Adhesion	water molecules stick to other molecules	3
4815988505	Transpiration	water travels against gravity from roots to leaves in plants due to adhesion and cohesion	4
4815990991	Moderation of temperature	water has a high specific heat; it must absorb or give off a lot of energy before its temperature will increase or decrease	5
4815996373	Expansion upon freezing	ice floats at the top of large bodies of water, preventing them from freezing solid enabling a moderation of water temperature	6
4816002088	Universal solvent	things easily dissolve in water	7
4816006436	Hydrophilic substances	are water soluble and dissolve easily in water	8
4816008165	Hydrophobic substances	do not easily dissolve in water	9
4816012170	pH scale	runs from 0-14 measuring relative acidity and alkalinity ("basicity") of aqueous solutions	10
4816016782	Acids	have excess H+ ions and a pH below 7.0	11
4816018250	Bases	have excess OH- and a pH above 7.0	12
4816019999	Pure water	neutral with a pH of 7.0	13
4816022334	Buffers	substances that minimize the changes in pH within the body; a partnership between a weak acid and a weak base that forms as the acid dissolves in water	14
4816064265	Carbon	can form many molecules by bonding to 4 other atoms	15
4816067386	Hydrocarbons	compounds made only of H atoms that are covalently bonded to C	16
4816075049	Isomers	compounds with the same number of atoms but different structures, and therefore different properties	17
4821736762	Polymers	long molecules made of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds	18
4821752617	Monomers	small building blocks to polymers	19
4821763066	Carbohydrates	main source of energy, most abundant molecules for life, monosacchrides	20
4821913864	Oligosaccharides	short chain of 2 or more sugar monomers	21
4821941507	Polysaccharides	complex carbohydrates; straight or branched chain of 100s or 1000s of sugar	22
4821949606	Starch	plant storage of sugars, polysaccharide	23
4821953960	Cellulose	firebrick material in plant cell walls, polysaccharide	24
4821957806	Glycogen	energy storage in animal muscles and liver	25
4822004925	Lipids	most consist of one glycerol and 3 fatty acids (triglyceride), hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at one end can be saturated or unsaturated	26
4822018097	Saturated fatty acid	animal fats, linked to heart disease	27
4822020349	Unsaturated fatty acid	has 1 or more double bonds formed when a hydrogen is removed (plant fats)	28
4822062047	steroids '	4 fused rings (3 6-C rings and 1 5-C ring)	29
4822095589	Proteins	complex macromolecules that carry out bodily functions such as growth and repair, signaling between cells, defense against invaders, catalyze	30
4822107184	What is the structure of protein?	made of amino acids (20 different ones), held together by peptide bonds making polypeptide chains	31
4822165250	Primary	linear	32
4822169158	Secondary	coils (alpha helix) or folds (beta pleated sheet)	33
4822175703	Tertiary	hydrogen bonding, ionic bonding and other interactions among the R groups= overall shape	34
4822180314	Quaternary	more than one polypeptide chain are attached (collagen or hemoglobin)	35
4822192023	Denaturation	unraveling of protein/loss of 3D shape due to change in pH, temperature, salt conc; not able to function as a protein within the cell	36
4822202637	Fiborous protein	structure is in strands or sheets, water insoluble, strong	37
4822207749	Globular protein	folded in compact rounded shapes (tertiary structure), water soluble	38
4822217340	Nucleic acid	made of nucleotides (the monomers)	39
4822220593	Nucleotides	5-C sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), nitrogen containing base (A, T, G, C, U), and a phosphate group	40
4822234451	Purines	double ring, must match with a pyrimidine	41
4822239137	Pyrimidine	single ring, must match with a purine	42
4822253672	DNA	double stranded helix that carries heritable information	43
4822256997	RNA	single stranded, functions to translate the code from DNA to make proteins	44
4822344411	Specific heat	the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of that substance to change by 1C	45
4822350544	Hydrophilic	any substance that has an affinity for water	46
4822354338	Colloid	stable suspension in fine particles of a molecule	47
4822357677	Hydrophobic	substances that are nonionic or non polar and seem to repel water	48
4822394984	Structural isomers	differ in arrangement of atoms	49
4822394985	Geometric isomers	have the same covalent partnerships but differ in their spatial arrangements	50
4822397374	Enantiomers	isomers that are mirror images of each other	51
4822422866	Phospholipid	make up cell membranes	52
4822429061	Steroids	lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of 4 fused rings	53
4822434101	Cholesterol	steroid, common component of animal cell membranes and is also the precursor from which other steroids are synthesized	54
4822442463	Peptide bond	the chemical bond that forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid	55

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AP Biology - Chapter 10 Flashcards

Vocabulary words from the AP Edition of Campbell Biology, Chapter 10.

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5947276644	photosynthesis	conversion of light energy and water into chemical energy	0
5947276645	autotrophs	organisms which sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other organisms	1
5947276646	heterotrophs	organisms which obtain compounds produced by other organisms	2
5947276647	chlorophyll	the green pigment located within the chloroplasts, responsible for the green color of leaves	3
5947276648	mesophyll	the tissue in the interior of the leaf	4
5947276649	stroma	the dense fluid within the chloroplast	5
5947276650	thylakoids	an elaborate system of interconnected membranous sacs which are stacked in columns called grana	6
5947276651	light reactions	occur on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast, convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH, releasing oxygen	7
5947276652	calvin cycle	fixates atmospheric CO2 and reduces the fixed carbon into a carbohydrate	8
5947276653	NADP+	nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, an electron carrier which is cousin of NAD+ which is used in cellular respiration	9
5947276654	photophosphorylation	use of chemiosmosis to power the addition of a phosphate group to ADP	10
5947276655	wavelength	the distance between the crests of electromagnetic waves	11
5947276656	electromagnetic spectrum	the entire spectrum of electromagnetic radiation ranging in wavelength from less than a nanometer to more than a kilometer	12
5947276657	visible light	the segment of the electromagnetic spectrum from 380 nm to 750 nm which the human eye can detect	13
5947276658	photon	a discrete quantity of light energy that behaves as if it were a particle	14
5947276659	spectrophotometer	device which measures the ability of pigments to absorb wavelengths of light	15
5947276660	absorption spectrum	a graph plotting a pigment's light absorption versus wavelength	16
5947276661	chlorophyll a	photosynthetic pigment which participates directly in the light reactions to convert solar energy to chemical energy	17
5947276662	action spectrum	profiles the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving photosynthesis	18
5947276663	chlorophyll b	accessory photosynthetic pigment which transfers energy to chlorophyll b	19
5947276664	carotenoid	accessory pigment which absorbs wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot, thus broadening the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis	20
5947276665	photosystem	light-capturing unit in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast, consists of a reaction-center complex surrounded by numerous light-harvesting complexes	21
5947276666	reaction-center complex	complex of proteins associated with a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor, triggers light reactions of photosynthesis by donating an electron to an ETC	22
5947276667	light-harvesting complex	a complex of proteins associated with pigment molecules which captures light energy and transfers it to a reaction-center pigments in a photosystem	23
5947276668	primary electron acceptor	a molecule in the reaction-center complex which is capable of accepting electrons and becoming reduced	24
5947276669	photosystem II	light-capturing unit in a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane, reaction center is two molecules of P680 chlorophyll a	25
5947276670	photosystem I	light-capturing unit in a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane, reaction center is two molecules of P700 chlorophyll a	26
5947276671	linear electron flow	a route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis, involves both photosystems I and II, produces ATP, NADPH, and O2	27
5947276672	cyclic electron flow	route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis, involves only photosystem I, produces ATP but not NADPH or O2	28
5947276673	G3P	glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, a three-carbon sugar produced directly from the Calvin cycle	29
5947276674	carbon fixation	initial incorporation of carbon from CO2 in an organic compound by an autotrophic organism	30
5947276675	rubisco	the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the calvin cycle, adding CO2 to RuBP	31
5947276676	C4 plants	plants which preface the Calvin cycle with an alternate mode of carbon fixation which forms a four-carbon compound as its first product	32
5947276677	bundle-sheath cells	photosynthetic cells which are arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins of the leaf	33
5947276678	mesophyll cells	photosynthetic cells between the bundle sheath and the leaf surface, more loosely arranged	34
5947276679	PEP carboxylase	enzyme in C4 plants which adds CO2 to PEP to from the four-carbon product oxaloacetate	35
5947276680	CAM	crassulacean acid metabolism, a photosynthetic adaptation for arid conditions, a plant takes up CO2 and incorporates it into a variety of organic acids at night, releasing CO2 during the day from organic acids for use in the Calvin cycle	36
5947276681	CAM plant	a plant which uses CAM to convert carbon dioxide entering open stomata during the night into organic acids, which release CO2 for the calvin cycle during the day, when stomata are closed	37

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AP Biology-Unit 1 Biochemistry Review Flashcards

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5093829401	Catabolic pathways	metabolic pathways that breaks down molecules into smaller units to release energy	0
5093829402	Word Roots: -lysis	split (glycolysis: the splitting of glucose into pyruvate)	1
5093829403	proton charge	+1,	2
5093829404	proton mass in amu.	1	3
5093829405	electron charge	-1	4
5093829406	neutron charge	0	5
5093829407	proton location	nucleus	6
5093829408	neutron location	nucleus	7
5093829409	electron location	outside nucleus in orbitals	8
5093829410	electron mass in amu.	0	9
5093829411	neutron mass in amu.	1	10
5093829412	isotopes	atoms of one element that vary only in amount of neutrons. chemically identical.	11
5093829413	ionic bonds	transfer of electrons	12
5093829414	Anion	an atom that gains electrons (negative ion)	13
5093829415	Cation	an atom that loses an electron (positive ion)	14
5093829416	covalent bonds	atoms share electrons, creating a molecule	15
5093829417	single covalent bond	two atoms share a pair of electrons	16
5093829418	non-polar bond	electrons are shared equally between two identical atoms. H-H. will not dissolve in water	17
5093829419	polar bond	atoms are shared unequally. C-H. will dissolve in water polar bond does not necessarily equal polar molecule	18
5093829420	specific heat	the amount of heat a substance must absorb to increase 1 gram of the substance by 1C	19
5093829421	bicarbonate ion	blood buffer	20
5093829422	universal solvent	water	21
5093829423	organic compound	a compound that contains carbon	22
5093829424	carbon	always forms 4 covalent bonds with carbon atoms as well as to atoms of many other elements	23
5093829425	major classes of organic compounds	carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids	24
5093829426	ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in a carbohydrate	2/1	25
5093829427	empirical formula for all carbs	Cm(H2O)n	26
5093829428	three classes of carbs	monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.	27
5093829429	monosaccharides	chemical formula: C6 H12 O6. Glucose, galactose, and fructose (isomers of one another).	28
5093829430	disaccharides	chem formula: C12 H22 O11. consist of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis/condensation (removal of one molecule of water)	29
5093829431	hydrolysis	breakdown of a compound. reverse of dehydration synthesis	30
5093829432	sucrose + water --> glucose + fructose	hydrolysis	31
5093829433	polysaccharides	polymers of carbohydrates and are formed as many monos. join via dehydration synthesis.	32
5093829434	five important polysaccharides	cellulose, starch, chitin, glycogen, peptidoglycan	33
5093829435	chitin	important polysaccharide, found in animals. makes up exoskeleton in arthropods (and cell walls in mushrooms) Contains peptide cross bridges.	34
5093829436	glycogen	important polysaccharide, "animal starch". stored in liver and skeletal muscle in humans.	35
5093829437	lipids	functions: energy storage, structure, and endocrine. organic compouds: fats, oils, waxes, and steroids. hydrophobic. consist of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids.	36
5093829438	glycerol	a trihydoroxy alcohol	37
5093829439	fatty acid	a longnhydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at one end. either saturated or unsaturated	38
5093829440	steroids	lipid based hormones ex: testosterone, cholesterol, and estradiol.	39
5093829441	saturated fats	generally come from animals, solid at room temp, linked to heart disease. ex: butter!	40
5093829442	proteins	enzymes, most hormones, antibodies, structural, pigments etc....	41
5093829443	-OH	hydroxyl group	42
5093829444	-COOH	carboxyl	43
5093829445	-NH2	amino	44
5093829446	PO4-2	phosphate group	45
5093829447	dipeptide	a molecule consisting of tow amino acids connected by one peptide bond	46
5093829448	nucleic acid	either RNA or DNA. polymers, carry all heriditary info. made of nucleotides.	47
5093829449	nucleic acid make-up	a phosphate, 5-carbon sugar, nitrogenous base	48
5093829450	induced fit	The change in shape of the active site of an enzyme, induced by entry of the substrate so that it binds more snugly to the substrate.	49
5093829451	kinetic energy	The energy of motion; the energy of a mass of matter that is moving. Moving matter does work by imparting motion to other matter.	50
5093829452	metabolic pathway	A series of chemical reactions that either builds a complex molecule or breaks down a complex molecule into simpler compounds.	51
5093829453	metabolism	The totality of an organism's chemical reactions.	52
5093829454	non-competitive inhibitor	A substance that impedes the activity of an enzyme without entering an active site. By binding elsewhere on the enzyme, a noncompetitive inhibitor changes the shape of the enzyme so that the active site no longer functions.	53
5093829455	potential energy	The energy that matter possesses because of its location or arrangement. Water behind a dam and chemical bonds possess potential energy.	54
5093829456	substrate	(1) A specific substance (reactant) on which an enzyme acts. Each enzyme recognizes only the specific substrate or substrates of the reaction it catalyzes. (2) A surface in or on which an organism lives.	55
5093829457	cholesterol	lipid used as the base for many steroids	56
5093829458	Phospholipids in Cell Membranes	A phosphate group (PO4-) replaces one of the three fatty acids normally found on a lipid. The addition of this group makes a polar "head" and two nonpolar "tails". Aligned tail to tail so the nonpolar areas form a hydrophobic region between the hydrophilic heads on the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane.	57
5093829459	active site	The part of an enzyme molecule where a substrate molecule attaches (by means of weak chemical bonds); typically, a pocket or groove on the enzyme's surface.	58
5093829460	adenosine triphosphate (ATP)	main energy source for cells	59
5093829461	co enzyme	An organic molecule serving as a cofactor. Most vitamins function as coenzymes in important metabolic reactions.	60
5093829462	cofactor	A nonprotein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme. (coenzyme)	61
5093829463	competitive inhibitor	A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to the enzyme's active site in place of the substrate. A competitive inhibitor's structure mimics that of the enzyme's substrate.	62
5093829464	endergonic reaction	An energy-requiring chemical reaction, which yields products with more potential energy than the reactants.	63
5093829465	energy of activation	The amount of energy that reactants must absorb before a chemical reaction will start.	64
5093829466	entropy	A measure of disorder or randomness. also called S	65
5093829467	enzyme	A protein (or RNA molecule) that serves as a biological catalyst, changing the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed into a different molecule in the process.	66
5093829468	Catabolism	The breaking down of materials	67
5093829469	Oxidative Phosphorolation	The production of ATP from ADP and P during Cellular Respiration ( oxidation of glucose)	68
5093829470	Glycosidic linkage	The bond between to monosaccharides to form a disaccharide	69
5093829471	Peptide bond	The bond between two amino acids	70
5093829472	Condensation Reaction	another name for Dehydration Synthesis	71
5093829473	amino acid	Building blocks of protein (monomer)	72
5093829474	amine group	the nitrogen-containing portion of an amino acid -NH2	73
5093829475	carboxyl group	A functional group present in organic acids and consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group -COOH	74
5093829476	R group	Amino acid side chain- different for each amino acid	75
5093829477	peptide bond	The chemical bond that forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid	76
5093829478	dipeptide	Two amino acids bonded together	77
5093829479	condensation reaction	A reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other through the loss of a water	78
5093829480	hydrolysis	Breaking down molecules by the chemical addition of water	79
5093829481	primary structure	The specific sequence of amino acids making up a polypeptide chain.	80
5093829482	secondary structure	level of protein structure consisting of beta pleated sheets and alpha helices. Caused by Ionic and Hydrogen bonding between adjacent amino acids	81
5093829483	tertiary structure	3D shape of single polypeptide using hydrogen bonding, ioning bonding and disulfide bridges	82
5093829484	quaternary structure	The shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits.	83
5093829485	NonCompetitive Inhibition (Allosteirc)	When a molecule blocks an enzyme action by binding to a site other than the active site	84
5093829486	Phospholipid	One phosphate replaces a fatty acid to make a polar end to the molecule	85
5093829487	Lactase	enzyme necessary to break down lactose	86
5093829488	Phosphodiester bond	the bond between the phosphate of one nucleotide and the Sugar of another	87
5093829489	Specific Heat	The amount of heat required to raise the temp of 1 gram of water(l) by 1 degree Celsius	88
5093829490	Allosteric Inhibition		89
5093829491	Competitive inhibition		90
5093829492	Surface Tension	on the surface of water, the result of Hydrogen bonding	91
5093829493	Capillary action	the result of adhesion and cohesion, it is the rising of water in a thin tube.	92
5093829494	Sulfhydryl group	this functional group is found in amino acids they form disulfide bridges in proteins	93
5093829495	Destroy Hydrogen and Ionic bonds	How can pH damage Enzyme Structure	94

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AP Biology: Big Idea 2 Flashcards

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7821528912	entropy	A measure of disorder or randomness.	0
7821528913	endergonic reaction	Reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings.	1
7821528914	exergonic reaction	Reaction that proceeds with a net release of free energy.	2
7821528915	ATP (adenosine triphosphate)	Composed of a sugar ribose, nitrogenous base adenine, and a chain of three phosphate groups bonded to it.	3
7821528916	endothermic	Animals that are warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism.	4
7821528917	ectothermic	Animals that gain heat mostly from external sources.	5
7821528918	homeostasis	"Steady state" or "constant internal milieu".	6
7821528919	heterotroph	Organism that obtains energy from the foods it consumes.	7
7821528920	chemosynthesis	Process by which some organisms, such as certain bacteria, use chemical energy to produce carbohydrates.	8
7821528921	autotroph	Organism that can capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use it to produce its own food from inorganic compounds.	9
7821528922	chlorophyll	Green pigment located within the chloroplasts.	10
7821528923	stomata	Microscopic pores in the leaf which lets carbon dioxide in and oxygen out. Also where water is lost.	11
7821528924	grana	Stack of thylakoids.	12
7821528925	stroma	Fluid inside the chloroplast where the Calvin Cycle happens.	13
7821528926	thylakoid	Flattened membranes in the chloroplast where the light reactions take place.	14
7821528927	photosynthesis equation	H2O + CO2 + sun -> C6H12O6 + O2	15
7821528928	light reactions	Part of photosynthesis that involves light. ATP and NADPH are produced. Takes place on the thylakoid membrane.	16
7821528929	pigments	Molecules that absorb, reflect, or transmit light.	17
7821528930	photosystem	A cluster of pigments embedded into a thylakoid membrane (II then I).	18
7821528931	photolysis	In the thylakoid membranes of a chloroplast during light-dependant reactions, two molecules of water are split to form oxygen, hydrogen ions, and electrons.	19
7821528932	phosphorylation	Process of adding a phosphate group (i.e. what is done by ATP synthase to make ATP)	20
7821528933	carbon fixation	The initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds.	21
7821528934	glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)	The intermediate molecule that will be eventually turned into glucose in the Calvin cycle	22
7821528935	RuBisCO	enzyme involved in the first step of carbon-fixation; must abundant enzyme on Earth	23
7821528936	Calvin cycle	Carbon fixation process in photosynthesis. Forms sugar and other organic compounds.	24
7821528937	chemiosmosis	Process by which protons are pumped into the thylakoid membrane. Protons passively flow through the ATP synthase, which leads to the synthesis of ATP.	25
7821528938	fermentation	A partial degradation of sugars that occur without the use of oxygen (only glycolysis).	26
7821528939	cellular respiration	When oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel.	27
7821528940	electron transport chain	Breaks the fall of electrons to oxygen in several energy-releasing steps.	28
7821528941	glycolosis	Breaking glucose into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate.	29
7821528942	Krebs cycle	Completes the breakdown of glucose by oxidizing a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide.	30
7821528943	oxidative phosphorylation	When energy is released at each step of the chain is stored in a form the mitochondrion can use to make ATP.	31
7821528944	ATP synthase	The enzyme that make ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.	32
7821528945	anaerobic respiration	Occurs by fermentation	33
7821528946	alcohol fermentation	When pyruvate is converted to ethanol in 2 steps.	34
7821528947	lactic acid fermetation	When pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactic as am end product, with no release of carbon dioxide.	35
7821528948	polar	Molecule with partial charges. Mixes with water. (Hydrophilic)	36
7821528949	nonpolar	No partial charges. Do not mix with water. (Hydrophobic)	37
7821528950	cohesion	Water molecules sticking to each other.	38
7821528951	adhesion	Water molecules sticking to other surfaces.	39
7821528952	specific heat	The heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance one degree centigrade.	40
7821528953	heat of vaporization	The heat absorbed by a unit mass of a material at its boiling point in order to convert the material into a gas at the same temperature.	41
7821528954	evaporative cooling	The property of a liquid whereby the surface becomes cooler during evaporation, owing to a loss of highly kinetic molecules to the gaseous state.	42
7821528955	plasma membrane	The membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, thereby regulating the cell's chemical composition.	43
7821528956	diffusion	When a substance moves from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Due to entropy.	44
7821528957	osmosis	The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.	45
7821528958	passive transport	Transport of a substance across a cell membrane by diffusion. Going with a concentration gradient.	46
7821528959	active transport	When a cell gets materials or excretes them by using its own energy, usually through ATP; going against a concentration gradient.	47
7821528960	hypertonic	Describes a solution that has a greater concentration of total solute.	48
7821528961	hypotonic	Describes a solution that has a lesser concentration of total solute.	49
7821528962	isotonic	Describes solutions that have an equal concentration of total solutes.	50
7821528963	turgor pressure	The pressure inside of a cell as a cell pushes itself against the cell wall.	51
7821528964	water potential	The physical property predicting the direction in which water will flow, governed by solute concentration and applied pressure.	52
7821528965	selective permeability	A property of a plasma membrane that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.	53
7821528966	amphipathic	Molecules are said to be this when it has regions that are both hydrophilic and hydrophobic.	54
7821528967	fluid mosaic model	Structural model of the plasma membrane where molecules are free to move sideways within a lipid bilayer.	55
7821528968	transmembrane proteins	Integral proteins that span the membrane.	56
7821528969	glycolipids	Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to lipids.	57
7821528970	glycoproteins	Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to proteins.	58
7821528971	transport protein	A membrane protein that is responsible for moving hydrophilic substances from one side to the other.	59
7821528972	channel protein	A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that has a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel.	60
7821528973	aquaporin	A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that facilitates the passage of water through channel proteins.	61
7821528974	carrier protein	A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that holds onto molecules and changes their shapes in a way that shuttles them across the membrane.	62
7821528975	concentration gradient	A difference in the concentration of a substance across a distance.	63
7821528976	osmoregulation	The control of water balance.	64
7821528977	facilitated diffusion	Passive diffusion that is aided by transport proteins, but that does not require cellular energy.	65
7821528978	membrane potential	The voltage of a plasma membrane.	66
7821528979	gated channel	A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.	67
7821528980	phagocytosis	Process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell.	68
7821528981	endomembrane system	A network of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles.	69
7821528982	smooth ER	Synthesis of lipids, phospholipids and steroid sex hormones, and helps detoxify drugs and toxins.	70
7821528983	rough ER	A network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins.	71
7821528984	Golgi apparatus	Stack of membranes in the cell that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum.	72
7821528985	lysosome	A cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes.	73
7821528986	cell wall	Strong layer around the cell membrane in plants, algae, and some bacteria.	74
7821528987	negative feedback	A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will counteract the change. Maintains a steady state.	75
7821528988	positive feedback	A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will amplify the change. Takes organism away from a steady state.	76
7821528989	thermoregulation	Process of maintaining an internal temperature within a tolerable range.	77
7821528990	kinesis	A simple change in activity or turning rate in response to a stimuli.	78
7821528991	taxis	Automatic, oriented movement toward or away from some stimuli.	79
7821528992	innate immunity	Immunity that is present before exposure and effective from birth. Responds to a broad range of pathogens.	80
7821528993	acquired immunity	Immunity that is present only after exposure and is highly specific.	81
7821528994	lymphocytes	White blood cells.	82
7821528995	antibodies	Protein that is produced by lymphocytes and that attaches to a specific antigen.	83
7821528996	inflammtory response	Innate response with the purpose of containing a site of damage, localizing the response, eliminating the invader and restore tissue function.	84
7821528997	histamine	Chemical stored in mast cells that triggers dilation and increased permeability of capillaries.	85
7821528998	antigen	Any foreign molecule that is specifically recognized by lymphocytes and elicits an immune response.	86
7821528999	B lymphocytes (B cells)	Lymphocyte that matures in the bone marrow and secretes antibodies.	87
7821529000	T lymphocytes (T cells)	Lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and acts directly against antigens in cell-mediated immune responses.	88
7821529001	antigen presentation	The process by which an MHC molecule binds to a fragment of an intracellular protein antigen and carries it to the cell surface, where it is displayed and can be recognized by a T cell.	89
7821529002	memory cells	General term for lymphocytes that are responsible for immunological memory and protective immunity.	90
7821529003	primary immune response	Immune response the first time the body is exposed to a particular antigen. Does not peak until 10-17 days after exposure.	91
7821529004	secondary immune response	Immune response after the body has already been exposed to a specific antigen. Response is faster, of greater magnitude, and more prolonged.	92
7821529005	humoral immune response	The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies.	93
7821529006	cell-mediated immune response	The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend against infected cells.	94
7821529007	helper T cells	Activate macrophages, B cells and T cells.	95
7821529008	cytotoxic T cells or "killer T cells"	T cells that directly attack infecting organisms; these cells attack antigen labeled foreign or host tissue.	96
7821529009	density-dependent inhibition	The phenomenon observed in normal animal cells that causes them to stop dividing when they come into contact with one another.	97
7821529010	mutualism	Symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit from the relationship.	98
7821529011	commensalism	Symbiotic relationship in which one member of the association benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed.	99
7821529012	parasitism	Symbiotic relationship in which one organism lives in or on another organism, called the host, and consequently harms it.	100
7821529013	pathogen	An organism that causes disease.	101
7821529014	invasive species	Species introduced to new areas that often disrupt the indigenous communities.	102
7821529015	macrophage	A phagocytic cell present in many tissues that functions in both specific and nonspecific immunity.	103
7821529016	cell differentiation	The process by which a cell becomes specialized for a specific structure or function.	104
7821529017	zygote	Diploid cell resulting from the union of a haploid egg and a haploid sperm.	105
7821529018	apoptosis	Programmed cell death.	106
7821529019	totipotent stem cells	Stem cell that can divide and become a full organism (i.e. the zygote)	107
7821529020	pluripotent stem cells	stem cell that can become any type of cell in an organism, but cannot actually divide into the full organism itself	108
7821529021	multipotent stem cells	stem cell that can become just a few different types (organ stem cells)	109
7821529022	homeotic (hox) genes	genes that control the general body blueprint of an organism; highly conserved through evolution	110

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AP Biology Chp 26 Phylogeny terms Flashcards

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6649416035	Phylogeny	Evolutionary history of a species or a group of species.	0
6649416036	Systematics	Focused on classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationship.	1
6649416037	Taxonomy	How organisms are named and classified.	2
6649416038	Binomial	Genus + specific epithet(unique for each species in a genus).	3
6649416039	Order of Classification	Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.	4
6649416040	Phylogenetic Tree	Branching diagram explaining the evolutionary history of a group of organisms.	5
6649416041	Branch Points	Shows where the divergence of two evolutionary organisms are from a common ancestor.	6
6649416042	Homologies	Similarities due to shared ancestry. Morphological divergence between related species can be great and their genetic divergence small. (Or vice versa).	7
6649416043	Analogy	Similarity due to convergent evolution rather than shared ancestry. (Not related, but have similar features.) Ex. A bird's wing and a Bats wing.	8
6649416044	Convergent Evolution	Occurs when similar environmental pressures and Natural selection produce similar (Analogous) adaptation in organisms from different evolutionary divergences.	9
6649416045	Molecular Systematics	The Discipline that uses DNA and other molecular data to determine evolutionary history.	10
6649416047	Cladistics	The common ancestry is the primary criterion used to classify organisms. Scientists group species in Clades: each of which includes an ancestral species and all of its transcendence.	11
6649416048	Monophyletic	All descendants and ancestral species, this is the only way a clade can be equivalent with a taxon.	12
6649416049	Paraphyletic	Consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all of its descendants.	13
6649416050	Polyphyletic	includes taxa with different ancestors.	14
6649416052	Character/Characteristics	Another word for Trait or Traits.	15
6649416053	Derived Character	An evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade. Ex. Mammals have the character of hair which isn't seen in earlier ancestors.	16
6649416054	Outgroup	The species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that includes the species that is being studied.	17
6649416055	Parsimony	"Occam's Razor" The principal that the simplest explanation (that explains the facts) is the most likely explanation.	18

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