| 5811934171 | Dehydration | connecting monomers together by the removal of water |  | 0 |
| 5811934172 | Hydrolysis | disassembling polymers by the addition of water |  | 1 |
| 5811934173 | Disaccharides | glucose + glucose = maltose / glucose + fructose = sucrose / glucose + galactose = lactose |  | 2 |
| 5811934174 | Polysaccharides | Plants: starch (energy) and cellulose (structure)
Animals: glycogen (energy) and chitin (structure) |  | 3 |
| 5811934175 | *Lipids | hydrophobic (very non-polar), consist of long hydrocarbon chains | | 4 |
| 5811934176 | Fats | consist of glycerol and 3 fatty acids, store long term energy, saturated = no double bond in hydrocarbon tails (no kink), unsaturated = double bond (kink) |  | 5 |
| 5811934177 | Phospholipids | consist of phosphate head, glycerol, and 2 fatty acid tails, tail is hydrophobic, head is hydrophillic |  | 6 |
| 5811934178 | Protein structure and organization | composed of an amino group, a carboxyl group, hydrogen, and an R group, joined by peptide bonds and folded numerous times; 1) Primary (linear sequence) 2) Secondary (helix or pleat) 3) Tertiary 4) Quaternary (globular) |  | 7 |
| 5811934179 | Protein functions (8) | 1) enzymes 2) antibodies 3) storage proteins 4) transport proteins 5) hormones 6) receptor proteins 7) motor proteins 8) structural proteins | | 8 |
| 5811934180 | *Nucleic Acids | DNA (A+T, G+C) carries genetic info, RNA (A+U, G+C) manufactures proteins | | 9 |
| 5811934181 | Nuclear Envelope | double membrane enclosing the nucleus (where genetic info is stored) perforated with pores, continuous with ER |  | 10 |
| 5811934182 | Chromatin | uncondensed DNA that forms chromosomes during cell division | | 11 |
| 5811934183 | Nucleolus | nonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes, a nucleus has one or more of these |  | 12 |
| 5811934184 | Rough ER | covered in ribosomes, secretes and transports proteins produced by ribosomes |  | 13 |
| 5811934185 | Smooth ER | metabollic processes (synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbs, detoxification of drugs and poisons) | | 14 |
| 5811934186 | Golgi | stores, transports, and secretes cell products |  | 15 |
| 5811934187 | Cytoskeleton | supports cell, maintains its shape, aids in movement of cell products | | 16 |
| 5811934188 | Centrosomes (2 centrioles) | only in animal cells, microtubules used for cell division |  | 17 |
| 5811934189 | Lysosomes | only in animal cells, digestive organelles |  | 18 |
| 5811934190 | Flagella | only in animal cells, cluster of microtubules for motility |  | 19 |
| 5811934191 | Extracellular Matrix | only in animal cells, made of proteins that provide support for cells and relay information for communication between the environment and the cell |  | 20 |
| 5811934192 | Central Vacuole | only in plant cells, stores water and sugar, breaks down waste, and used as a mechanism for plant growth (when it swells) | | 21 |
| 5811934193 | Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic | nucleoid / nucleus; only ribosomes / complex membrane-bound organelles; both have same genetic coding, sugars, and amino acids | | 22 |
| 5811934194 | Phospholipid Bilayer | tails of phospholipids are loosely packed and are in constant motion; membrane contains integral and peripheral proteins, cholestrol, and glycopreotins and glycolipids; cholesterol makes the membrane less permeable to water and other substances; non-polar and small polar molecules can pass through unadied | | 23 |
| 5811934195 | Passive trasport | movement of molecules without requirement of energy: 1) diffusion 2) osmosis (across a membrane) 3) facilitated diffusion (helped by transport proteins) | | 24 |
| 5811934196 | Active transport | movement of molecules that requires energy: 1) sodium-potassium pumps 2) exocytosis 3) endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis) | | 25 |
| 5811934197 | Membrane Potential | voltage across a membrane due to difference in positive and negative ions, electrons move from high to low concentration (ex. sodium-potassium pumps in neurons) |  | 26 |
| 5811934198 | Electrochemical Gradient | diffusion gradient resulting in combination of membrane potential and concentration gradient | | 27 |
| 5811934199 | Hypertonic | solution with higher concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would become shiveled/plasmolyzed |  | 28 |
| 5811934200 | Hypotonic | solution with lower concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would lyse/become turgid |  | 29 |
| 5811934201 | Isotonic | equal levels of solute concentration, plant cell in this solution would become flaccid |  | 30 |
| 5811934202 | When ΔG is negative... | ...the reaction is exergonic (loss of free energy). | | 31 |
| 5811934203 | When ΔG is positive... | ...the reaction is endergonic (gain of free energy). | | 32 |
| 5811934204 | *Enzymes | proteins that are biological catalysts, lower the activation energy required to start a chemical reaction (reactants at unstable transition state) can be used over and over | | 33 |
| 5811934205 | Substrate | the substance that an enzyme acts upon | | 34 |
| 5811934206 | Active Site | region of enzyme that binds to the substrate | | 35 |
| 5811934207 | Induced fit | change in the shape of an enzyme's active site induced by the substrate, helps to break down the substrate | | 36 |
| 5811934208 | The higher the substrate concentration... | ...the faster the reaction until the enzyme becomes saturated. |  | 37 |
| 5811934209 | Denaturation | the unraveling of an enzyme due to high temperatures or incompatible pH | | 38 |
| 5811934210 | Cofactors | nonprotein molecules that are required for proper enzyme function, cofactors made of organic molecules are called coenzymes |  | 39 |
| 5811934211 | Enzyme inhibition may be irreversible if... | ...the inhibitor attaches by covalent bonds (poisons, toxins) | | 40 |
| 5811934212 | Competitive Inhibitors | resemble a substrate and block enzymes' active sites, can be overcome with higher concentration of substrate |  | 41 |
| 5811934213 | Noncompetitive Inhibitors | bind to a portion of the enzyme and change the shape of the active site so that it cannot match with substrates, used for regulating metabolic reactions |  | 42 |
| 5811934214 | Feedback Inhibition | the product of a metabolic pathway switches off the enzyme that created it earlier in the process |  | 43 |
| 5811934215 | Oxidation | loss of electrons (OIL) | | 44 |
| 5811934216 | Reduction | gain of electrons (RIG) | | 45 |
| 5811934217 | Oxidative Phosphorylation | ATP synthesis powered by redox reactions that transfer electrons to oxygen | | 46 |
| 5811934218 | Electron Acceptors | Cellular respiration: NAD+ and FAD (to NADH and FADH2)
Photosynthesis: NADP+ (to NADPH) | | 47 |
| 5811934219 | Glycolysis | Input: glucose, 2 ATP
Output: 2 pyruvic acid, 4 ATP (net 2), 2 NADH |  | 48 |
| 5811934220 | Conversion Reaction before Kreb's | Input: 2 pyruvate
Output: 2 acetyl (w/ CoA), 2 NADH, 2 CO2 |  | 49 |
| 5811934221 | Krebs Cycle | Input: 2 acetyl ➝ citric acid
Output: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2 (after 2 turns of the cycle) |  | 50 |
| 5811934222 | Electron Transport Chain | Input: NADH, FADH2, O2 (to accept e-)
Output: 34-38 ATP, H2O |  | 51 |
| 5811934223 | Alcohol Fermentation | Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH
Output: 2 NAD+, 2 ethanol, 2 CO2, 4 ATP (net 2) |  | 52 |
| 5811934224 | Lactic Acid Fermentation | Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH
Output: 2 NAD+, 2 lactate, 4 ATP (net 2) |  | 53 |
| 5811934225 | Photosynthetic Equation | |  | 54 |
| 5811934226 | Chloroplast structure | Exciting chlorophyll: chlorophyll in thylakoids absorb light, which excites electrons to produce potential energy |  | 55 |
| 5811934227 | Light Reactions | Input: H2O (2 e-), light energy, NADP+
Output: O2, ATP, NADPH |  | 56 |
| 5811934228 | Calvin Cycle | Input: 6 CO2 (fixed to RuBP by Rubisco), ATP, NADPH
Output: 2 G3P = 1 glucose |  | 57 |
| 5811934229 | Watson and Crick | built the first accurate 3D DNA model | | 58 |
| 5811934230 | Leading Strand vs. Lagging Strand | works toward replication fork / works away from replication fork; both always move in the 5' ➝ 3' direction | | 59 |
| 5811934231 | Steps of DNA Replication | 1) helicase separates the DNA strands 2) SSB proteins prevent DNA from reanneling 3) primase creates RNA primer 4) DNA polymerase extends DNA strand from the primer 5) DNA polymerase I (RNase H) removes the primers 6) ligase joins the okazaki fragments of the lagging strand |  | 60 |
| 5811934232 | 3 types of RNA | 1) mRNA messenger 2) tRNA transfer amino acids (20 kinds) 3) rRNA ribosomes | | 61 |
| 5811934233 | Transcription | 1) Initiation: promoter site (TATA) is recognized 2) Elongation: RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides in the 5' ➝ 3' direction 3) Termination: RNA strand separates, RNA polymerase recognizes termination sequence (AAUAAA) |  | 62 |
| 5811934234 | RNA processing/splicing | splicesomes remove introns and put together exons, 5' cap and PolyA tail are added |  | 63 |
| 5811934235 | Codon vs. Anticodon | codon = nucleotide sequence on mRNA
anticodon = nucleotide sequence on tRNA | | 64 |
| 5811934236 | Translation | 1) Initiation: 5' cap attaches to ribosome which accepts an initiator tRNA at the P site (*AUG will always be 1st codon) 2) Elongation: codon/anticodon recognition and formation of peptide bond between A site amino acid and P site amino acid chain 3) translocation of the ribosome down the mRNA strand 4) Termination: ribosome will recognize stop codon and release the protein |  | 65 |
| 5811934237 | DNA mutations | base-pair substitution; insertion/deletion; frameshift: 1) missense = different protein 2) nonsense = codes for a stop signal prematurely 3) silent = no harmful change | | 66 |
| 5811934238 | Prokaryotic cell division | binary fission: splits in 2, exact copies, quick and efficient with few mutations, but reduces amount of genetic variation | | 67 |
| 5811934239 | Somatic cell vs. Gamete | any body cell except gametes / reproductive cells (sperm, egg) | | 68 |
| 5811934240 | Interphase | (90% of cell's life) G1: 1st growth, normal metabolic activity (goes into G0 phase if it is not ready for next phase); S: synthesis, DNA replication; G2: 2nd growth, prepares for mitosis | | 69 |
| 5811934241 | Mitosis | 1) Prophase: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nucleus disappears 2) Metaphase: chromosomes line up at equator, kinetechore microtubules attach 3) Anaphase: sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell 4) Telophase and Cytokinesis: daughter cells separate, nucleus reforms, chromosomes decondense |  | 70 |
| 5811934242 | Cyclin-dependent Kinases (Cdks) | a regulatory protein that depends upon the presence of cyclin to complete its function, MPF is a Cdk that triggers a cell's passage into the M phase |  | 71 |
| 5811934243 | Meiosis I | 1) Prophase I: homologous chromosomes pair up and synapsis occurs, crossing over segments of the chromosomes (chiasma) to create more genetic variation 2) Metaphase I: homologous chromosomes line up at the equator 3) Anaphase: homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell. 4) Telophase I... |  | 72 |
| 5811934244 | Meiosis II | Prophase II - Telophase II act exactly like mitosis except that the resultant number of daughter cells is 4 instead of 2, each with their own unique combination of genetic information |  | 73 |
| 5811934245 | 4 mechanisms that contribute to genetic variation | 1) Mutation 2) Independent Assortment: homologous chromosomes align randomly on one side of the equator or another 3) Crossing Over 4) Random Fertilization: a zygote can be any combination of a sperm and egg (64 trillion different combinations in humans) | | 74 |
| 5811934246 | Testcross | breed a homozygous recessive individual with an individual with a dominant phenotype but an unknown genotype to determine whether or not the individual is homozygous or heterozygous | | 75 |
| 5811934247 | Dyhybrid heterozygous cross ratio | 9:3:3:1 | | 76 |
| 5811934248 | Incomplete Dominance | heterozygous offspring have an intermediate phenotype of the parents, 1:2:1 ratio (ex. pink flower from red and white flowers) |  | 77 |
| 5811934249 | Codominance | both alleles manifest themselves separately in an organism's phenotype (ex. roan cattle) |  | 78 |
| 5811934250 | Multiple alleles | a trait controlled by two or more alleles (ex. blood type, eye color) |  | 79 |
| 5811934251 | Blood Types | A: A antigen, B antibody
B: B antigen, A antibody
AB: A and B antigen, no antibodies (universal recipient)
O: no antigens, A and B antibodies (universal donor) | | 80 |
| 5811934252 | Polygenic Inheritance | the additive effect of 2 or more independently assorted genes on phenotype (ex. human skin pigment) |  | 81 |
| 5811934253 | Linked genes phenotypic ratio | two large numbers (wild and mutant) and two much smaller numbers (recombinant phenotypes) | | 82 |
| 5811934254 | Genetic Map (Linkage/Cytological Map) | ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome, recombinant frequencies can be used to construct it (smaller the percentage = closer together) | | 83 |
| 5811934255 | X Inactivation | in females during embryonic development, one of the two X chromosomes in a cell becomes inactive (Barr body) (ex. calico cats) | | 84 |
| 5811934256 | Nondisjucntion | homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis I or II | | 85 |
| 5811934257 | Aneuploidy | one or more chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number; Trisomic = 3 copies instead of 2, Monosomic = 1 copy instead of 2 |  | 86 |
| 5811934258 | Polyploidy | when there is a whole extra set of chromosomes (ex. oversized fruits); Triploidy = 3 sets, Tetraploidy = 4 sets |  | 87 |
| 5811934259 | 4 alterations to gene structure | 1) Deletion: removal of chromosomal segment 2) Duplication: repetition of a segment 3) Inversion: reversal of a segment within a chromosome 4) Translocation: movement of a segment from one chromosome to another, non-homologous one | | 88 |
| 5811934260 | 3 stages in cell cummunication | 1) Reception: cell detects a signal via connection of a ligand to a receptor protein 2) Transduction: the receptor protein converts the signal to a form that can cause a chemical response 3) Response: transduced signal triggers a specific cellular response |  | 89 |
| 5811934261 | Types of cell signaling (4) | synaptic, paracrine, hormonal |  | 90 |
| 5811934262 | Examples of cell signaling | G-protein coupled receptor, ligand-gated ion channels, steroid hormones (dissolved across plasma membrane, intracellular receptor) |  | 91 |
| 5811934263 | Second Messengers and Phosphorylation cascade | second messengers and kinases spread throughout a cell that help amplify a cellular signal by a series of phosphorylation reactions (addition of phosphate) |  | 92 |
| 5811934264 | Virus structure | nonliving, can't rproduce on their own; Capsid: protein coat that encloses the viral genome; Envelope: membrane that surrounds some viral capsids; Phage: protein encapsulated virus that attacks bacteria | | 93 |
| 5811934265 | Lytic Cycle | 1) virus attaches to host cell 2) phage DNA enters cell and the cell's DNA degrades (*restriction enzymes in bacteria could destroy them) 3) synthesis of viral genomes and proteins 4) assembly of phages within cell 5) release of viruses, destroys cell |  | 94 |
| 5811934266 | Lysogenic Cycle | the virus inserts its DNA into a host cell, and its DNA integrates with the DNA of the host, allows it to be replicated without being attacked for long periods of time before entering the lytic cycle |  | 95 |
| 5811934267 | Retrovirus | RNA virus that transcribes its RNA into DNA to insert into host cells (ex. HIV) | | 96 |
| 5811934268 | Provirus | a viral genome that is permanently inserted into a host genome | | 97 |
| 5811934269 | Viral Transduction | contributes to bacterial genetic variation |  | 98 |
| 5811934270 | Repressible Operon | trp operon - usually on, can be repressed. Repressor protein produced in inactive shape |  | 99 |
| 5811934271 | Inducible Operon | lac operon - usually off, can be turned on. Repressor protein produced in active shape. |  | 100 |
| 5811934272 | cAMP and CAP regulated Operon | when CAP is inactive, transcription continues at a much less efficient rate even in the presence of lactose |  | 101 |
| 5811934273 | Histone Acetylation | the loosening of chromatin structure (euchromatin), promotes transcription | | 102 |
| 5811934274 | Histone Methylation | the condensing of chromatin structure (heterochromatin), prevents transcription | | 103 |
| 5811934275 | Transcription Factors and Enhancers | RNA polymerase requires the assistance of transcription factor proteins and enhancers or activators to successfully transcribe RNA | | 104 |
| 5811934276 | Epigenetic Inheritance | inheritance of traits not directly related to nucleotide sequence (ex. fat, sickly, yellow rats were fed a methylated diet, resulted in offspring that were normal-sized, healthy, and brown) | | 105 |
| 5811934277 | 5 Evidences for Evolution | 1) Biogeography 2) Fossil Record 3) Comparative Anatomy 4) Comparative Embryology 5) Molecular Biology | | 106 |
| 5811934278 | 4 conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (not evolving) | 1) very large population 2) isolation from other populations 3) no mutations 4) no natural selection | | 107 |
| 5811934279 | Microevolution vs. Macroevolution | change in the gene pool of a population over several generations / large scale changes in a population that leads to the evolution of a new species | | 108 |
| 5811934280 | 4 causes of Microevolution | 1) genetic drift 2) gene flow 4) natural selection | | 109 |
| 5811934281 | Genetic Drift | random change in gene frequency of a small breeding population: 1) Founder Effect = small population of organisms colonizes a new area, 2) Bottleneck Effect = sudden decrease in population size due to disaster | | 110 |
| 5811934282 | Gene Flow | loss/addition of alleles from a population due to imigration/emigration | | 111 |
| 5811934283 | Nonrandom Mating | selection of mates for specific phenotypes: 1) Assortative Mating = when individuals select partners with simple phenotypic characters, 2) Inbreeding = more recessive traits likely to come together | | 112 |
| 5811934284 | 3 Modes of Natural Selection | 1) Stabilizing: favors intermediate, 2) Directional: favors one extreme phenotype, 3) Diversifying: favors both extremes |  | 113 |
| 5811934285 | Heterozygote Advantage | heterozygotes for a trait are more likely to survive (ex. carriers of sickle cell anemia are immune to malaria) | | 114 |
| 5811934286 | Biological Species Concept | population whose members can create viable, fertile offspring (Problems: doesn't apply to extinct animals or asexually reproducing organisms) | | 115 |
| 5811934287 | Prezygotic Reproductive Barriers | 1) Habitat Isolation 2) Behavioral Isolation (differing behaviors for attracting mates) 3) Temporal Isolation (mate at different times) 4) Mechanical Isolation 5) Gametic Isolation (unable to fertilize egg) | | 116 |
| 5811934288 | Postzygotic Reproductive Barriers | 1) Reduced Hybrid Viability (disruption in embryonic stage) 2) Reduced Hybrid Fertility 3) Hybrid Breakdown (F1 is fertile, F2 is sterile or weak) | | 117 |
| 5811934289 | Allopatric Speciation | when populations become geographically isolated from the rest of the species and has the potential to develop a new species (ex. Adaptive Radiation: many diversely adapted species from common ancestor, Darwin's finches) |  | 118 |
| 5811934290 | Sympatric Speciation | members of a population develop gametic differences that prevent them from reproducing with the parental type (polyploidy, not as common) |  | 119 |
| 5811934291 | Punctuated Equilibrium vs. Gradualism | evolution occurs in short spurts of rapid change / each new species will evolve gradually over long spans of time |  | 120 |
| 5811934292 | Convergent Evolution | different organisms that occupy similar environments come to resemble one another (ex. dolphins and sharks) | | 121 |
| 5811934293 | Endosymbiosis | Origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts. Evidence: They have their own DNA and ribosomes, double membrane structure, grow and reproduce on their own within the cell |  | 122 |
| 5811934294 | Phylogeny | evolutionary history of a species or group of related species | | 123 |
| 5811934295 | Taxonomic groups from broad to narrow (8) | Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species |  | 124 |
| 5811934296 | 3 mechanisms in which bacteria transfer genetic materials | 1) Transformation: prokaryote takes up DNA from its environment 2) Transduction: viruses transfer genes between prokaryotes 3) Conjugation: genes are directly transferred from one prokaryote to another over a temporary "mating bridge" | | 125 |
| 5811934297 | Types of Symbiotic Relationships | Mutualism (+, +), Commensalism (+, 0), Parasitism, (+, -) | | 126 |
| 5811934298 | Factors that influence Transpiration Rate | Temperature: higher temperature, faster rate; Humidity: higher humidity, slower rate; Sunlight: more sun, faster rate; Wind: more wind, faster rate | | 127 |
| 5811934299 | Lines of Immune Defense | 1st Line) skin oil and sweat, mucous; 2nd Line) nonspecific phagocytes and cytotoxic immune cells; 3rd Line) specific immune system | | 128 |
| 5811934300 | Primary and Secondary Immune Response | |  | 129 |
| 5811934301 | Active vs. Passive Immunity | depends on the response of a person's own immune system (artificial = vaccines) / immunity passed from one organism to another | | 130 |
| 5811934302 | B cells vs. T cells (maturation) | mature in bone marrow / mature in thymus | | 131 |
| 5811934303 | Humoral vs. Cell-Mediated Immune Responses | |  | 132 |
| 5811934304 | Non-steroid hormone vs. Steroid hormone | travels in bloodstream, binds to receptor on cell surface / travels in bloodstream, binds to receptor inside the cell |  | 133 |
| 5811934305 | Endotherms vs. Ectotherms | warmed by heat generated by metabolism (mammals, birds) / generate little metabolic heat, warmed by environment |  | 134 |
| 5811934306 | Niche | a position/role taken by a kind of organism within its community | | 135 |
| 5811934307 | Resource Partitioning | division of environmental resources by coexisting species |  | 136 |
| 5811934308 | Per capita Growth Rate | birth - death / total population | | 137 |
| 5811934309 | Exponential vs. Logistic Growth | in logistic growth, carrying capacity will limit the population's size |  | 138 |
| 5811934310 | Density-dependent Regulation | Density-independent: natural disasters, human impact, etc. |  | 139 |
| 5811934311 | Keystone Species | species that exerts strong control on community structure not by numerical might but by their pivotal ecological roles or niches |  | 140 |
| 5811934312 | Energy Pyramid | each energy level receives only 10% of the pervious level's energy |  | 141 |
| 5811934313 | Gross Primary Production vs. Net Primary Production | total amount of energy from light converted to chemical energy to organic molecules / GPP - energy used by primary producers for "autotrophic respiration" | | 142 |
| 5811934314 | Carbon Cycle | Connect photosynthesis (fixation) to cellular respiration (CO2 release) |  | 143 |
| 5811934315 | Plasmids | a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome |  | 144 |
| 5811934316 | Recombinant DNA | a DNA vector made in vitro with segments from different sources |  | 145 |
| 5811934317 | Restriction Enzyme | an enzyme that recognizes and cuts DNA molecules at specific nucleotide sequences (restriction sites), can then be used to create recombinant DNA |  | 146 |
| 5811934318 | Gel Electrophoresis | analyzing fragments of DNA (RFLPs) by their length and charge to determine genetic fingerprints and other genetic information |  | 147 |
